Textiles Revision Booklet

Textiles As Revision Jess Marshall

Warmth(comfort)

Absorbency(comfort)

Comfort(comfort)

Handle and drape(aesthetics)

Strength(functional)

Elasticity(functional)

Aftercare(functional)

Natural fibresWool Warm to

wear.Slow, can

absorb 13

its

weight in water and not feel wet. Repels water droplets. Very slow drying.

Fine wool, very comfortable. Coarse wool, scratchy.

Very soft or coarse handle. Good drape.

Medium strength, not durable.

Very good. Creases drop out.

Wash and iron with care, may shrink. Dry clean.

Silk Cool, but good insulation so warm as well.

Fast, can

absorb 13

its

weight in water.

Very comfortable.

Soft handle and elegant drape.

Good strength.

Very good, creases drop out.

Wash and iron with care, best dry cleaned.

Cotton Cool to wear unless brushed.

Highly absorbent. Slow drying.

Very comfortable unless wet.

Soft handle. Good drape.

Good strength, abrasion resistance, and durability.

Poor. Creases easily.

Wash, boil, iron damp. May shrink.

Linen Fresh and cool to wear.

Highly absorbent. Fast drying.

Stiffer and harder than cotton.

Firm handle. Smooth surface. Good drape.

Good strength and durability.

Poor. Creases very badly.

Wash, boil, easily ironed.

Manufactured fibresViscose Low warmth. More

absorbent than cotton.

Comfortable to wear.

Soft or firm handle. Good drape.

Lower strength than cotton.

Poor. Creases easily.

Washable. Easy to iron.

Acetate Low warmth. Low absorbency. Fast drying.

Comfortable, but prone to static.

Soft handle and elegant drape.

Low strength. Poor abrasion resistance.

Higher than viscose, but creases.

Wash and iron with care. Thermoplastic.

Polyester Low warmth, unless textured.

Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast drying.

Comfortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable.

Soft or firm handle.

Very strong and abrasion resistant.

Very good. Crease resistant.

Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic.

Polyamide (Nylon)

Low warmth, unless textured.

Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast drying.

Comfortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable.


Very strong and abrasion resistant.


Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic.

Elastane Low % always used in blends.

Absorbent. Dyes well.

Adds stretch comfort.


Good strength.

Very high. Crease resistant.

Machine washable. Thermoplastic.

Acrylic Warm to wear.

Fast drying. Comfortable to wear.

Very soft wool-like handle, good drape.

Good strength.


Machine washable. Iron with care, may shrink. Thermoplastic.

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Fibres

Fibres are the basis for all textiles. You need to know the difference between natural and synthetic fibres, how each fibre is used, and which fibres can be combined together.

Textile materials are made in three stages:

1. spinning: fibres are spun into yarns

2. weaving or knitting: yarns become fabrics

3. finishing: fabrics are finished to make them more useful

A fibre is a fine and flexible textile raw material, which has a high ration of length to thickness. All fibres can be classified as natural or manufactured. Fibres can be short or very long, depending on where they came from and how they were manufactured.

Staple fibres are relatively short in length. Natural staple fibres can range in length from a few millimetres, to around a metre.

All synthetic fibres are manufactured as continuous filaments of indefinite length, which run the whole length of the yarn. Some synthetic continuous filaments are cut into staple lengths.

Silk is the only natural continuous filament fibre. It can be as long as one kilometre, when it is taken from the silk cocoon.

Microfibers

Microfiber technology combines a high number of very fine fibres into one yarn of decitex or less. This means that 10 kilometres of the filament weigh one gram or less. A microfiber is around 60 to 100 times finer than a human hair. Microfibers can be:

Manufactured from polyester, polyamide or acrylic. Blended with other synthetic fibres of with natural fibres. Used in fabrics that have an enormous variety of appearances and end-uses. Used in smart and technical fabrics for active wear, all weather wear and for a range

of industrial uses.

Modern microfibers

Elastane (Lycra) is always used in a blend with other fibres. It is used to make sportswear, body-hugging clothes and bandages. It has good handle and drape, is durable, crease resistant, stretchy (more comfortable) and is easy care. It has low warmth and is absorbent.

Tencel is a 'natural' microfiber made from cellulose derived from wood-pulp. It is used for shirts and jeans. It has soft handle, good drape, is breathable, durable, crease-resistant, easy-care and biodegradable. It is absorbent and has low warmth.

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Natural Fibres

Vegetable Fibres (cellulose) Animal Fibres (protein) Mineral FibresSeed Cotton Wool Wool Silicate AsbestosStem Linen (flax) Fine hair Cashmere

MohairLeaf Sisal Silk Cultivated

Wild

Cotton:

Natural cellulose from the seed of the cotton plant Produced as staple fibre Absorbs up to 65% of weight without dripping Non-static because it always contains some moisture Naturally breathable Soft handle, good drape, dries slowly Good strength, abrasion resistance and durability Poor elasticity, so creases easily Biodegradable and recyclable Mercerising – for higher strength and lustre Synthetic resin treatment – for non-iron/crease-resist finish (dries faster but gives

reduced strength and absorption) Stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone Flame-retardant finish – using the Proban process Typically blended with polyester, polyamide, viscose, modal, Elastane. Common blend ratios – 50/50 60/40 70/30 Typical cotton fabrics include, calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towelling Typical end uses include household linen, curtains and towels, shirts, underwear,

trousers and jeans, work wear, awnings and sewing thread. Washable, can be boiled and bleached, dries slowly, best ironed damp, can be dry-

cleaned and tumble dried (may shrink)

Linen:

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Natural cellulose from the stem of the flax plant Produced as staple fibres Strong, durable, long lasting, smooth surface, good drape Highly absorbent, fast drying, fresh and cool to wear Non-static because it always contains some moisture Crisp, firm handle, stiffer and harder than cotton Shrink proof, washes, irons and dyes well Low elasticity, so creases very badly Dirt-repellent, anti-microbial Biodegradable and recyclable Synthetic resin treatment – for crease-resist finish Stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone Typical blends include Linen 50% Cotton 50%, Linen 70% Nylon 25% Elastane 5%,

Linen 70% Modal 30%, Linen 50% Cotton 46% Acrylic 4%. Typically blended with viscose, tencel, polyester and silk Typical linen fabrics include interlining, Holland (for window blinds) Typical end uses include, household linen, tablecloths, curtains, and tea towels,

shirts, skirts, and suits, ropes, sewing thread and geotextiles Washable, can be boiled and bleached, quick drying, irons easily when damp, can be

dry-cleaned and tumble dried.

Sisal:

This is a natural sustainable fibre, produced from the leaves of the agave cactus. Sisal is high strength, durable, easy to dye, water resistant, has good abrasion resistance, good anti-static properties and is fairly easy to keep clean. It is used for agricultural twines, ropes, hairbrush bristles, baskets and natural floor coverings, which can be blended with wool to make them softer and warmer.

Wool:

Wool from the fleece of a sheep

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Produced as staple fibres

Hydrophilic – can absorb 13

of its weight in water without feeling wet

Naturally breathable, rapidly absorbs moisture vapour Hydrophobic – repels raindrops Mostly non-static because if always contains some moisture Very soft or coarse handle, depending on fineness. Good drape Medium strength, not durable Smooth – can be cool Bulky – warm Inbuilt UV protection and fire-resistance At least 40% inbuilt natural stretch and elasticity – good crease resistance, creases

drop out Bio-degradable and recyclable Machine washable wool – for woven’s and knitwear at 40°C, using the wool cycle

and approved detergents Total Easy Care Wool – for woven’s and knitwear Silicon treatment – for weatherproofing Typical wool fabrics include ‘cool wool’, felt, herringbone, flannel, ‘sport wool’, tartan,

tweed Typical end uses include blanket, carpets and upholstery, suits, jumpers, overcoats,

sports garments, ties, scarves, hats and socks, industrial felts, agricultural blankets and geotextiles

Washable (with care, unless easy finish), do not bleach, very slow drying, steam iron under a cloth or fabric goes shiny. Can be dry-cleaned. Do not tumble dry, dry in direct sunlight or over heat.

Cashmere:

The fine under hair of the Kel goat from India, Mongolia and Iran, shorn once a year

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Produced as staple fibres One goat produces 200-250 grams per year (just enough for a scarf!) Two goats produce enough yarn for a 1-ply sweater It takes 24 goats to produce enough cashmere for a coat Soft, luxurious handle and appearance Light, lustrous Good thermal insulator Crease-resistant, dirt-repellent Non-static, fire-resistant Expensive due to limited supply Typically blended with wool, silk and polyester Expensive luxury fabric for coats, and suits Luxury knitwear Luxury interior textiles for cars, planes and yachts

Mohair:

Hair of the angora goat, from Texas, South Africa, Turkey, shorn twice a year Produced as staple fibres Soft, silky, luxury handle and touch Good thermal insulator – 35% warmer than wool Durable, hardwearing – 10% stronger than wool, crease-resistant, dyes well Dust-repellent, fire-resistant Expensive due to limited supply Typically blended with wool, cotton and silk Expensive worsted fabrics for suiting Eveningwear Scarves and knitwear

Cultivated Silk:

Silk fibres from the cocoon of the Mulberry silkworm Produced as filaments up to 1km in length and as spun silk Fine, smooth, lustrous, soft handle, elegant drape

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Elastic, fairly crease-resistant, creases drop out

Can absorb up to 13

of its weight in water without feeling wet

Non-static because it always contains some moisture Strong, durable, light Cool, but a good insulator, so it also provides warmth Polyurethane coating – to make silk fabric waterproof Typical fabrics include chiffon, crepe, damask, satin, twill, voile End uses include, luxury day and evening wear, underwear, wadding for

performance skiwear, racing bike tyre reinforcement, scarves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas, sewing and embroidery threads.

Can be affected by perspiration causing it to rot. Wash carefully, do not bleach, iron on back of fabric, steam and water can leave stains, best to dry-clean, do not tumble dry or dry in direct sunlight

Wild Silk:

Silk filament fibres from the cocoon of the wild Tussah silk moth Filaments ad spun silk Coarse, ‘rustic’, uneven, thicker fibre Harsh handle, heavier than cultivated silk Absorbent and non-static because it always contains some moisture Dyes to dark, dull colours, dull lustre More sensitive than cultivated silk to perspiration – could stain

Manufactured Fibres

Natural polymers

Synthetic polymers

Inorganic

Regenerated cellulose

Viscose modal

Polyvinyl Acrylic Carbon Carbon fibre

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Cellulose ester

Acetate Chlorofibre Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

glass Glass fibre

latex Rubber Polyurethane Elastane Metallic Metal fibresFluorofibre Teflon ceramic Ceramic

fibresPolyamide Nylonpolyester polyester

Viscose:

Natural cellulose from wood pulp from pine or eucalyptus trees Produced as staple and filament yarns More absorbent than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moisture Naturally breathable, absorbing 14% of water vapour Fine, with soft handle and good drape Low ability to trap air – low warmth Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton, can tear when wet Poor elasticity, so creases easily Dyes and prints to bright colours Shrinks Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage although absorbency is

reduced Wide range of finishes can be applied – such as textures and crimps Typically blended with cotton, linen, wool, polyester and Elastane Filament viscose produces lustrous and crepe fabrics Staple viscose produces cotton, linen and wool-type fabrics End uses include curtains, shirts, dresses, lingerie, ribbons and trimmings Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned but not tumble dried

Modal :

Natural cellulose from wood pulp Produced mainly as staple fibre Mainly used in blends Absorbs up to 50% more moisture than cotton, non-static because it always contains

some moisture

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Naturally breathable Silky, smooth, very soft handle and good drape Low ability to trap air – low warmth Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton Poor elasticity, so creases easily Dyes to brilliant colours Shrinks less than viscose Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage, although absorbency

is reduced Wide range of finishes can be applied such as textures and crimps Typically blended with cotton, polyester, wool silk and Elastane Lustrous fabrics, blended knitted and woven fabrics End uses include bed and table linen, terry towelling, shirts, jumpers, socks,

nightwear, jackets, sports and active wear and soft denim Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried

Acetate :

Cotton cellulose and acetic acid 95% of the acetic acid can be recycled Produced as filaments and microfibers Low absorbency, fast drying, prone to static Naturally breathable Subdued lustre, smooth, very soft handle with elegant drape Low warmth, dyes well More elastic than viscose but creases easily Thermoplastic, sensitive to dry heat Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce End uses include, silk type fabrics for eveningwear etc, microfiber performance

fabrics and embroidery yarns, ribbons and trimmings Typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for

summer fabrics, polyester and Elastane

Rubber :

Natural rubber is made from latex, although synthetic rubber from petrochemicals is mainly used today. Its natural stretch and pliability have made rubber useful for flooring, waterproof coverings, types and Wellington boots. In the past, rubber yarns were used to provide stretch in swimwear and underwear. Rubber can be printed onto garments and accessories and can be used as moulded hoods and pockets. It can also be applied to specific areas of a product, such as the fingers of work gloves. Natural rubber is:

o Warm pliable and soft

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o Antistatic, antibacterial and anti-slip

o Sensitive to light, oils, solvents or grease

o Not breathable, so ventilation is needed

o Joined by stitching or adhesives

o recyclable

Acrylic :

sourced from petrochemicals inexpensive to manufacture can be manufactured as filament of spun fibres can be spun as microfibers low absorbance, fast drying, prone to static good strength, crease-resistant soft wool-like handle with good drape warm, easy care thermoplastic, sensitive to steam and heat, can result in shrinkage non-renewable resource typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for

summer fabrics, polyester or Elastane

PVC :

Sourced from petrochemicals Manufacture uses chlorine Can be manufactured as filament or spun fibres Can be manufactured as a coating Strong, flexible, durable Breathable, easy care and waterproof Provides good insulation Thermoplastic Non-renewable resource, although PVC bottles can be recycled Spun fibres always blended with other fibres including cotton, linen, viscose, modal,

wool and silk

Elastane :

Sourced from petrochemicals Made from segmented polyurethane Composed of soft, flexible segments bonded with hard, rigid segments Elastane yarn is always covered by another yarn Inbuilt capacity to stretch up to 7 times original length, then recover when tension is

released Provides lively, supple fabric with enhanced drape Adds comfort, softness and crease-resistance Improves body-shaping and shape retention

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Can be engineered to provide precise combination of yarn thickness, texture, brightness and stretch performance to suit the end use of fabric or garment

For example can provide chlorine resistance and comfort in swimwear, lasting fit in leather, washable and crease resistant linen

Absorbent, dyes well, easy care Non-renewable resource Elastane fibres are always combined with other fibres, natural or synthetic. Common

blends include maximum 20% for swimwear, 15% for hosiery, 2-5% jersey fabrics, 2% for woven fabrics and 1% for flat knits

PTFE :

Sourced from petrochemicals Synthetic polymer used mainly as a coating Flexible, durable Breathable, easy care, hardly dyes Water repellent, oil, chemical and stain resistant, windproof Water-based, CFC-free, doesn’t harm the environment Non-renewable resource, degrades slowly Used to protect all fibres and leather

Nylon :

Sourced from petrochemicals Inexpensive to manufacture and produced as textured filament, staple fibres and

microfibers Can be engineered to provide a wide range of properties and characteristics Non-absorbent and prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from

the body Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm,

depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing Flat filaments trap little air so are cool; textured filaments trap air so provide warmth Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability

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Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy care, lightweight, flammable, soft, good drape

Good elasticity, so good crease recovery Thermoplastic, can be textured and heat set, sensitive to dry heat Can be engineered to provide breathable comfort Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight Resistant to alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but degraded by concentrated

acids Non-renewable source, non bio-degradable Anti-static treatment flame-resist treatment Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties Typically blended with wool, cotton, linen, silk and other synthetics Textured filament fabrics, staple fibre fabrics and microfiber fabrics End uses include, carpets, curtains, tights, underwear, socks, active sportswear, all

weather wear, fleece, tents, clothing

Polyester :

Sourced from petrochemicals The most used and versatile synthetic fibre Inexpensive to manufacture About 60% produced as staple fibres Also produced as textured filaments and microfibers Can be engineered to provide a wide variety of properties and characteristics Non-absorbent and very prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away

from the body Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm,

depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing Flat filaments trap little air so are cool, textured filaments trap air so provide warmth

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Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy-care, lightweight, good heat

resistance, soft, good drape Very good elasticity so very good crease resistance Thermoplastic, can be textures, bulked and heat set, sensitive to dry heat Can be engineered to prove breathable comfort Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight Resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but attacked by concentrated

acids Non-renewable source Can be recycled – 25 PET bottles makes one jumper! Anti-static treatments Flame-resist treatment for interiors end use Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties Some PET fabrics can be laser cut and heat welded Filament fibres usually textures Staple fibres are blended with wool, cotton, viscose, modal, linen and silk Staple fibre fabrics, textured filament fabrics, microfiber fabrics End uses include furnishings, upholstery, carpets, bedding, children’s nightwear and

transport textiles, garments, ties, scarves, rainwear, linings, net curtains, sports and leisure wear, all weather wear, microfiber fleece garments, work wear, 100% staple yarn sewing thread, wadding for duvets and pillows, medical textiles such as artificial ligaments

Machine washable, launders well at low temperatures, do not bleach, fast drying, iron with some care, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried

Yarns

Yarn is defined as a fine continuous length of fibres or filaments, with or without twist. To be useful, yarns need to be strong enough to be made into fabric. Generally, lengths of fibres are produced through the process of spinning into a variety of different yarn types, such as singles, ply, cabled, corespun or fancy yarns. The thickness of yarn (the yarn count) and the tightness of the yarn twist, affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle, texture, appearance and end use.

All staple yarns are spun from fibres into a variety of different yarns such as singles, piled, cabled, core or fancy yarns.

The thickness of yarn (yarn count) and yarn twist affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle and end-use.

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Too much twist may make a yarn hard, whereas too little twist may result in a weak yarn. Soft knitting yarns usually have less twist, but warp yarns for weaving need a higher twist so they are strong enough to withstand the tension in the loom.

Staple yarns are made from fibres such as cotton, flax, wool, spun silk or cut manufactured fibres.

Filament yarns are made from continuous filaments of silk and manufactured synthetic fibres such as polyester or nylon.

Blended fibres like acrylic/cotton can be made permanently bulky using heat to increase the volume of thermoplastic acrylic. This gives a warm soft handle, suitable for knitwear.

Thermoplastic continuous filament synthetic yarns can be textured using a heat process. This gives an elastic, warm, soft handle, suitable for tights, swimwear, underwear, outerwear and carpets.

Twist

Twist is put into yarns during spinning to make them stronger, so they are suitable for weaving or knitting. Yarns can be spun clockwise (‘Z twist’) or anti-clockwise (‘S twist’). Fabrics made from spun yarn usually have ‘Z twist’ in the warp and may have ‘S twist’ in the weft. Light is reflected in opposite directions from the two types of yarn, so striped effects can be produced in fabrics by having alternate stripes of ‘S’ and ‘Z’ twist in the warp.

Continuous filament yarns are made by lightly twisting filament fibres together.

Staple yarns are made from short staple fibres; these have to be carded or combed, so that they all lie in the same direction, before being twisted together to form a yarn.

Filament fibres can be chopped into short staple fibres; this means that they will need to be twisted together to make a yarn. If a filament fibre is to be blended with a staple fibre, the long filaments need to be cut into staple before being spun into yarn.

Filament yarns are smooth but staple yarns are hairy. Hairy yarns are good at trapping air between the fibres – this means that they are good insulators and will make fabrics which are warm. Smooth yarns are not so good at trapping air and so make fabrics which are not good at insulating. The hairy yarns can also trap moisture between the fibres.

Blends

Most modern fabrics contain more than one fibre. This is because there is no such thing as the perfect fibre so manufacturers include different fibres in a blend. Blending is achieved by spinning two or more fibres together to make a yarn.

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This enables a fabric to be made which will be better suited to the product.

In order to make a successful blend, the fibres must be the same length so that they can be mixed together before they are spun into a yarn. Continuous filament yarns can be twisted together to make a multi-filament yarn, e.g. polyester and nylon.

The main reasons for blending fibres are:

To help reduce the cost of the fabric To give different effects in the texture and handle of the fabric To allow for novelty effects when the fabric is dyed To make a fabric with specific qualities for a particular end use To make the fabric stronger To make a fabric easier to care for To enable fabrics to be more crease resistant To allow fabrics to be heat set

Popular blends include:

Polyester and cotton blends are commonly used to make a wide variety of fabrics. Different percentages of cotton and polyester are included according to what the fabric is to be used for. The polyester helps cancel out the shrinking, creasing and slow drying of cotton. The cotton makes the fabric better at absorbing moisture and makes the fabric feel nicer next to the skin.

Elastomeric fibres like Lycra are blended with many other fibres. The Lycra gives the fabric some stretch – the higher the percentage of Lycra, the more the fabric will stretch. Only very small amounts of Lycra are needed to give a lot of stretch – Lycra is never used on its own to make a fabric because of its high stretch. Elastomeric fibres are combined with other fibres by core-spinning, wrapping or interlacing. The Lycra also makes the fabric more crease resistant. Fabrics containing Lycra should not be washed and ironed at high temperatures as this may damage the Lycra.

Viscose fibres are used in many blends. They help make the fabric more absorbent and soft to handle. As viscose is cheap to manufacture, it can help reduce the price of the fabric.

Wool is often blended with nylon for products such as socks, trousers, jackets and coats. The wool makes the fabric soft and warm, and makes it a bit more luxurious. The nylon gives improved strength and resistance to abrasion, makes the fabric lighter in weight and helps prevent the wool from shrinking when it is washed. The inclusion of nylon will also reduce the overall cost of the fabric.

Woven Fabrics

Most fabrics are made by weaving or knitting yarns, although non-woven fabrics are made by bonding or felting fibres together. A fabric's appearance, properties and end use can be affected by the way it was constructed.

Woven fabrics - Woven fabrics are made up of a weft - the yarn going across the width of the fabric - and a warp - the yarn going down the length of the loom. The side of the fabric where the wefts are double-backed to form a non-fraying edge is called the selvedge.

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Plain Weave

The most used weave structure and is made from most fibre types. Plain weave fabrics are strong, firm and hardwearing. They are used for many types of end-uses, including garments, household textiles and accessories.

In plain-weave fabric the warp and weft are aligned so that they form a simple criss-cross pattern. Plain-weave is strong and hardwearing, so it's used for fashion and furnishing fabrics.

Twill Weave

Produces fabric with diagonal lines, which generally run bottom left to top right of the fabric face. Weaving twills in different directions produces chevron or herringbone fabrics. Twills are made from many fibre types and drape well. They are used for a variety of end-uses including jackets, suits, trousers, jeans and curtains.

In twill-weave fabric the crossings of weft and warp are offset to give a diagonal pattern on the fabric surface. It's strong, drapes well and is used for jeans, jackets and curtains.

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Satin Weave

Warp faced, with a smooth, shiny face and a dull back. Satin fabric drapes well so it is used for curtain linings, evening wear, upholstery, ribbons and trimmings, depending on the fibre used. Satin can be made from cotton, polyester/cotton, acetate, polyester or silk.

In satin-weave fabric there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft threads,

which allows longer float threads either across the warp or the weft. The long floats

mean the light falling on the yarn doesn't scatter and break up, like on a plain-weave.

The reflected light creates a smooth, lustrous (shiny) surface commonly called satin.

The reverse side is invariably dull and non-shiny. Weave variations include jacquard

and damask.

Cut Piles

Velvet has a cut warp-pile on the face of the fabric. This gives a smooth, rich, soft, dense and lustrous fabric. Velvet should be used in one direction only, so pattern pieces run along straight grain with the pile stroking downwards from head to toe. Cotton velvet is used for luxury products, such as evening wear. Polyester velvet is used for upholstery.

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Needlecord has a cut weft-pile on the face of the fabric. The fine ribbed pile runs along the length of fabric, which may be brushed. Needlecord is usually made from cotton and is used for dress-weights.

Warp and Weft-Knitted Fabrics

Weft- knitted fabric is made from a single yarn, which is fed across the width of the fabric. Weft knits are stretchy, with a right and wrong side and may ladder. Weft knitting, done by hand is used to make one off designer products, such as jumpers of cushions. Industrial computer controlled knitting machines, using CAD/CAM systems produce around 90% of jersey, rib and jacquard fabrics used for T-shirts, underwear, socks and knitwear.

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Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed by its own separate yarn. The loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are stretchy but do not ladder and can’t be unravelled. Warp knits such as velour and Terry are used for leisure and sportswear, furnishings and sheets.

Weft-knitted fabric is made by looping together long lengths of yarn. It can be made

by hand or machine. The yarn runs in rows across the fabric. If a stitch is dropped it

will ladder down the length of the fabric. The fabric is stretchy and comfortable and is

used for socks, T-shirts and jumpers.

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In warp-knitted fabric the loops interlock vertically along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are slightly stretchy and do not ladder. Warp-knitted fabric is made by machine. It is used for swimwear, underwear and geotextiles.

Non-Woven Fabrics

Non-woven fabrics are textile structures made directly from fibres rather than from yarn.

Non-woven fabric is made by bonding or felting.

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Felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together by moisture, mechanical action and heat. Wool felt is expensive, but blends with acetate, nylon or acrylic to reduce its price. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but it does not fray and is warm and resilient. It retains its shape and can be made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers and toys.

Bonded-fibre fabric is made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded-fibre fabrics are used mainly as fusible interlining, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease resistant, stable to washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use.

Bonded-fibre fabrics are made from webs of synthetic fibres bonded together with

heat or adhesives. They are cheap to produce but not as strong as woven or knitted

fabrics. Bonded-fibre fabrics are mainly used for interlining. They are easy to sew,

crease resistant, do not fray and are stable when washing and dry cleaning.

Wool felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together

using moisture, heat and pressure. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity but it is

warm and does not fray. Wool felt is expensive. It is used for hats and slippers and in

handcrafts.

Modern and Smart Materials

Modern and smart fabrics are designed to maximise characteristics such as lightness, breathability, waterproofing etc, or to react to heat or light. They are usually manufactured using microfibers.

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Technology Properties End-useMicrofiber Woven polyester Lightweight

SoftGood drapeBreathableShower-proof

RaincoatsActive sportswear

Polar fleece Brushed polyester, warp knit

LightweightSoftBreathableWarm

Fleece, jumpers and blankets

Gore-tex Laminated membrane

BreathableLightweightWaterproof

All-weather jackets and shoes

Micro-encapsulated Different micro-capsules embedded in the fibres

Gives off an aromatic scentCan reduce body odourCan provide vitamins, medicines or reduce skin irritation

UnderwearAnti-bacterial socksMedical textiles

Heat sensitive Thermochromatic Micro-encapsulated dye can change colour in response to heat (lasts about 5-10 washes)

Children’s clothesSports clothingFire-fighters clothingWound dressings

Light sensitive Photchromatic dyes Smart pigments change colour in response to sunlight

t-shirtsmilitary clothing

Combination fabrics - Fabrics can be layered and combined to improve their handle, appearance or performance. For example:

An interfacing fabric such as Vilene can be stitched or laminated to other fabrics. This reinforces, stiffens and gives strength to collars and cuffs to prevent the fabric from stretching or sagging.

A quilted fabric has two or more layers sewn together to give an attractive appearance and added warmth.

Gore-Tex can be laminated to another fabric using adhesive or heat. Gore-Tex is used for all-weather clothing and shoes because it is breathable and waterproof.

Kevlar is a high-strength, lightweight and flexible fibre. It is used in bicycle tyres, racing sails and police bullet-proof vests because of its high strength-to-weight ratio.

Thinsulate is a highly insulating but thin fabric. The microfibers in Thinsulate are fine and capture more air in less space, making it a better insulator. It traps air between the wearer and the outside. It can be machine washed and dry cleaned, and is

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breathable as well as moisture resistant. Scuba divers wear a Thinsulate suit under a dry suit when diving in cold water.

Technology in textiles - Textiles manufacturers use new technological developments to improve fabrics by giving them new properties. These might be developed for a special reason, but then adapted to be used in everyday products. For example:

Memory foam moulds to the user's shape and can return to its original state. It was originally developed for NASA astronauts and is now used in memory-foam mattresses and seats.

Smart-shape-memory alloy returns to its original shape when heated. Smart memory fibres are woven with nylon to make smart-memory shirts that don't need ironing.

Fastskin is used in swimsuits to simulate the texture of sharkskin. It increases a swimmer's speed by reducing drag through water.

Polymers

Textile materials are made from natural or synthetic fibre-forming polymers. A polymer is the generic name for a combination of large molecules, made from a chain of smaller repeating chemical units called monomers.

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Natural polymers exist as short fibres, which need to be combed, lined up and twisted to make longer, usable lengths.

Vegetable fibres, such as cotton and linen, are composed of the glucose polymer cellulose

The animal fibre wool, from the fleece of a sheep, is composed of the protein polymer keratin

Hair fibres, such as cashmere and mohair, are also based on the protein polymer keratin

Regenerated natural fibres, such as viscose and modal are manufactured from the cellulose in wood pulp. This is dissolved in chemicals and extruded through the tiny holes in a spinneret into an acid bath, to produce fine continuous filaments or pure regenerated cellulose.

Most synthetic polymers are manufactured from petrochemicals, using the process of polymerisation to produce long chains of fibre-forming linear polymers. These are converted by solution or melted and extruded through spinnerets to form continuous filaments of synthetic fibres. There are two main methods of polymerisation, called addition polymerisation and condensation polymerisation.

Acrylic, PVC and PTFE are made by addition polymerisation – in which similar monomers are added to each other to form long chains, called homopolymers.

Polyamide and polyester are made by condensation polymerisation – in which two different monomers are added together to form long chains, called copolymers.

Elastane is made by block polymerisation – in which two different monomers are pre-formed into blocks and then added together, to form block copolymers.

elastomers Thermosetting polymers Thermoplastic polymersElastomers can be stretched and return to their original shape, such as the branded Elastane fibre Lycra.

Thermosetting polymers have cross-links between the long chain molecules. They set with heat and cannot be softened when re-heated. They are not used for textiles.

Thermoplastic polymers have long chain molecules that are not cross-linked. They soften when heated and become hard again when cool. Acetate, acrylic, polyamide and polyester are all thermoplastics and should be ironed with care.

Finishes

All fabrics used in products will have been ‘finished’ in some way to make them suitable for their end use. Good finishing can greatly improve the aesthetic and functional properties of fabrics, enhancing their handle, drape and aftercare properties.

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Finishing process Example of how finishing benefits fabricsPhysical finishing processes use heat, pressure or steam and machine processes.

Cotton or nylon is brushed (or ‘raised’) to give a soft, warm handle.

Wool fabrics are shrunk to make them compact and to reduce further shrinking.

Chemical finishing processes involve the use of chemicals, which can cause environmental damage.

Viscose fabrics may be given an easy-care treatment.

Silk ties can be Teflon coated to make them stain resistant.

Biological finishing processes involve the use of natural enzymes, such as those used in biostoning denim, which causes little environmental damage.

Most denim products in Europe are biostoned. This is less expensive than traditional stonewashing and reduces damage to the fabric.

Dyeing and printing involve the use of chemicals to enhance the aesthetic characteristics of textiles.

Most fabrics are dyed to improve the aesthetic characteristics and to make them fashionable.

Printing makes fabrics attractive to the target market.

Decorative and stitch techniques. Appliqué and embroidery add to the style of the product.

Textile products are also finished as part of a quality assurance process. Product finishing ensures that the product is fault-free, clean and matches specifications. Finishing improves the properties and quality of the product, and can be:

Aesthetic, like pressing to improve the ease of manufacture. Final pressing improves presentation of the product.

Decorative, like applying logos, braid or fringing to add to the style of image of the product.

Functional, like self-finishing seams by over locking to improve the product quality.

Finishing - Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers many different processes, some mechanical and some chemical.

Mechanical finishing processes - Mechanical finishing uses heat, pressure and rollers to improve the appearance of the fabric.

Brushing - Brushing cotton or nylon fabrics makes them fluffy and warm, with a soft handle. The fabrics pass through rollers with wire brushes that lift the fibres to form a nap.

Calendaring - Calendaring is the industrial equivalent of ironing. It smoothes the fabric and improves its lustre. Engraved calendar rollers are used to emboss relief patterns on the fabric surface.

Heat-setting - Heat-setting is used for thermoplastic fabrics (polyester and nylon). The fabrics are set in permanent shapes or pleats.

Chemical finishing processes - Chemical finishing involves the application of chemical solutions or resins to improve the appearance, handle or performance of a fabric.

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Bleaching - Cotton and synthetic fabrics are bleached before dying. This makes it easier to dye pastel shades.

Mercerising - Cotton or linen fabrics are mercerised using the alkali caustic soda. Mercerised fabrics are stronger, dye well and have improved lustre.

Shrink resist - Wool can be given a shrink-resist finish using silicone or Teflon. This results in soft, smooth, lustrous yarns and fabrics that are machine washable.

Crease resist - Cotton and viscose fabrics are given a crease-resistant finish using resin. This makes them easy care. They dry fast and smooth and need little ironing.

Flame resistant - Children's nightwear and cotton/viscose furnishings must by law be given a flame-resistant finish. This often makes the fabric stiffer and weaker.

Smart finishes - These are new, high-tech methods for finishing products.

Anti-bacterial finishes - Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow down the growth of bacteria. They control odours in sports shoes and reduce infection in medical products.

Coating - Coating involves applying a layer of polymer to the surface of the fabric. Teflon coating makes fabrics stain resistant, water repellent and breathable

Biological finishes - Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stone-washed finish to denim fabrics.

Thermochromatic finishes - Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature.

Nanomaterials and integrated Components

Nanomaterials - Nanomaterials are those broadly defined as having tiny components with at least one measurement below 100 nm. Sometimes nanomaterials are used as thin films or surface coatings, as on computer chips or as nanowires, nanotubes, or as blobs of tiny nanocrystalline particles.

In the clothing sector special functional textiles are under development, for example self-cleaning textile surfaces or protective insulating clothing. Antimicrobial silver nanoparticles

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are already used in socks, shoe insoles and a few clothing textiles. By using nanostructured polymer coatings on textile surfaces, textiles and other products may be enhanced to include new properties like these listed below.

Two key factors cause the properties of nanomaterials to be special: their quantum effects and their structure. Their tiny structure means they have a greater relative surface area than other materials and this can alter or improve properties such as strength and electrical characteristics or reactivity. Their quantum effect can affect the electrical, magnetic or optical performance.

Properties vary but can include improvements such as:

magnetic/optical performance

electrical conductivity

strength/elasticity

thermal conductivity

absorbency

This has resulted in the development of:

harder and tougher tools

water-repellent and anti-bacterial coatings

wear- and scratch-resistant hard coatings

UV absorbent and reflective transparent-looking nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide in some sunscreens

a military battle suit that that will withstand blast waves (currently being developed by the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT)

Nanomaterial finishes Characteristics Uses

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ZANO UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.

ZANO is a fungistat.

Summer clothing

Hammocks

Tents

Mountain wear

Climbing wear

Sportswear

Swimwear

Tents

NanoGrain

CeO2

UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.

Summer clothing

Umbrellas

NanoGrain TiO2 (rutile) or Optisol

Partial UV-absorbers for fabrics, protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.

Summer clothing

Tents

NanoGrain TiO2 (anatase) Can combat malodours on textiles by stopping decomposition of food, sweat, etc.

Socks and underwear

Shoe insoles

Sportswear

Children's clothing

Integrated electronics - LEDs and other electronic components such as sensors are being integrated into textile and other products, and can offer a dual-purpose product like a wearable light-emitting garment or a roll-up illuminated mat.

Decorative Techniques

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Fabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products. Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heat-sealing. Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is used to shape and stabilise fabrics.

Dyeing and Printing

Before dyeing and printing the fabric is prepared by washing, bleaching and mercerising, in

which the yarn is treated to improve strength, lustre and receptivity to dye. Fabrics can be

dyed by hand or by machine.

Hand dyeing

In hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye bath is

agitated so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is achieved the fabric is

removed and rinsed to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed with a mordant or a fixing agent

such as salt. The strength of a dye colour is determined by the:

amount of time in the dye bath

absorbency of fibres

original fabric colour

concentration of the dye colour in the dye bath

effective use of a mordant or fixative

Commercial dyeing- In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing.

Continuous dyeing -The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then squeezed between

rollers to spread the dye evenly and remove excess. Continuous dyeing is used for colours

that do not need to change too quickly with fashion.

Batch dyeing -Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to order in large

batches according to the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for fabrics that have to

change in colour frequently because of fashion.

Printing -Fabrics is printed by block or screen printing.

Block printing - Block printing is done using metal or wooden blocks, one for each colour.

The background shapes are cut away to leave a raised design on the block. Dye is applied

and stamped onto the fabric. This is a slow process used by specialised craft industries.

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Screen printing - In screen printing a pattern is printed onto fabric through a stencil held in

place by a screen. Each screen prints one part of the design in one colour. After printing the

dyestuff must be fixed using steam or dry heat.

Manual flat-bed screen printing - Manual flat-bed screen printing is a slow process, done by

hand. It is used by designer-makers for complicated fabric designs or for small runs.

Mesh is stapled to a frame to make a screen.

Masking tape is stuck to the underside of the screen.

A stencil is made from paper.

The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper.

Ink is poured at one end of screen.

A squeegee is used to press down and draw ink across screen.

The screen is carefully lifted.

The print is checked before the process is repeated.

Industrial flat-bed screen printing - Industrial flat-bed printing automates this process, with the fabric

moved through the machine on a conveyor belt and the print repeating rapidly.

Rotary screen printing - Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used

for each colour. This is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing

fabrics.

Joining

Textile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing.

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Stitching - Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam. Finishing the seam

prevents fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat finish.

Fusing - Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an adhesive resin.

Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is also

used to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories and

allows hems to be turned up without stitching.

In a factory there are two types of machine used for fusing. A flat-bed press is used

to join short fabric lengths for batch production, and a conveyor press is used for

fusing long fabric lengths for mass production.

Heat-sealing - Heat-sealing is used for synthetic fibres made from thermoplastics, such as

polyester or nylon. It is used to set a material into a shape, e.g. pleats. It is also use to seal

the seams on tents and all-weather gear to make them waterproof.

Fastening and Components

Textile products are made not only from fabrics but also from a variety of components and fastening. The main purpose of this is to enhance the products style and performance.

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Type of fastening Typical end-usePolyester button Shirts, blouses and underwearNylon buttons Coats and jackets, sports and leisurewearMetal buttons Blazers, jeans and knitted waistcoatsLeather buttons Sports jackets and knitted cardigansWooden buttons Knitted and sports garmentsMoth of pearl buttons Women’s outerwear and underwearPlastic zip fastener Lightweight and fine fabrics used in garments and

household productsMetal zip fastener Sports goodsSingle and double-sided zips Leisure and sports productsNylon Velcro A range of fashion garments, sports and leisure goodsMetal hooks and eyes Trousers and skirtsMetal or plastic press studs A range of garments and household goodsMetal, leather or plastic buckles Belts and clasps

Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Computer-aided design - The term computer-aided (CAD) design includes all the computer applications and hardware devices that can be used to aid digital design. CAD speeds up the design process by making it quick and easy to test and modify ideas before production starts. This reduces mistakes and cuts costs. Uses of CAD in textiles design include:

Wire-frame modelling, surface modelling or solid modelling can be used to texture map or simulate virtual products in 3D, from which clients can choose one to be sampled in fabric. This saves the time and cost of sampling a large selection of real products.

Graphics applications enable ease the production and storage of accurate working drawings and lay plans.

Colour ways can be accurately modelled at the design stage.

Material quantities and costs can be easily calculated.

Computer networks improve communication between designers, clients and manufacturers thus speeding up the design-feedback loop.

One-off Production

This is wear a one-off textile product is made by and individual designer-maker, a craftsperson or a company to meet an individual client’s requirement. It is also called individual production, job production and make through production. It is a traditional method in which a whole garment or textile is assembled by one operator. Each product is only made once or only in small quantities. This process needs highly skilled, experienced

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operators and versatile machinery. Tailors are one example, producing individually made suits to exact measurements for the customer. Craft workers produce small quantities of items, carrying out each process from start to finish on each one.

The product is made by an individual or small team from start to finish Traditional methods of manufacture are used The operators are highly skilled and use versatile equipment Haute couture is an extreme example of this production method

Batch Production

Items are produced in specific quantities. They may be made in one production run or in batches to be repeated at certain times. A batch can range in number from two or three products to a hundred thousand or more. In a batch production manufacturing system, each piece of equipment may be used to make several different products, for example skirts today, trousers tomorrow. This means that the machinery used must be far more versatile than that used in mass production. The workers who operate the machines are likely to be more skilled because the job they do changes day by day according to the batch run. In a large factory, many batches of different products, of varying quantities, scheduled for different customers and delivery dates, will be processed at the same time. This involves complex planning for the use of machines and the personnel to operate them, so that orders can be met on time.

A reasonable number of products are produced, possibly to meet seasonal demand, e.g. swimwear

Production costs are considerably less than for individual production

Mass Production

Large quantities of products are involved in mass production. Machines are in continuous use for long periods of time, so they are very specialized and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are highly specific for the job in hand. Equipment, labour and supply of materials and components are well organised to ensure a smooth flow of work through the factory and to minimise the cost of making each product. Increasingly, computers are used to monitor and control processes. Variations in the manufactured products are kept to a

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minimum, to minimize any changes necessary to the tooling of the machines, which take time and money.

Used to manufacture large numbers of identical products over a long period of time Products are usually not complicated and can be made cheaply, e.g. tights or vests

Types of mass production include: Synchronised/ straight-line production – work is passed along a production

line where each operator is responsible for one task, which they perform repeatedly

Repetitive flow production – manufacture is divided into sub-assembly lines that each focus on one area of the process

Continual flow production – used for massive volume items; the process runs 24 hours a day and is never shut down

Other Production Systems

Cell production or section systems:

Divide the workforce into small teams that all produce the same product Rely on each team to take responsibility for the quality of the products produced by

them

Progressive bundle production:

Uses small teams that are each responsible for a particular part of the production process

Is like cell production, but for individual parts of the garment

Off-the-Peg Manufacture

Except for Haute Couture and individual/job production, the different production systems are designed to produce ‘off-the-peg’ garments (ready-made garments in standard sizes).

Uses templates in standard sizes helps to keep costs down.

One-off garments that are made to specific measurements for an individual are called ‘bespoke’ and are usually far more expensive.

Just-in-Time Stock Control

Just-in-time stock management means that materials, components and sub-assemblies are delivered a short time before they are needed. This means that less space is required for storage and no money is wasted on surplus stock. With this type of stock control there must be no mistakes; otherwise production can be held up.

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Seams

A plain seam is the most commonly used method of joining woven fabrics. An overlock seam stitches, cuts and finishes the seam in one process. This is used

for a range of products including underwear and knitwear. A flat seam (seam cover) is made using twin needles to create a stitch on top and an

overlock stitch below. This binds the cut edges of straps. Belt loops or the hems of fabrics that fray, e.g. for T-shirts or belt loops on jeans.

A cup seam is used for the seams of knitted fabrics.

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A lap seam is commonly used on the seams of jeans and shirts, providing a very strong seam with two rows of stitching.

Heat-sealed joins are applied to fabrics made from thermoplastic fibres, like polyester and polyamide (nylon). Heat-sealing is often used in combination with taped seams to help waterproof products such as all-weather wear or tents.

British Standards and Health and Safety

BS 5722, flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in dressing gowns – mandatory for nightwear for children and the elderly. Flammability performance relates to the whole garment, including all threads, trimmings, decorations and labels.

BS EN 23758, the care labelling code. Care labels are voluntary and use symbols that are consistent with those used on washing machines, irons and detergent packs.

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Regulations require that most textile products be labelled with the type and quantity by percentage of different fibres used. The label must:

Use the generic name of the fibre, such as acrylic, rather than a trade name like Dralon

Give the percentage fibre composition, such as 60% cotton, 40% polyester, with the highest quantity first.

Health and Safety

Health and safety issues for products are related to the production of the consumer.

Regulation Example of applicationThe Trade Descriptions Act 1988 Can’t say a product is waterproof if it’s not. A

fabric can be waterproof.The Textile Products (Indication of Fibre Content) Regulation 1986

Fibre content must be accurate, but there is a tolerance of 3%.

The Weight and Measures Act 1985 & 1987 Stated sizing must be accurate.The Consumer Protection Act 1987 The onus of proof of a fault is on the

consumer.The General Product Safety Regulations Act 1994

Product must have correct labelling description. In normal use children’s wear must not give any risk or potential risk.

Health and safety at work is the responsibility of employers and employees. Manufacturers are required to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce risks in using materials, machinery and manufacturing processes.

Textile product maintenance - A care label on a textile product gives the consumer useful information about product maintenance. Good labels provide details on:

Fibre content, which is the percentage of each fibre used to make a fabric, e.g. 50 percent cotton, 50 percent polyester. This is a legal requirement.

Flammability. This is a legal requirement for children's nightwear.

Standard care symbols (see diagrams).

Standard size, which is a standard measurement of the human body. For example, women's clothes might come in sizes 10, 12, 14, 16.

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All manufacturers use similar symbols to tell the consumer how to look after the product; the care of textile products depends on the fibre content and fabric finishes used.

Washing instructions

Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions

Wash at 95 degrees, whites only

Wash at 40 degrees, dark colours only

Wash at 60 degrees, colours Wash at 40 degrees, viscose

Wash at 60 degrees, modal Wash at 30 degrees

Wash at 50 degrees Wash by hand only

Wash at 40 degrees Do not wash

Washing instructions are shown as a washing bowl. Similar symbols are found on washing machines to show different cycles. The number in the washing bowl shows the maximum temperature, and the line underneath the bowl tells you to use a special wash for synthetic fabrics. A hand in the bowl means you can only hand wash the product.

Bleaching instructions


Bleach Do not bleach

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Bleaching instructions are shown as a triangle. A cross over the triangle means do not wash with bleach.

Ironing instructions


Iron: high temperature Iron: low temperature

Iron: normal temperature Iron: cold, do not use steam

Ironing instructions are shown by a picture of an iron. The dots on the iron show the maximum temperature at which it is safe to iron the product: three dots is very hot; one dot is cool. A cross over the iron means do not iron.

Instructions for dry cleaning


Dry clean: all methods

Dry clean with perc (dry-cleaning fluid, tetrachloroethylene) only

Dry cleaning instructions: a circle symbol means that it's safe to dry clean the product. The letter inside tells the dry cleaners what method should be used. A cross over the circle means do not dry clean.

Tumble drying instructions


Tumble dry: high temperature Do not tumble dry: viscose

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Tumble dry: low temperature Do not tumble dry

Tumble dry: low temperature, modal

Tumble drying instructions are shown by a square with a circle inside. The dots show the temperature at which it is safe to dry the product. A cross over the symbol means do not tumble dry.

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Textiles Revision Booklet

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