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GEOactive 2
18
Yellow-footed rock wallaby and baby,Flinders Ranges, South
Australia
No country in the world is the same as another,but Australia is
particularly rich in physical characteristics that make it unique.
In this chapter, we focus on the physical environment, including
major landforms and drainage basins, patterns of climate,
vegetation and natural resources, and flora and fauna.
A student:5.1 identifies, gathers and evaluates geographical
information5.2 analyses, organises and synthesises
geographical
information5.3 selects and uses appropriate written, oral and
graphic
forms to communicate geographical information5.4 selects and
applies appropriate geographical tools5.5 demonstrates a sense of
place about Australian
environments5.6 explains the geographical processes that form
and
transform Australian environments5.10 applies geographical
knowledge, understanding
and skills with knowledge of civics to demonstrate informed and
active citizenship.
Using physical maps (page 23) Using topographic maps (page 25)
Interpreting contour patterns (pages 267) Using vertical aerial
photographs and topographic
maps (page 28) Interpreting climatic graphs (page 33)
Interpreting synoptic charts (page 35) Using area and grid
references (page 42)
Chapter 2
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
19
climate: the long-term variation in the atmosphere, mainly
relating to temperature and precipitation
deposition: the laying down of material carried by rivers, wind,
ice, ocean currents or waves
drainage basin: the area of land that feeds a river with water
or the whole area of land drained by a river and its
tributaries
drought: a period of below average precipitationecosystem: a
system formed by the interactions of
the living organisms (plants, animals and humans) and physical
elements of environments
endemic: native to a particular area and found nowhere else
erosion: the wearing away of soil and rock by natural elements
such as wind and water
isobars: lines drawn on a map joining places of equal barometric
pressure
marsupial: a mammal that keeps and feeds its young in a pouch
for a few months after birth
mass movement: the movement of rock and soil down a slope due to
gravity
monotreme: mammal that lays eggs; the only species are the
platypus and echidna
monsoon: the seasonal change in wind direction that is
experienced in much of the tropics
regolith: the layer of broken rock and soil on top of the solid
rock of the Earths crust; also known as mantle rock
renewable resources: resources that can be replaced in a
relatively short amount of time (for example, trees)
salinity: the presence of salt on the land surface, in soils or
rocks, or dissolved in water in our rivers or ground water
species: a group of plants or animals of the same kind, able to
breed with each other
synoptic chart: weather map that uses isobars and other symbols
to show the movement of weather systems and patterns of temperature
and rainfall
tectonic: refers to the forces or conditions within the earth
that cause movements of the crust such as earthquakes, folds,
faults and volcanoes
topography: physical features of an area of land its height and
shape
unique: unlike anything else; the only one of its
typeweathering: the breakdown of bare rock by water
and temperature changesWorld Heritage List: areas designated as
being of
global importance for conservation and study
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GEOactive 2
20
The tectonic forces of folding, faulting and vol-canic activity
have created many of the majorlandforms of Australia. Other forces
that workon the surface of Australia and give our land-forms their
present appearance are weathering,mass movement, erosion and
deposition.
Weathering is the breakdown of bare rock bywater and temperature
changes at the Earths sur-face. On a continental scale, weathering
contri-butes to the development of only minor landforms.Its main
impact is in the way it converts solid rockinto a layer of
regolith, or broken rock and soil,which is more easily moved by
other processes.
The gravitational movement of rock and soildownslope is called
mass movement. This con-tributes to the appearance of local
landforms. Forexample, the steep sides of parts of the
BlueMountains are formed by a combination ofweathering and mass
movement.
The main force that has created the presentappearance of our
topography is erosion.Erosion is the wearing away of soil and rock
bynatural elements, such as water, ice and wind.Water erosion by
rivers and streams has beenresponsible for the carving of many
valleys inAustralias higher areas. Small parts of the Aus-tralian
Alps and Tasmania have been eroded byglaciers during the last Ice
Age. Drier parts ofAustralia have experienced some wind
erosion.
When streams, glaciers and winds slow down,they deposit or drop
the load of rock, soil andparticles they have been carrying. This
is calleddeposition. Many broad coastal and low-lyinginland valleys
have been created by stream depo-sition. These areas are called
flood plains. Winddeposition has created many sand dunes
alongbeaches and in desert areas.
The topography or landforms of Australia can bedivided into four
major regions: the CoastalPlains, the Eastern Highlands, the
Central Low-lands and the Western Plateau. The Coastal Plains
around Australias edge are
narrow and discontinuous. The plains oftentake the form of river
valleys, such as those ofthe Fitzroy River near Rockhampton and
theHunter Valley near Newcastle.
MAJOR LANDFORM REGIONS
The Eastern Highlands region (which includesthe Great Dividing
Range) is mainly a series oftablelands and plateaus. Most of the
area isvery rugged because rivers have cut deep val-leys across it.
It is the source of most of Aus-tralias largest rivers including
the Fitzroy,Darling and Murray. The highest part is in
thesouth-east where a small alpine area is snow-covered for more
than half the year.
Australias highest mountain is Mount Kosciuszko at2228 metres.
Mount Everest the worlds highestmountain is 8848 metres.
The Central Lowlands is a vast area of veryflat, low-lying land
which contains three largedrainage basins: the Carpentaria lowlands
inthe north, the Lake Eyre basin in the centre,and the
MurrayDarling basin in the south.
The Western Plateau is a huge area of table-lands, most of which
is about 500 metres abovesea level. It includes areas of gibber (or
stony)deserts and sandy deserts. There are severalrugged upland
areas, including the Kimberleyand Macdonnell ranges.
2.1MAJOR LANDFORMS AND
DRAINAGE BASINS
Australias four major landform regions
0 250 500 750 km
Plains
Highlands
Western Plateau
Central Lowlands
Eas
tern
Hig
hlan
ds
Eastern Highlands
Tropic of Capricorn
N
Coastal Plains
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
21
King George Falls, the Kimberley. The King George River flows
across the Western Plateau then plunges 60 metres over the eroding
edge of the plateau into the ocean.
SAMPLE STUDYThe MurrayDarling basinThe MurrayDarling basin
covers about one millionsquare kilometres and is drained by more
than 20major rivers. It has a large variety of environments,ranging
from alpine areas in the east to rangelandsin the west. The basin
produces one-third of Aus-tralias food and 40 per cent of
Australias total agri-cultural income. It supports one-quarter of
thenations cattle, half the sheep and makes up almostthree-quarters
of the irrigated land in Australia.
The MurrayDarling drainage basin is the largestand most
important in Australia, but it is small byworld standards. The
amount of water flowingthrough it in one year is about the same as
theAmazon Rivers flow in one day.
The basin is facing severe problems: Only about 20 per cent of
water flowing through
the basin ever reaches the sea. The rest isdiverted for
agriculture, industry and domesticuse. In 1981 the Murray mouth
closed for thefirst time since European settlement. It hap-pened
again in 2002 and will probably closemore often unless natural
flows are increased.
The Murray supplies about 40 per cent ofAdelaides drinking
water. Within 20 years, ifwater quality continues to decline,
salinitylevels will exceed World Health Organizationlimits for safe
drinking water.
Approximately 5080 per cent of wetlands in thebasin have been
severely damaged or destroyedand more than one-third of native fish
speciesare threatened with extinction.
1. Briefly explain what is meant by the following terms:
weathering, mass movement, erosion and deposition.
2. Which of these processes has been the most significant in the
development of Australias landforms?
3. Observe the map of Australias major landform regions.(a) What
are the four major landform regions?(b) Which region is:
(i) the largest? (ii) the smallest?(c) State the landform region
in which each of the
following is located (refer to an atlas if necessary):
4. Name Australias largest drainage basin.5. What is the
approximate size of the MurrayDarling
drainage basin?6. The MurrayDarling basin has a large variety
of
environments. Explain how this would affect the potential for
agriculture.
7. Why has the basin developed into such an important irrigation
area?
8. Form small groups to use the Internet and/or library to
research the problems facing the MurrayDarling basin. What could be
done by individuals, groups and governments to improve the
situation? Prepare a report and have one member present it to the
class. To find out more, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the
MurrayDarling Basin weblinks for this chapter.
Worksheets2.1 River systems
(i) Sydney(ii) Alice Springs(iii) Canberra
(iv) Kalgoorlie(v) Cairns(vi) Lake Eyre.
Timor Sea
Lake Eyre
Western PlateauIndian Ocean
Timor Sea
Gulf ofCarpentaria
North-eastCoast
BullooBancannia
MurrayDarling
South-eastCoastSouth Australian
Gulf
Tasmania
23.3%
23.3%
1.0%
1.7%
0.4%
0.2%
13.3%
10.6%
6.1%
0.3%
1.6% 21.1%
23.3%
Water catchment area name
Distribution of Australias run-off
0 250 500 km
South-westCoast
N
Australias drainage basins
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GEOactive 2
22
Permanent rivers and streams flow in only asmall proportion of
the Australian continent. Infact, Australia is the driest of all
the worldsinhabited continents. It has: the lowest amount of
run-off the lowest percentage of rainfall as run-off the least
amount of water in rivers the smallest area of permanent wetlands
the most variable rainfall and stream flow.
The MurrayDarling is Australias largestriver system. Other
significant rivers are: the Burdekin River in Queensland the Hunter
River in New South Wales the Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton,
Fortescue,
De Grey, Fitzroy, Drysdale and Ord rivers in thenorth-west
region
the Victoria and Daly rivers in the NorthernTerritory
the Leichhardt, Norman, Gilbert and Mitchellrivers in the Gulf
of Carpentaria
the Tamar, Derwent and Gordon rivers ofTasmania, although these
are relatively short.Australia has many lakes but they hold
little
water compared with those found on other conti-nents. The
largest are Lake Eyre and Lake Torrensin South Australia. During
dry seasons, thesebecome beds of salt and mud. Yet an inland sea
didonce exist in this area. It covered about 100000square
kilometres around present-day Lake Eyreand Lake Frome. South
Australia is the driest stateand has very few permanent rivers or
streams.
RIVERS AND LAKES
Satellite image of Lake Eyre, March 1985. Once a freshwater
lake, the region is now an evaporated saltpan. The crust of salt is
shown as white in the image.
Satellite image of Lake Eyre, February 1984. Three or four times
each century, the lake fills with water, transforming it into a
haven for wildlife. Deep water is shown as black in the image.
Sour
ce:
Com
mon
wea
lth o
f Aus
tralia
, Lan
dsat
MSS
/TM
/ETM
sat
ellit
e im
ages
acq
uire
d by
ACR
ES, G
eosc
ienc
e Au
stra
lia. A
ll rig
hts
rese
rved
. Rep
rodu
ctio
n by
per
mis
sion
of t
he C
hief
Exe
cutiv
e Of
ficer
, ww
w.g
a.go
v.au
.
N
Van
Lake Argyle
King Sound
Roebuck Bay
Shark Bay
JosephBonaparte
Gulf
Geographe Bay
I N D I A N
O C E A N
T I M O RS E A Cape Ford
Cape Naturaliste
Cape Londonderry
Cape Leveque
Steep Point
HoodPointCape Leeuwin
BathurstIsland
Archipelago ofthe Recherche
Barrow Island
TimorSumba
Houtman Abrolhos Islands
LombokJava Bali
FloresSumbawa
0 200 400 600 800 km
Tropic of Capric
orn
TanamiDesert
S t u r tP l a i n
N or t
h W
e st S
h el f
HAMERSLEY RANGECARNARVON RANGE
Mt Meharry 1249 m
LakeDisappointment
G i b s o n D e s e r t
Lake Carnegie
D e s e r t
Lake Carey
Lake Lefroy
UNL L
A RB O
R
LakeBarlee
Lake Austin
K I M B E R L E Y
Mur
chis
on
River
RiverGascoyne
Fortescue River
Riv
erFitzroy
Victor
Percival Lakes
G r e a t S a n d yDe s e r t
Lake Gregory
Image WorldSat International Inc., 2001 www.worldsat.ca All
rights reserved.Overlay by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane.
Desert
Forest
Lake
Mountains
Islands
River Sea mounts
Australia physical map
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
23
Using physical mapsThe natural features of a region are shown on
physical maps. Mountain ranges, plateaus, rivers, seas and other
physical features are highlighted. Information about towns and
cities is kept to a minimum.
1. Observe the physical map of Australia and list the
following:(a) the three highest mountain peaks in the Great
Dividing Range (b) two deserts in the Central Lowlands(c) four
mountain ranges on the Western Plateau(d) three rivers in the
MurrayDarling drainage
basin(e) three rivers in the
Indian Ocean drainage basin (see map on page 21).
2. Using information from the map, explain why Lake Torrens and
Lake Eyre usually contain so little water.
3. Use information from the text and from the map to explain why
the MurrayDarling river system has a small discharge for the size
of its catchment and length.
4. On an outline map of Australia complete the following.(a)
Draw the Great
Dividing Range and the MurrayDarling basin onto your map.
(b) Add Mount Kosciuszko to your map.
(c) Shade the areas of desert.
(d) Show the location of four seas near Australia.
(e) Show the approximate location of the area shown in the
photographs on page 22. Add a label for this place.
(f) Provide a title, scale and key for your map.
(g) Use the scale to estimate the width of Australia at its
widest point and the distance from the most northerly point of
Australia to the most southerly point.
TOOLBOX
Lake Yamma Yamma
Buck
ingha
m
Ba
y
Torres Strait
Shelburne Bay
PrincessCharlotte
Bay
BroadSound
Lake Pedder
Spen
cer
Gul
f
Port Jackson
Moreton Bay
LakeWoods
P A C I F I CO C E A N
S E A
T A S M A NS E A
NGES
FL
IND
ER
S
RA
NG
ES
Mt Kosciuszko 2228 m
DAVENPORTRANGE
Mt Bartle Frere1611 m
Mt Bogong1986 m
Mt Woodroffe1440 m
South East Cape
Cape Arnhem
Cape NelsonCape Otway
Cape Howe
Cape Byron
Cape York
Tasmania
EyrePeninsula
CobourgPeninsula
King Island FurneauxGroup
Fraser Island
ThursdayIsland
MorningtonIsland
Groote Eylandt
Wessel Islands
KangarooIsland
Lord Howe Island
Moreton Island
New Guinea
G u l f
o fC a r p e n t a r i a
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
C O R A L S E A
B a s s S t r a i t
GR
EA
T
BA
R
RI E
R
RE
EF
Cape
Yo r k
Pen i nsu l a
A r n h e mL a n d
BA
RK L Y T A B L E L A
ND
L A I N
NGES
Rive
r
Darli
ng
Riv
er
River
Lach
lanRiver
Murray River
yMt Liebig1524 m
Uluru 868 m
Lake Amadeus
LakeEyre
Lake TorrensLakeFrome
Lake Gairdner
Sturt StonyDesert
Simpson Desert
Rive
r
Dia
man
tina
Georgina R
iver
GR
EA
TD
IV
ID
IN
GR
AN
GE
G RE A
TD
I VI D
IN
GR
AN
GE
Murrumbidge e
-
GEOactive 2
24
A topographic map is a map that shows theactual shape of the
landscape and the variousheights of the landscape. The map allows
geog-raphers to see the height and shape of the landby using
contour lines. Contour lines are linesthat join together all points
that have the sameheight above sea level. The height between
con-tour lines is called the contour interval. The mapon the
opposite page has various contour lineswith an interval of 50
metres. The numbers onthe contours show how high the land is above
sealevel. Mount Florence, for example, is more than400 metres above
sea level.
The map also shows that some contour lines areclose together
while other contour lines are farapart. Close contours mean that
the slope of theland is steep; contours well apart mean that
theslope of the land is gentle. The closer the contours,the steeper
the slope. The further apart the con-tours, the flatter the slope.
Therefore, on the mapon this page, the land around X is steeper
thanthe land around Y. The relative steepness of theslope is called
the gradient.
Topographic maps also show in detail both thenatural and human
features of the landscape.Natural features include rivers, lakes,
swamps,hills and beaches. Human features include roads,towns,
railways and dams. Topographic maps useconventional signs and
symbols to show water,rivers, vegetation, roads, railways and
buildings.The meaning of each sign or symbol is explainedin a key,
or legend.
ColoursDifferent colours are also used on topographicmaps to
indicate certain features, for example: brown is used for natural
features, including
contour lines blue is used for all water and river features
green is used for vegetation and ground cover black and red are
used for human features
such as roads, railways and buildings.
CONTOURS
LEGEND
Topographic maps also use lines to help us locateplaces on a
map. These lines are overprinted toform a grid. These grid lines
are given as two-digit numbers that appear on the margins of
themap. The lines that run up and down the map(northsouth) are
called eastings because thenumbers increase the further east they
are. Thelines that run across the map horizontally (eastwest) are
called northings because the numbersincrease the further north they
are. Whenstating location, the eastings are given first, thenthe
northings.
Area references and contour lines on a topographic map
An area reference is a four-figure reference thattells us the
grid square in which to find afeature. On the map opposite, the
railway stationis located at 8640. The letters AR are usuallyplaced
in front of an area reference, so the areareference for the railway
station is AR8640.
A grid reference is a six-figure number thatshows an exact point
in the grid square. Thethird and sixth figures represent one-tenth
ofthe distance between the two grid numbers.However, these
divisions are not written on themap, so they must be estimated. The
letters GRare used in front of a grid reference. The gridreference
for point Y on the map above isGR643146. There are no spaces
between thedigits in references.
AREA AND GRID REFERENCES
14
13
12
11
60 61 62 63 64 65
350
Y
X
400
400
450
450
500550600
2.2TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
25
Using topographic mapsThe map below is a topographic map showing
contours, grid references and a legend. Observe the map carefully
and answer these questions.
1. What is the area reference for each of these points marked on
the map? The first one is done for you.
2. What are the grid references for the same points? A is
GR835486.
3. In which direction would you have to travel to reach point D
from:
(a) A is AR8348.(b) D(c) G(d) B
(e) E(f) H(g) C(h) F
(a) B? (b) C? (c) E?
4. Using the legend, what is at each of these points?
5. What is the height of the land at points B, C, F and G on the
contour map?
6. How high is Mount Florence? Which side of Mount Florence is
the steepest?
7. If you walked from the railway station to Mount Florence:(a)
would you be travelling uphill or downhill?(b) which part would be
the flattest section of
your journey?(c) how many metres would you have to walk to
reach Mount Florence?8. Which human features can be found at
the
following area references?(a) AR8640 (b) AR8940 (c) AR8441
9. Measure the distance between GR802440 and GR890453.
(a) A(b) B
(c) C(d) D
(e) E(f) F
TOOLBOX
A simple topographic map
Contour interval: 50 metresScale: 1 cm = 500 m
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
LEGEND
Built-up area
Railway
Lake
Swamp
Sealed road
Mountain
Stream
Height in metres250
E
G
BC
D
400
350
150
300
250
200
250
200
H
Railwaystation
Johnsville
F
N
Mt Florence
Dea
d Dog C
reek
A
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GEOactive 2
26
Interpreting contour patternsTopographic maps are used by many
people for different purposes. They are used by surveyors,
engineers, bushwalkers, real estate developers, geologists and by
anyone who simply wants to have a detailed knowledge of a
particular area. Many topographic maps were originally surveyed
for military purposes and were often referred to as military
maps.
As you become more familiar with contour lines, you will be able
to see the shape of the land just by looking at a contour map.
Common features such as hills, cliffs, plateaus, valleys, ridges,
spurs and saddles can be identified by their contour patterns. Some
of these are identified in the map and illustrations below.
TOOLBOX
1000 800
600400200
200
400
400600 80
0100
0
1160
1000
800
600
400
600
850
N
2000 400 metres
1100
An extensive area of flat land that is higher than the land
around it. Close contours surround a wide area that has no or few
contours.
PLATEAU
ROUND HILL
A high round piece of land, not as large as a mountain. Contours
form a circle or oval shape.
A high, steep, rocky slope formed by erosion or earth movements.
Contours are on top of or nearly on top of each other.
CLIFF
Low land between hills or mountains. It usually has a river
flowing through it. Contours form a U- or V-shape that points
towards high land.
VALLEY
An area of land that sticks out like a finger from the side of a
mountain or hill. Contours form a U- or V-shape that points away
from high land.
SPUR
SADDLE
Two areas of high land with a dip between them. It is shown by
two circular or sausage-shaped contours with a gap between
them.
Long narrow hilltop. Closely spaced contours form a long sausage
shape.
RIDGE
DELTA
OCEAN
2.3CONTOUR PATTERNS
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
27
Observe the Grampians map extract. Give the six-figure grid
reference for:
(a) a cliff (b) a valley (c) a spur (d) a saddle (e) a
ridge.
Topographic map extract of the Grampians, Victoria Commonwealth
of Australia, Geoscience Australia. All rights reserved.
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GEOactive 2
28
Katherine Gorge is located in Nitmiluk NationalPark in the
Northern Territory. Vertical faults inthe ancient sandstone plateau
have been deeplyeroded by the Katherine River, forming spec-tacular
landforms including Katherine Gorge.Volcanic activity also occurred
in this region inthe past. It has resulted in younger areas
ofharder volcanic rock intruding into the oldersandstone. Many
rapids and waterfalls haveformed along the river because the river
haseroded areas of harder rock more slowly than thesofter
sandstones.
Using vertical aerial photographs and topographic mapsVertical
aerial photographs and topographic maps are very useful tools for
the geographer. They give a clear visual impression of physical and
human features of the landscape. (Find out more about topographic
maps on pages 245.)
Observe the vertical aerial photograph and the topographic map
and answer the following questions.1. Draw a sketch map of the area
shown on the
aerial photograph using a colour key to show higher land, lower
land, rivers, gorges and the escarpment.
2. Which features stand out on the aerial photographs due to
shadows?
3. At what time do you think the aerial photograph was
taken?
4. Find Katherine Gorge on the topographic map.(a) What symbol
is used to show the gorge on the map?(b) Why has this symbol been
used instead of contour lines?
5. Give a six-figure grid reference for every waterfall on the
map.6. What type of vegetation dominates the region?7. In what
direction would you be walking if you travelled from
Mount Shepherd (GR244074) to the following places?(a) The rock
column (GR297054)(b) The river gauging station (GR194196)(c) The
rapids (GR276160)
8. Use the scale to calculate the straight-line distances for
each of the trips mentioned in question 7.
9. Name two human and two physical features of the environment
at AR2115.
Worksheets2.2 Pick a landform Location of Katherine Gorge
TOOLBOX
Vertical aerial photograph of Katherine Gorge
an Diemen
Chambers Bay
Port Darwin
Clarence S
trait
Anson Bay
Daly
Adela
ide
Rive
r
Rive
r
RiverRoper
Dundas StraitVa n D i e m e n
G u l f
A R A F U R A S E A
RiverAlligator
Sth
(Katherine Gorge)National Park
2.4UNDERSTANDING LANDFORMS:
KATHERINE GORGE
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
29
Topographic map of Katherine Gorge Commonwealth of Australia,
Geoscience Australia. All rights reserved.
-
GEOactive 2
30
The size and location of Australia ensures thatit has a wide
range of climates. These can beseen on the map of climatic zones.
Australia iswidely known as the dry continent. Around80 per cent of
Australia has a rainfall of lessthan 600 mm per year and 50 per
cent has lessthan 300 mm. Not only is the rainfall low but itis
highly variable and droughts are a commonoccurrence.
Australian climatic zones
The main reason Australia is so dry is that muchof the continent
lies in an area dominated byhigh pressure for most of the year.
High pressuresystems drift from west to east across the conti-nent
bringing dry, stable, sinking air. Thisresults in atmospheric
conditions that are notfavourable for rainfall (see the weather map
onthis page).
CLIMATE AND RAINFALL
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Of all the inhabited continents, Australia has the lowest
average yearly rainfall.
The movement of high pressure systems across the continent is
the main reason why Australia is so dry.
As the rainfall maps opposite show, the wettestparts of
Australia are the northern and easterncoastal areas and the west
coast of Tasmania.
The northern part of Australia generally has asummer rainfall
maximum. In summer, a troughof low pressure extends south from the
Equatorand brings moist, unstable air in north-westerlywinds over
the area (see the weather map).
Australia Eurasia NorthAmerica
Africa SouthAmerica
1800
1500
1200
900
600
300
0
Ave
rage
ann
ual r
ainf
all (
mm
)
Rainfall
H
2.5AUSTRALIAS PATTERN
OF CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
summers; dr
m all year; dr
pical wet and dr
m all year; dr
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
31
This can lead to widespread rain, particularlynear the coast.
This is often referred to as thenorth-west monsoon.
A summer low pressure trough brings rain to northern
Australia.
Also during the summer and autumn, tropicalcyclones can develop
off the coast of northernAustralia and bring heavy rain, especially
tocoastal areas. During winter much of the area isdominated by high
pressure systems that havemoved further north. Dry and stable air
from theinterior of Australia dominates the area andthere is little
rainfall.
The southern part of Australia generally has awinter rainfall
maximum. During winter, coldfronts in association with low pressure
systemsmove further north over this area and bring coolmoist air
and rain as the cold fronts passthrough. The heaviest rain falls on
the coastalmargins, including the west coast of Tasmania.
The passage of a cold front over southern Australia in winter
brings cool, moist air.
HH
Trough
H
H
L
The east coast receives rainfall throughout theyear. Much of
this rain is brought by moist east-erly winds. The heavier falls of
rain are generallyconfined to the coast and highlands as thewestern
side of the highlands lies in a rain-shadow area from the moist
easterlies.
Average rainfall in Australia for January and July
Average monthly rainfall (mm)
Perth
Darwin
Adelaide
Melbourne
Canberra
Sydney
Brisbane
Hobart
Perth
Darwin
Adelaide
Melbourne
Hobart
Canberra
Sydney
Brisbane
0 600 1200 km
0 600 1200 km
200 to 400
100 to 200
50 to 100
25 to 50
10 to 25
0 to 10
No rain
Over 400
January
July
N
N
Tropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Capricorn
JANUARY
JULY
-
GEOactive 2
32
The maps show the seasonal distribution oftemperature in
Australia for January and July.Variations in temperature occur for
severalreasons. One reason is that, at higher latitudes onthe
Earths curved surface, solar radiation (heatfrom the sun) is spread
more widely than at placesat lower latitudes (see the diagram). The
suns raysthat reach the Earth near the Equator (that is, atlow
latitudes) have a smaller area to heat than raysreaching the Earth
at higher latitudes. Thisexplains why Darwin experiences higher
tempera-tures than Melbourne (refer to the climatic graphs).
Places inland tend to be warmer in summerand cooler in winter
than places on the coast.This is because of the moderating effect
of theoceans on temperature. The oceans heat and coolmore slowly
than the land and their tempera-tures vary less throughout the
year. In winter,places near the ocean are warmer than placesinland,
whereas in summer they are cooler.
Average temperatures in Australia for January and July
TEMPERATURE
5000
1000 km
5000
1000 km
Average temperature (C)
20 to 30Average temperature (C)
10 to 20
10 to 20
20 to 30
Over 30
0 to 10
Januar y
July
N
N
Tropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Capricorn
JANUARY
JULY
Temperatures are higher at low latitudes (closer to the Equator)
because incoming solar radiation has a smaller area of the Earth to
heat.
The size and latitudinal extent of Australia hasresulted in a
wide variety of vegetation. The dryclimate has resulted in about 40
per cent of Aus-tralia being covered by grassland and shrubs.
Inhigher rainfall areas, trees dominate. In themedium to high
rainfall areas, much of thenatural vegetation has been cleared for
agricul-tural and urban development.
Australian vegetation
60N
0Equator
Solar radiation
Solar radiation
AUSTRALIAS PATTERN OF VEGETATION
Rainforest
Wet eucalypt forest
Dry eucalypt forest
Mallee scrub
Mulga scrub
Mallee and Mulga scrub
Brigalow scrub
Woodland
Mountain moor
Swamp meadow
Grassland savannah
Heath
Saltbush
Desert
Vegetation type
Dry grassland short wiry grass
Dry grassland long tussock grass
0 550
1100 km
N
Tropic of Capricorn
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
33
1. Observe the weather map showing the movement of high pressure
systems.(a) Describe the movement of high pressure systems
across Australia. (b) How do these high pressure systems
contribute to
Australias dryness?2. Observe the maps showing Australias
average
rainfall for January and July. (a) Moving in a line from
Adelaide to Darwin,
describe the changes in rainfall that occur in January.
(b) Moving in a line from Brisbane to Perth, describe the
changes in rainfall that occur in January.
(c) Moving in a line from Hobart to Darwin, describe the changes
in rainfall that occur in July.
(d) Using information in the text, and with reference to the
weather maps showing a summer low pressure trough and the passage
of a winter cold front, explain the main reasons for the
distribution of rainfall over Australia in January and July.
3. Observe the maps showing average temperatures in Australia in
January and July. With the aid of an atlas:(a) rank the following
towns and cities from the
warmest to the coolest for temperatures in January: Perth, Mount
Isa, Mount Gambier, Hobart
(b) rank the following from coldest to warmest for temperatures
in July: Alice Springs, Hobart, Darwin, Melbourne, Mackay
(c) explain why Alice Springs has higher average daily
temperatures in January than Mackay, even though Mackay has a
slightly lower latitude.
4. Imagine that you are a travel consultant advising agencies
around the world on travel in Australia. You have received an email
from a New York agency with a request for your advice on the
climatic conditions a group would experience if they were visiting
Perth, Alice Springs, Melbourne and Brisbane in August. Write a
reply to the email (500 words maximum).
5. Observe the map of Australian vegetation. Moving in a line
from Adelaide to Darwin, describe the changes in vegetation type.
Account for these changes.
6. Explain how climate affects the patterns of Australian
vegetation. To find out more about the relationship between climate
and vegetation, go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
click on the Climatic Zones weblink for this chapter.
Worksheets2.3 Choropleth mapping skills
Interpreting climatic graphsA climatic graph is a combination of
a bar graph and a line graph. Climatic graphs show the climateof a
place over a 12-month period. The line graph section always shows
average monthly temperature, and the bar graph represents average
monthly rainfall. Be careful to read from the correct scale when
studying climatic graphs. The right-hand scale represents average
rainfall in millimetres. The left-hand scale represents temperature
in degrees Celsius.
Observe the map of climatic zones on page 30 and the climatic
graphs here.1. Observe the climatic graph for
Alice Springs.(a) What type of climate is this?(b) Describe the
climate in
terms of temperature and rainfall.
2. Observe the climatic graphs for Perth, Darwin, Melbourne and
Brisbane. (a) What type of climate does
each of these cities have?(b) Describe the climate for
each of these cities including the following: temperature;
seasonal distribution of temperature; rainfall; seasonal
distribution of rainfall.
3. Explain why Perth and Darwin have a different seasonal
distribution of rainfall.
4. Observe the climatic graphs of Darwin and Melbourne. If you
were to visit each of these cities tomorrow, what sort of weather
would you expect to experience in each city? Check newspapers or go
to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the
Bureau of Meteorology weblink for this chapter. What is the
forecast for Darwin and Melbourne? Are these normal weather
conditions for this time of year?
10
20
0
30
40
0
100
200
400
300
ALICE SPRINGS
DNOSAJJMAMFJ
C
max.
min.
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
0
10
20
30
40
0DNOSAJJMAMFJ
DARWINC
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
max.
min.
0
10
20
30
40
0DNOSAJJMAMFJ
max.
min.
BRISBANEC mm
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
0
10
20
30
40
0DNOSAJJMAMFJ
MELBOURNE mmC
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
max.
min.
10
20
0
30
40
0
100
200
400
300
PERTH
DNOSAJJMAMFJ
C
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
max.
min.
TOOLBOX
-
GEOactive 2
34
Weather maps, or synoptic charts, can appearrather complicated.
But when you know what thelines and symbols mean you will find
these mapseasy to use.
One of the most important features of the atmos-phere and one
that is very frequently measured isair pressure, or the weight of
the air. All air hasweight. While we cant feel it because we are
con-stantly surrounded by it, sensitive instrumentscalled
barometers can measure the air pressure.Atmospheric air pressure
measurements aregiven in hectopascals (hPa). Several times a
day,air pressure is read at various weather stationsaround the
world. Many observers around Aus-tralia measure air pressure and
other aspects ofthe weather and send them to the national
andregional centres of the Bureau of Meteorology.These observations
are combined with othersmade from satellites, aircraft, ships at
sea and inother countries to prepare weather maps.
The main lines that we see on weather mapsare called isobars.
Isobars are lines joining placesof equal pressure.
Highs and lowsThe average weight of air at sea level is 1013
hPa.If air pressure measures more than 1013 hPa, it isusually an
area of sinking air and is generally anarea of high pressure. High
pressure systems areoften called anticyclones. You can see from
thetable opposite what a high pressure system lookslike and the
anticlockwise direction the air travelsin a high pressure system.
The moving air, knownas wind, always moves out of a high and into a
lowpressure system.
If air pressure measures below 1013 hPa, it isusually an area of
rising air, and is generally anarea of low pressure. Low pressure
systems areoften called cyclones. You can see in our table whata
low pressure system looks like and the clockwisedirection the air
travels in a low pressure system.
Pressure systems generally move from west toeast as they move
across Australia and around theworld. As they move they change in
shape andoften change their latitudinal position.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Sometimes people confuse pressure systems withair masses. An air
mass is a large section of theatmosphere containing air with a
similar tem-perature and moisture content. A line drawn on aweather
map to show where two different airmasses meet is called a front.
There are two maintypes of fronts: cold fronts and warm fronts.
When we look at the direction of winds on aweather map we can
work out if temperatures arewarmer, cooler or about normal for the
time ofyear. In Australia, a northerly wind (coming fromthe north)
means warmer than normal tempera-tures and a southerly wind, cooler
than normaltemperatures. Easterlies and westerlies meantemperatures
that are around normal.
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
WINDS AND TEMPERATURE
SAMPLE STUDYSnowfalls to the south and central ranges of
south-eastern AustraliaThe weather map below for 30 July 2003 shows
a cold front moving into the Tasman Sea that has brought a cold
snap to south-eastern Australia. Cold and moist air from the ocean
to the south of Australia moved across Tasmania, Victoria and New
South Wales bringing extensive snowfalls to the higher parts of the
tablelands and ranges. Over 40 centimetres of snow fell in the
Snowy Mountains and there were falls of up to 20 centimetres over
the Central Tablelands. While such snowfalls are welcome news for
skiers during the winter months, they often create difficult
conditionsfor graziers who must take early precautions to protect
their sheep from the very cold weather. Weather map, 30 July
2003
HIGH
LOWLOW LOW
1028
1024
1020
1016
1012
10081004
2.6UNDERSTANDINGWEATHER MAPS
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
35
1. What is another name for a weather map?2. List three
differences between a low and a high
pressure system.3. What does a weather map indicate when:
(a) isobars are close together?(b) isobars are well apart?
4. What do we call the lines that are drawn on weather maps to
separate different air masses?
5. Observe the weather map below.
(a) Estimate the wind direction in Adelaide. Is it windy or
calm?
(b) Identify the pressure systems at A, B and C.(c) Identify the
types of fronts at D and E.
AB
E
C
D
1012
1012
1020
1020
1024
1024
1028
1028
1032
1032
1016
1016
1016
(d) Describe the temperatures at Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne,
Adelaide and Perth, using the terms warmer, cooler, about normal
for the time of the year.
(e) Name any of these cities in which you think it could be
raining and give reasons for your answer.
(f) Which capital city is about to experience a cool change?
6. Observe the sample study.(a) What is the central pressure of
the high
pressure system over South Australia?(b) What separates this
high and the low further
west to the south of Western Australia?(c) Using your own words,
describe the weather
being experienced over south-eastern Australia. Make sure you
mention wind strength and direction, cloud cover, precipitation
including snowfall and the temperature for this time of the
year.
(d) Why did the weather situation bring widespread
snowfalls?
7. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on
the Weather Satellite weblink for this chapter. Select one
satellite image and describe the pattern of cloud over
Australia.
Worksheets2.4 Watch the weather
TOOLBOXInterpreting synoptic charts
Symbol Name Description Associated weather
Isobars Lines joining places of equal pressure
The closer the isobars are, the stronger the winds.
High pressure system
Area of sinking air Generally fine weather. Winds rotate around
these systems in an anticlockwise direction.
Low pressure system
Area of rising air Generally cloudy weather and a good chance of
rain. Winds rotate around these systems in a clockwise
direction.
Tropical cyclone
Area of rapidly rising air Torrential rain, very strong and
destructive winds in a clockwise direction. Given a name (e.g.
Tropical Cyclone Pamela)
Cold front
Separates warm and cold air, with the cold air behind the
front
Fall in temperature, may bring rain and storms. Front moves in
the direction of the arrowheads.
Warm front
Separates warm and cold air, with the warm air behind the
front
Increase in temperature; may bring light showers. Uncommon in
Australia.
102010181016
10181016
1014
H
100810
101012
L
9981000
1002
T.C. Pamela
-
GEOactive 2
36
Natural resources are the wealth supplied bynature that is
available for human use. Naturalresources include water, soil,
forests, fish, energyand mineral deposits, and wildlife and
naturalscenery. Australia has a greater value of naturalresources
per head of population than any othercountry in the world. The main
reason is that wehave a small population in a very large
country.The United States and China, for example, are farbetter
endowed with natural resources than Aus-tralia, but they have much
larger populations.
Australia is rich in energy resources. On theworld energy scene,
Australia is: the worlds main exporter of black coal a major
uranium exporter a major exporter of liquefied natural gas.
At White Cliffs in far-western New South Wales, solar reflectors
have the potential to make a significant contribution to the towns
power needs. The installation is already the source of power for
the small towns street lights, post office, hospital, school and
community centre.
Australia has abundant quantities of bothblack and brown coal
with about 8 per cent of theworld total of black coal and about 15
per cent ofthe worlds brown coal. The main black coalfieldsare in
the Hunter Valley/Sydney Basin area ofNew South Wales and the Bowen
Basin inQueensland. The main brown coalfields arelocated in
Victorias La Trobe Valley. AlthoughAustralia has limited supplies
of crude oil, vast
ENERGY
supplies of natural gas have been discovered,particularly in the
North West Shelf area off thecoast of Western Australia. Australias
uraniumresources are among the largest in the world.
Research and development of renewableresources is an important
step towards a sus-tainable future. In Australia, there is
consider-able potential for the use of renewable energysources,
such as solar and wind energy.
Australia is also rich in mineral resources. ThePilbara region
in Western Australia has some ofthe largest reserves of iron ore in
the world.Large reserves of bauxite and aluminium exist atWeipa in
Queensland and the Gove Peninsula inthe Northern Territory.
Australia also producesmany other minerals, including silver,
copper,nickel and tin. The main goldfields are located inWestern
Australia.
Australia is: the worlds largest exporter of iron ore,
bauxite,
lead, diamonds, zinc ores and mineral sands the worlds
second-largest exporter of alumina the worlds third-largest
exporter of gold.
Mount Tom Price is a huge iron ore mine in the Pilbara region in
Western Australia. To learn more, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the Mining
weblink for this chapter.
MINERALS
2.7AUSTRALIAS PATTERNS OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
37
AU STRALIA
Macquarie Island (1997)
Heard Island and McDonald Islands (1997)
N
0 250 500 km
Shark Bay(1991)
Great Barrier Reef(1981)
Fraser Island(1992)
Tasmanian Wilderness(1982)
KakaduNationalPark(1981)
Lord HoweIsland Group
(1982)
(1982)
Central EasternRainforest Reserves
(1986)
Wet Tropics ofQueensland
(1988)
Willandra LakesRegion (1981)
Uluru Kata TjutaNational Park
(1987)
Australian Fossil Mammal Sites(Riversleigh) (1994)
Australian Fossil Mammal Sites(Naracoorte) (1994)
Royal Exhibition Buildingand Carlton Gardens (2004)
Greater BlueMountains Area(2000)
Year of listing
PurnululuNational Park(2003)
Australia has generally poor soils, especially whencompared with
those found on other continents,such as North America and Europe.
Most Aus-tralian soils are low in nutrients, and in some partsof
the continent, particularly the more arid areas,high salt content
is also a problem. Most parts ofAustralia are suitable for only
sheep and cattlegrazing rather than intensive agriculture, due
tothe combination of low rainfall and poor soils.
There are patches of good soil scatteredthroughout the
continent. These include soilsformed on rock of volcanic origin,
such as those onthe Darling Downs in Queensland and aroundOrange in
New South Wales. Alluvial soils arealso found in river valleys,
such as those along theClarence River in New South Wales and
aroundthe Margaret River in Western Australia.
Australia, with its unique flora and fauna, hasmany places of
great natural beauty. The spec-tacular scenery attracts tourists
from all over theworld. Several places in Australia are includedon
the World Heritage List. This means thatthey are recognised as
being of global importancebecause they are places of great natural
or cul-tural significance. For example, Kakadu NationalPark is
recognised as a World Heritage areabecause of its natural
significance (includingexceptional natural beauty and
biologicaldiversity) and cultural significance (includingAboriginal
rock art and ceremonialsites). Other places of unique
naturalscenery are the Great Barrier Reefand the Blue
Mountains.
SOILS
NATURAL SCENERY
Apart from Antarctica which has no trees Australia is the worlds
least forested continent.The prevailing vegetation in Australia is
wood-land and shrubland. Before European settlementonly about nine
per cent of Australia was for-ested. Today, about five per cent of
the country isforested. Even though Australia exports timberand
timber products, large amounts of timber,particularly softwoods,
have to be imported.
1. Why is Australia considered to be rich in natural
resources?
2. In which natural resources is Australia rich?3. In which
natural resources is Australia comparatively
poor?4. Use a blank outline map of Australia as a starting
point to create a poster or PowerPoint presentation about
Australias World Heritage sites. Search for information in your
library, in magazines or go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the World
Heritage weblink for this chapter.
5. Research one important natural resource.(a) Where is it
located?(b) What is the size or amount of the resource?(c) How is
it used?(d) Describe the current state or condition of the
resource.
FORESTS
Australias World Heritage sites
-
GEOactive 2
38
The long geographic isolation of Australia fromother continents
has resulted in an exceptionalvariety of plant and animal life.
From arid cen-tral Australia to the tropical forests of
northQueensland, no other country has such a variety.More than 80
per cent of Australias flora andfauna is found nowhere else in the
world. Theestimated number of native and introducedspecies living
in Australia about one million is more than twice the number of
species inNorth America and Europe combined.
Due to the generally low amounts of rainfall andits
unreliability, most of the flora in Australia ischaracterised by
drought-resistant qualities. TheAustralian land flora comprise over
12 000 speciesand many of these are endemic to Australia that is,
they occur naturally in Australia andnowhere else in the world. For
example, most ofAustralias 500 different species of Eucalyptus(gum
trees) are endemic. Some plant species arenot only unique to
Australia but also unique tosmall areas of Australia. For example,
about 75per cent of the flowering trees and shrubs in thesouth-west
corner of Australia have been found tobe unique to this area.
Grass trees (Xanthorrhea sp.) are among the many plant species
that are endemic they occur naturally only in Australia.
UNIQUE FLORA
The distribution of vegetation in Australia isstrongly
influenced by climate. Only about five percent of Australia is
forested. Most of this forest veg-etation occurs along the wetter
eastern coast andhighlands area. The forests are dominated by
euca-lypt trees, which are tough and durable and able towithstand
the frequent fires that occur. As rainfalldecreases inland, trees
decrease in number andbecome smaller and further apart. Eucalypts
arestill the main types of tree found there. Furtherinland, as the
climate becomes increasingly dry,grasslands and shrubs begin to
dominate.
Most of the worlds marsupials are found inAustralia. They
include the bandicoot, koala,kangaroo, wallaby, wombat and the
Tasmaniandevil. Marsupials have pouches in which theysuckle and
carry their young. Marsupial babiesare born in a tiny immature
state and completemuch of their development in the pouch.
Despite the number of unique marsupials inAustralia, most of our
native animals are not mar-supials. Most are placentals, which
means that theyoung remain in the womb for much longer
thanmarsupials and there is no pouch. Australian pla-cental animals
include bats and rodents and suchmarine mammals as seals, dugongs
and dolphins.
Most mammals reproduce by giving birth to liveyoung. Monotremes
are unique in being the onlymammals that lay eggs. There are only
threespecies of monotreme in the world: the platypusand two species
of echidna. One echidna speciesoccurs in New Guinea but the
platypus and theother species of echidna are uniquely
Australian.
Loss of species in Australia has been largelycaused by habitat
destruction and degradationand this problem is still occurring.
Because mostAustralian species are found nowhere else, wehave a
special responsibility to conserve them.
There are the same number of species ofreptiles in an average
Australian back-yard as there are in the whole of England.
UNIQUE FAUNA
2.8AUSTRALIAS UNIQUE
FLORA AND FAUNA
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
39
1. Define the following terms: endemic, marsupial,
monotreme.
2. What is a major reason for Australias variety of unusual
plant and animal life?
3. What is the main characteristic of flora in Australia?4.
Account for the distribution of vegetation in
Australia.5. Select two animals and explain how they have
adapted to survive in the desert.6. Use your knowledge of the
evolution of the
Australian continent to explain why echidnas are found in New
Guinea as well as in Australia.
7. Create a colourful poster, web page or report that explains
the adaptations of flora and fauna to the Australian
environment.(a) Select two species one animal or plant from
inland areas and one animal or plant from coastal areas.
(b) Use your library or the Internet to research the animals or
plants.
(c) Include a sketch and label it to draw attention to the
appearance and main characteristics of the animals or plants.
(d) Include a location map and interesting statistics.(e) Write
a paragraph describing the habitat and
some of the characteristics that indicate how these animals or
plants have adapted to their environments. Include any possible
factors that might affect their survival as a species.
To find out more about Australias plants and animals, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the Flora
and Fauna weblinks for this chapter.
Budgerigars feed on seeds produced by native plants. They are
nomads, and in large flocks of a few thousand or more they follow
the flowering cycles.
Honey ants store food and water in their abdomen, which swells
up like a plastic bubble. When food is scarce, they vomit up the
nectar to feed the colony.
The spinifex hoppingmouse does not sweat,its droppings are dry
andits urine is very concentrated. A female feeds her young
onconcentrated milk and drinks their urine.
Spinifex leaves roll into tight cylinders during the
hot desert day to reduce the surface area exposed
to the sun. Spinifex roots spread deep and wide to
pick up both ground and surface water.
Death adders are commonly found at
night, soaking up the heat from roads. Rock wallabies rest
in
shady caves and crevices during the hottest part of the day.
When no grasses are available, they can eat leaves, bark and
roots.
Bilbies always stay close to one of several burrows they dig.
These protect them from desert heat and predators.
South Australias desert spadefoot toad hibernates in burrows for
most of the year, coming out to breed and lay eggs only when it
rains.
The marsupial mole is blind because it has no need for eyesight
when living underground. It moves underground by swimming through
the sand.
Mulga have specially shaped leaves and branches that funnel
rainfall to the base of the tree.
The camel has a double row of eyelashes on each eye to keep out
glare and grit. It stores energy as fat in its hump and can swallow
around 100 litres of water at a time.
Termites live in tall mounds of clay. They are protected inside
the mound from the hot, dry desert winds.
Life is rather tough in a desert environment. Desert plants and
animals face extremes of temperature, food shortages and a lack of
readily available water. To survive, they have had to adapt to
these harsh conditions.
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GEOactive 2
40
The Daintree rainforest is located about two-hoursdrive north of
Cairns in Queensland. The northernsection near Cape Tribulation
borders the GreatBarrier Reef. The Daintree River flows through
thesouthern section. The Daintree is part of the WetTropics World
Heritage site, listed in 1988 becauseit satisfied the following
four criteria: it shows major changes in the Earths evolution it
shows ongoing evolution it has outstanding aesthetic value it is
the home of endangered species, for
example, the cassowary.Much of the Daintree is inaccessible
wilderness
in the higher areas, but very accessible in the hillsand river
flats of the lower eastern parts. It has oneof the wettest and
warmest climates in Australia.Over 400 species of trees have been
identified inthe Daintree and a substantial number are foundonly
within its borders. There are many otherferns, orchids, palms,
mosses and lichens.
Over the last 200 years, human activity hasreduced the Daintree
rainforest to one-fifth of itsoriginal area. This has resulted in
plant andanimal species becoming endangered and extinct.The
rainforest has been cleared for logging,mining, farming, roads and
tourism.
AUSTRALIA
146E
16SCape Tribulation
Cow Bay
Mossman
Port Douglas
Cairns
Daintree River
DaintreeNationalPark
N
0 25 50 km
WorldHeritage area
DaintreeNational Park
The Daintree National Park is located within the Wet Tropics
World Heritage area.
THE DISAPPEARING RAINFOREST
Clearing the rainforest has resulted in: changes to food webs
and ecosystems the lower storey receiving more sunlight,
allowing eucalypts to enter the rainforest less leaf litter and
therefore fewer nutrients fertilisers from farms running off into
the sea,
killing coral the invasion of exotic plants and feral animals
more fires.
Some rare animals live in the forest, includingtwo species of
tree kangaroos and the Daintreering-tailed possum. The rainforest
houses theworlds largest moth and the smallest bat. Thecassowary is
endangered, with only about 50 birdsremaining in the Daintree.
There are 1.5 millionidentified species of animals in the Daintree.
It isestimated there are six million unidentifiedspecies of
animals.
Humans have introduced animals into theenvironment, such as cats
and pigs, which killnative animals or destroy the native habitat.
Thefruit bat has been affected by the introduced paral-ysis tick.
Introduced animals also spread diseases.
In the lowland rainforest areas of the Daintree,sometimes
referred to as jungle, along the riversand creeks there is a large
variety of animalsand plants. Two of the best known are
crocodilesand mangroves.
CrocodilesOnly one type of crocodile inhabits coastal
north-eastern Queensland: the dangerous estuarinecrocodile. It is
the worlds largest crocodile. Thesecrocodiles inhabit the tidal
rivers and creeks butcan occur kilometres upstream in fresh
water.They take a variety of prey such as crabs, fish,birds,
wallabies and domestic dogs, and humanson rare occasions. Larger
crocodiles are scaven-gers and can walk several hundred metres
fromwater and drag back a dead animal. They arecannibals and eat
many smaller crocodiles.
ANIMALS IN THE RAINFOREST
CROCODILES AND MANGROVES
2.9FLORA AND FAUNA OF
THE DAINTREE RAINFOREST
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
41
Estuarine crocodile in the Daintree
MangrovesMangrove forests are dense communities of
plants,consisting of different species of trees, creepers,vines,
lichen, algae and sea grasses. They live inthe saline waterlogged
soils where conditions fluc-tuate between high and low tide. They
form analmost impenetrable maze of root systems alongthe shores of
the waterways. Mangrove ecosystemshave important functions in the
rainforest: They are vital spawning grounds for fish, crabs
and prawns. They support a large variety of specialist life
forms such as birds, mammals and insects. Flying foxes or fruit
bats commonly feed on
blossoms and establish camps. They protect the coastline from
strong winds
and erosion. They trap sediments that would otherwise be
washed into the sea, thus protecting manyfragile marine
habitats.
The mangroves of the Daintree are an essen-tial part of the
habitat of estuarine crocodilesthat feed on the rich sources of
food within thewaterways.
1. Why was the Wet Tropics placed on the World Heritage
List?
2. Describe the climate of the Daintree.3. List the adverse
results of clearing the rainforest.4. Why do estuarine crocodiles
thrive in the lowland
forest of the Daintree?5. Explain why mangroves are so important
in the
lowland areas.6. Read the story of Old Gummy. Imagine the
government decided estuarine crocodiles were dangerous and
should be eliminated. Outline an argument to save Old Gummy.
7. Create a web page with weblinks about endangered Daintree
wildlife. To get started, go to
www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the Daintree
weblink for this chapter.
There have been 11 fatal crocodile attacksin Australia in the
past 20 years. Croco-diles are unpredictable creatures. The keyto
understanding crocodiles is that theyare waters-edge predators and
are veryopportunistic. When there are oppor-tunities for prey, they
take them.
SAMPLE STUDYOld GummyOld Gummy is an estuarine crocodile that
isprobably over sixty years old. He is nearly sixmetres long and
weighs close to two tonnes. OldGummy is the dominant crocodile in a
stretchof the lower Daintree River. He has a harem ofabout ten
female crocodiles with whom hemates. Old Gummy prevents other males
frommating with his females by attacking andusually killing them.
Like most old crocodileshe bears the scars of many battles. He has
lostall of his teeth from encounters when he hascrushed his
victims. Once he targets a victim,he swims unseen below the water
surface toattack. He explodes upwards from the waterand grabs the
animal in his massive jaws. Hethen drags his prey below the water,
thrashingand rolling over and over in a death roll todrown the
victim. His own offspring are notsafe from attack, and the males
are killedbefore they are large enough to be a threat.
-
GEOactive 2
42
Using area and grid referencesGrid lines running up and down
topographic maps (northsouth) are called eastings because the
numbers increase the further east they are. Lines running across
the map (eastwest) are called northings because the numbers
increase the further north they are. When stating location, the
eastings are given first, then the northings.
An area reference is a four-figure number that tells us the grid
square in which to find a feature. A grid reference is a six-figure
number that shows an exact point in the grid square. The third and
sixth figures represent one-tenth of the distance between the two
grid numbers. However, these divisions are not written on the map,
so they must be estimated.
Observe the section of the Rumula map.1. Identify the main form
of vegetation in:
(a) AR3566 (b) AR3255 (c) AR3870.2. What is the main form of
land use in:
(a) AR3869? (b) AR2569?Can you suggest reasons for this form of
land use?
3. What are the main landforms in:(a) AR3365? (b) AR3963? (c)
AR2752?
4. Using the terms flat, gentle or steep, describe the gradients
in:(a) AR3858 (b) AR3770 (c) AR2159.
5. Locate Lyons Lookout (GR284704).(a) What type of landform is
it?(b) What is the altitude of this landform?(c) Describe what you
would observe if you stood
on this landform and looked:(i) north (ii) south-west.
6. Identify the main built features at:(a) GR225643 (b) GR241631
(c) GR216551.
7. What is the distance from:(a) GR210604 to 231628?(b) GR222540
to 214570?(c) GR379691 to 356718?(d) What built features would you
observe on the
western side of the road as you travelled between the points
in:(i) (a)? (ii) (b)? (iii) (c)?
TOOLBOX
The Daintree includes more than one type of rainforest. Here
mangrove forest can be seen at the waters edge, with inland lowland
rainforest rising behind it.
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CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
43Topographic map of the Rumula area of the Daintree
-
GEOactive 2
44
Use the map opposite to answer the following questions.1. What
is the distance from Denham to Monkey
Mia? a. 20 kilometres c. 32 kilometresb. 26 kilometres d. 37
kilometres
2. What is the distance from Denham to Hamelin by road?a. 105
kilometres c. 131 kilometresb. 111 kilometres d. 141 kilometres
3. Wooramel Seagrass Bank is the worlds largest seagrass meadow,
stretching 129 kilometres from Gladstone Bay almost toa. Long
Point. c. Carnarvon.b. Bush Bay. d. Dubaut Point.
4. In what direction would a boat travel from Carnarvon to Dorre
Island?a. West c. North-westb. East d. South-west
Use the photographs and map to answer the following questions.5.
What have tourists to the south-eastern tip of Shark
Bay come to see?a. Dugongs c. Dolphinsb. Stromatolites d.
Burrowing bettong
6. What have tourists to the eastern shore of the Peron
Peninsula come to see?a. Dugongs c. Dolphinsb. Stromatolites d.
Burrowing bettong
7. What important habitat is on Bernier and Dorre islands?a.
Cliffs c. Sandhillsb. Mountains d. Trees
8. Outline why Bernier and Dorre islands are home to a number of
endangered species.
9. Suggest three reasons why Shark Bay was given World Heritage
status in 1991 as a unique environment worth preserving.
Broadsheet: Shark Bay
Once common over southern Western Australia, the banded
hare-wallaby is now restricted to scrub on Bernier and Dorre
islands in Shark Bay. Its decline was mainly due to the spread of
farming. The last mainland sighting was in 1906.
The burrowing bettong was once found over most of mainland
Australia. The introduction of foxes, rabbits and the use of poison
grain have all contributed to its decline. It is now found only on
Bernier and Dorre islands in Shark Bay and on Barrow and Boodie
islands.
Once abundant in the shrubs and sand ridges of arid Australia,
the western barred bandicoot is now found only in the sandhills on
Bernier and Dorre islands. It is thought the introduction of feral
goats and pigs, rabbits, foxes and cats was responsible for its
decline.
The largest population of dugong in the world is found in Shark
Bay where they graze on the seagrass.
Stromatolites growing in Hamelin Pool are among the oldest forms
of life on Earth.
-
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUE
45
Carnarvon-Gasc
oyne
Jun cti on Ro
ad
Northw
est Coastal
Highw
ay
Usele
ss Lo
op
Road
Tamala
HamelinOverlanderRoadhouse
Carbla
Nanga BayCaravan Park
Carrarang
Useless Loop
Denham
Monkey MiaPeron
Faure
Dirk Hartog
Yaringa
WooramelRoadhouse
Wooramel
Callagiddy
Carnarvon
DisappointmentLoop
Henri Freycinet
Harbour
Hamelin Pool
Gladstone Bay
Herald Loop
Lharidon
Bight
Red Cliff Bay
Hopeless Reach
DisappointmentReach
Faure Flat
Boat Haven Loop
Use
less
Lo
op
Blin
d S
trai
t
South Passage
Freycinet
Reach
Crayfish Bay
Thunder BayBlowholes
False EntranceBlowholes
HeraldHeights
Herald Bay
Louisa Bay
Little Lagoon
Seagrass
Bank
Herald BightLake Montbazin
Broadhurst Bight
Turtle Bay
Naturaliste Channel Wooram
el
Gascoyne
River
Bush Bay
SHARK BAY
Denham
Sound
Big Lagoon
Depuch Loop
Cape Ronsard
Cape CoutureCape Boullanger
Quoin Bluff North
Castle Point
Cape St Cricq
Long PointCape Inscription
Cape Levillain
Quoin Head
Steep Point
Cape Peron North
Guichenault PointHerald Bluff
Cape Lesueur
Quoin Bluff South
Notch Point
Cape BellefinCape Heirisson
Eagle Bluff
Dubaut Point
Petit Point
Goulet Bluff
Garden Point
Giraud Point
Zuytdorp
Cliffs
Flint Cliff
Booldah Well
Yaringa Point
Kopke Point
Faure Island
Pelican Island
Dorre
Island
Bernier
Island
DIRK
HARTOG
ISLAND
+Mount Dorrigo113 m
SaltEvaporationPonds
SaltEvaporationPonds
HEIRISSONPRONG
BELLEFINPRONG
PERON
PENINSULAMiddle Bluff
Zuytdorp Point
SalutationIsland
ProposedAirstrip
26
19
18
14
19
20
15
6
70
9
17
39
27
1
1
Highway
Airstrip
Major road
Track
6Road, Distance in kilometres
0 25 50 km
Weste rnAus t ra l i a
PERTH
to Port Hedland
to Perth
McNeillClaypan
CARRARANGPENINSULA
False Entrance
N
113E 114E
25S
26S
114E113E
26S
25S
Shark Bay, on the west coast of Western Australia
At Monkey Mia, where hand-feeding of dolphins is a popular
attraction, tourist numbers increased from 10 000 in 1984 to over
200 000 in 1998.
ContentsChapter 2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA
UNIQUEGlossary2.1 MAJOR LANDFORMS AND DRAINAGE BASINSMAJOR LANDFORM
REGIONSSAMPLE STUDYActivitiesRIVERS AND LAKESGEOskills TOOLBOX
2.2 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPSCONTOURSLEGENDAREA AND GRID
REFERENCESGEOskills TOOLBOX
2.3 CONTOUR PATTERNSGEOskills TOOLBOX
2.4 UNDERSTANDING LANDFORMS: KATHERINE GORGEGEOskills
TOOLBOX
2.5 AUSTRALIA'S PATTERN OF CLIMATE AND VEGETATIONCLIMATE AND
RAINFALLPRESSURE SYSTEMSTEMPERATUREAUSTRALIA'S PATTERN OF
VEGETATIONActivitiesGEOskills TOOLBOX
2.6 UNDERSTANDING WEATHER MAPSPRESSURE SYSTEMSAIR MASSES AND
FRONTSWINDS AND TEMPERATURESAMPLE STUDYGEOskills TOOLBOX
2.7 AUSTRALIA'S PATTERNS OF NATURAL
RESOURCESENERGYMINERALSSOILSNATURAL SCENERYFORESTSActivities
2.8 AUSTRALIA'S UNIQUE FLORA AND FAUNAUNIQUE FLORAUNIQUE
FAUNAGEOfactsActivities
2.9 FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE DAINTREE RAINFORESTTHE DISAPPEARING
RAINFORESTANIMALS IN THE RAINFORESTCROCODILES AND
MANGROVESGEOfactsSAMPLE STUDYActivitiesGEOskills TOOLBOX
Broadsheet: Shark BayAnswersIndexBlackline MastersBack to
Start
whl: World Heritage List: areas designated as being of global
importance for conservation and studyunique: unique: unlike
anything else; the only one of its typetect: tectonic: refers to
the forces or conditions within the earth that cause movements of
the crust such as earthquakes, folds, faults and volcanoesweather:
weathering: the breakdown of bare rock by water and temperature
changestopo: topography: physical features of an area of land - its
height and shaperego: regolith: the layer of broken rock and soil
on top of the solid rock of the Earth's crust; also known as mantle
rockmass: mass movement: the movement of rock and soil down a slope
due to gravitydeposition: deposition: the laying down of material
carried by rivers, wind, ice, ocean currents or wavesdrain:
drainage basin: the area of land that feeds a river with water or
the whole area of land drained by a river and its
tributarieserosion: erosion: the wearing away of soil and rock by
natural elements such as wind and waterclimate: climate: the
long-term variation in the atmosphere, mainly relating to
temperature and precipitationdrought: drought: a period of below
average precipitationsynoptic: synoptic chart: weather map that
uses isobars and other symbols to show the movement of weather
systems and patterns of temperature and rainfalliso: isobars: lines
drawn on a map joining places of equal barometric pressurerenew:
renewable resources: resources that can be replaced in a relatively
short amount of time (for example, trees)species: species: a group
of plants or animals of the same kind, able to breed with each
othermono: monotreme: mammal that lays eggs; the only species are
the platypus and echidnamarsup: marsupial: a mammal that keeps and
feeds its young in a pouch for a few months after birthendem:
endemic: native to a particular area and found nowhere elseeco:
ecosystem: a system formed by the interactions of the living
organisms (plants, animals and humans) and physical elements of
environmentssalin: salinity: the presence of salt on the land
surface, in soils or rocks, or dissolved in water in our rivers or
ground watermonsoon: monsoon: the seasonal change in wind direction
that is experienced in much of the tropics