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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION PART I : IDENTIFICATION
1. What is a project? A project is a proposal prepared for
yourself, for someone else, for a whole community or even for a
country. It involves making plans for the future and describing
them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there
is nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or
determination to undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define
this which has led us to make the various suggestions in this
publication. Identifying a project involves recognizing a need in a
certain place and for a given group of people. A proper
understanding of the target group is very important. 2. Checking
out the context Proper research is the prime necessity for any
project. If this is not taken sufficiently seriously, the project
proposed is often ill-adapted to the situation it is designed to.
The result of this can be failure even though a large amount of
money may have been invested. Here we are going to concentrate on
the initial steps necessary to identify and properly understand the
environment of the project in order to avoid these pitfalls. Thus
the study of the context of a project is like laying the
foundations of a house : the firmer they are, the more solid and
durable the house. 3. Researching the project The aim of this
research is better to understand the field of operation of the
project and the people for whom the project is designed. The
detailed planning of the project then needs to be done in an
intelligent way, which means not disrupting local traditions,
customs and structures. In instances where the need has been
clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless
necessary to try out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving
only a sample of the population. This will test the relevance of
the ideas which need to be developed in the process of putting the
project together. The length of time spent on research depends on
the amount of time needed getting to know the context of the
project plus the time taken to do the necessary detailed planning.
Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the needs are
constantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the
proposals are free of misunderstandings and hasty judgments and
that the project still corresponds to the real needs of the people
and has not been drawn up in a way that causes the people for whom
it was conceived not to be interested in it. The work done during
this first phase should give precise information on local needs,
customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural and
economic context. This information is essential and needs to be
systematically studied throughout the period of identification and
planning. NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget
that it may need also to interest a funding organization. It is
advisable therefore to try to relate as far as possible the
interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations from
which funding is sought.
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UNIT 1
PART TWO : PREPARATION AND WORKING OUT OF THE PROJECT
DOCUMENT
Main criteria used by United Nations agencies. In Part One, we
have seen that to identify a project is not enough simply to have a
good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to
the needs of the local population. Once this is clear, it must be
certain that the project fits into the social, economic, cultural
and political context and has a good chance of being carried
through (in terms of finance, organization, manpower and
availability of equipment and materials). When this task has been
completed, the project organizer will than try to link the
information obtained with the original idea of the project. This
may mean reformulating his or her ideas before defining the project
strategy. After this comes the process of preparing and working out
the project document. The conception and preparation of a project
document that will be submitted to a national or international
funding organization should follow certain guidelines without which
it would have no hope of being considered. The initiator of the
project should realize that this document is his first real
introduction to the potential founders and forms the basis on which
future agreements will be made. Care must be taken with the
presentation and content of the document it must respond to
whatever questions the funding organization might ask before
deciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also
particularly important that the document is drawn up in a precise
fashion, presenting clearly and concisely in a logical order the
details of the project and its proposed development. Composition of
the project document A project document can be drawn up in the
following sections: 1. General Introduction
a. Context and justification b. Population targeted c.
Institutional framework
2. Methods and strategies a. Development objective / overall aim
b. Immediate objective/s c. Proposed strategy d. Products e.
Activities planned f. Work plan
3. Available resources; Aid requested; Budget a. Available
resources b. Aid requested c. Budget
4. Follow up, Report; Evaluation a. Follow up b. Report c.
Evaluation
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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT
Composition of the Title Page The following should be featured
clearly on this page : - the title of the project - the project
number (if you have submitted more than one project) - the field of
activity - the location (city, region, country) - the tentative
starting date and duration - the name(s) of organization(s)
carrying out the project - the name(s) of the funding
organization(s) - the name(s) of the organizations associated with
the project - an estimate of the total budget - the total amount of
funding sought (indicate the currency) - the name of the
organization submitting the project (or the name and title of
the
person authorized to do so) - the date of submission. GENERAL
INTRODUCTION 1. Context of the project This sub-section should
explain in a few lines the project's context and the environment in
which it will be carried out. The information given should explain
: - the origin of the project (considering the social, economic,
cultural, political,
historical and geographical conditions) - the problem which the
project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the
project - the position of the organization proposing the project
and of the local authorities
regarding this problem or situation - what previous steps have
been taken and what has been their effect. EXAMPLE : A context
presented by a CCIVS member organization for a project in
Bangladesh. With a population of about one billion, south Asian
Countries are mostly economically underdeveloped. About 50% of
these people live below the poverty line and the same percentage of
them are illiterate. There is a wide gap between overall
development needs and available resources. There are many social
workers and volunteers in these countries who are interested in
local , national and international development. However,
appropriate training is not available since there are no adequate
training facilities in the region. Due to these circumstances, BWCA
believes that such a huge population of illiterate and economically
disadvantaged people should be provided with a training centre to
promote their education, cultural and socio-economic development.
BWCA proposes to begin training program's in the area to fill these
needs. With funding from UNESCO, trainers can be provided,
volunteers will have the means to participate, and training courses
can be developed - high quality work without the needing to make an
immediate profit.
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UNIT 1 Example 2: Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth
in Zaire. A. Introduction :
The goal of this project is to help disadvantaged youth to
participate in social and economic activities, to fight against the
drift from rural areas which strips the land of its vital
forces.
In the region of Bas-Zaire where the land is fertile and which
could become the granary of Kinshasa, the present output is
scarcely enough to feed its inhabitants.
To change this situation, young people need to be encouraged to
stay in the rural areas. The Regional Council for Social Protection
and Family Planning wants to establish at Nkondo Malembe an
experimental agricultural centre for youth.
The activities of this centre would include orientation of young
people as well as agricultural production.
B. Description of the context of the project :
Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima
community in the Songololo zone, the former training and production
centre of JMPR (the youth movement of the ruling party). It is a
relatively hot region with clay soil. Rainfall varies from 1200 to
1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and rainy. 1.3 Target
community
Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined
population. A project planner should therefore try concisely to
determine who would benefit from the project. This means taking
into account certain criteria such as the composition of the target
community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their
main activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational
level. This sub-section should also indicate : - to what extent the
targeted population supports the idea of the project; to what
extent they are mobilized; and which sections of the population
are seen as a priority.
(In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the
population targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the
country and the criteria used to determine this were the
geographical region and the main activity of the population).
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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT
The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth,
drug abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social
vices among the youth makes it imperative that actions are taken by
NGO's and communities to curb these unfortunate phenomena. These
conditions tend negatively to affect the physical and intellectual
development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a vicious cycle
of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not
addressed. Example 2 : A target population in a CCIVS project in
Bolivia. Another major benefit of this project is women. In each
community the vast majority of teachers are women. With the supply
of the double-school desks their job in educating young children
will be much easier. Easier by enabling the students more incentive
to learn in comfortable but will boost the morale of the students,
teachers and communities alike. Previously teachers employed in
rural Bolivia were reluctant to finish their term. They cited poor
equipment as major factor. With VEA's cooperation, most are willing
to stay and finish their terms. The desks built by VEA can also be
used by the local mothers' club and their daughters. 1.4. The
institutional framework
The sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project
is expected to evolve, without going into minor details.
You should include the following : - where the project is taking
place - staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers,
consultants etc.) - the sources of the funds and materials for the
project - the funding organizations - the organizations carrying
out the project; other associated organizations - the co-ordination
ties between these organizations - the body or person in charge of
the project. Example : The proposed seminar to train social workers
to work in the X region will take place at X from April 1 May 30,
1993. It will be organized by the training staff of the Association
for the Children of Region X with technical help from a consultant
from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO will be providing the fares for the
120 social workers. The Association for the Children of Region X
will pay for food, lodging and logistical aspects of the training
programmed. The Ministry of Youth and Sports will be presiding over
this training seminar and has given a grant to the national
association.
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UNIT 1 Procedure to follow when submitting a project
(simplified version) : 1. Identification :
- idea for a project or identification of a need or a problem.
2. Checking out the context : - analysis of the economic, social
cultural and political environment - survey of the needs and the
problems - consultation with the targeted population - collection
of information from organizations or people involved in the same
area of work - consultation with the local or national authorities
- choice of development objectives - immediate objectives. 3.
Feasibility Study :
- funding, equipment and materials, human and organizational
resources. 4. Project design : - analysis of the information
obtained from research - definition of the proposed working methods
- choice of the products and activities that need to be developed -
study of the means necessary to carry out this project - planning
the project - attention paid to the criteria for drawing up a
project document. 5. Submission of the project : - presentation of
the project to international and regional organizations,
development banks, NGO's, other associations, foundations and
private companies - project proposals should be sent directly to
financing organization or submitted through a coordinating body
such as CCIVS.
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PREPARATION OF A PROJECT
VOCABULARY
PROPOUSAL A document that tells vendors and service providers
what type of service or products a company is attempting to
purchase.
UNDERTAKE To make oneself responsible for; take over as a
charge
ATTEMP To make an effort to do, get, have, etc.; try;
endeavor
RESEARCH Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts
or principles
PRIME first in importance or value; principal; main
ENVIRONMENT all the conditions, circumstances, and influences
surrounding, and affecting the development of, an organism or group
of organisms
FOUNDATIONS the base on which something rests; specif., the
supporting part of a wall, house, etc., usually of masonry,
concrete, etc., and at least partially underground
AIM to direct (one's efforts)
DISRUPT to disturb or interrupt the orderly course of (a social
affair, meeting, etc.)
SCHEME an outline or diagram showing different parts or elements
of an object or system
POPULATION STATISTICS the total set of items, persons, etc. from
which a sample is taken
PHASE any of the recurrent stages of variation in the
illumination and apparent shape of a moon or a planet
SUBMIT to present or refer to others for decision,
consideration, etc.
GUIDELINES a standard or principle by which to make a judgment
or determine a policy or course of action
POPULATION
TARGET
the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample is
taken and to whom the investigation is directed.
FRAMEWORK the basic structure, arrangement, or system
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STRATEGY a plan or action based on this
BUDGET a plan or schedule adjusting expenses during a certain
period to the estimated or fixed income for that period
the amount of money needed or allotted for a specific use
FOLLOW UP designating or of anything that follows something else
as a review, addition, etc.
REPORT to give a formal statement or official account of;
announce formally (the results of an investigation, etc.)
EVALUATION the process of evaluating something or an instance of
this
FUNDING
SOUGHT
Initial investments in a start-up, provided by a venture
capitalist or private equity investor.
Refinancing debt before maturity, typically referred to as
refunding.
SUBMISSION the act of submitting something to another for
decision, consideration, etc.
SURVEY a detailed study or inspection, as by gathering
information through observations, questionnaires, etc. and
analyzing it
FEASIBILITY Possibility to carry on with the project
WORKSHEET
In groups according to your career, fill in the following
format. Present a project.
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
In business, administration consists of the performance or
management of business operations and thus the making or
implementing of major decisions. Administration can be defined as
the universal process of organizing people and resources
efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and
objectives.
Administrative functions
Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of
functions to meet the organization's goals. These "functions" of
the administrator were described by Henri Fayol.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when
to do it, and who should do it. It maps the path from where the
organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function
involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order.
Administrators engage in both short-range and long-range
planning.
Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be
performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions,
and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to
achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the
organization. Organizing must take into account delegation of
authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory
units.
Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at
the right time. It involves determining staffing needs, writing job
descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the
positions.
Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals
of the organization. This involves proper allocation of resources
and providing an effective support system. Directing requires
exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate
people. One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the
correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis on
economic production.
Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas
and detects potential or actual deviations from the organization's
plan. This ensures high-quality performance and satisfactory
results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment.
Controlling includes information management, measurement of
performance, and institution of corrective actions.
Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of
the administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of
a budget plan through the application of budget controls.
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UNIT 1
Management in business and human organization activity, in
simple terms means the act of getting people together to accomplish
desired goals. Management comprises planning, organizing,
resourcing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization
(a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the
purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the
deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial
resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
To accomplish in a successful way the management function two
kind of skills must be fulfilled:
1. Human skills 2. Financial skills
In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate,
leadership, conflict management, decision taking etc.
In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking,
outsourcing, six sigma and more.
EXERCISE
According to the managerial skills for a good administrator,
write an ideal manager profile.
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
LEADERSHIP
The word leadership can refer to:
1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. 2.
The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission.
3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting
or goal
achievement.
Types of leadership styles
The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and
follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of
leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and
is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by
the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed
prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities,
hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader
in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and
decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will
experience frustration and anxiety.
The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy
and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to
be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success
of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the
team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by
deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company
time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with
other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to
the magnetism of a charismatic leader.
The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is
given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority.
This leadership style is good for employees that need close
supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team
players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to
enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job
dissatisfaction.
The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)
listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the
final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus
increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input
was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes
arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the
changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they
were consulted and contributed to the decision making process,
minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming
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UNIT 1
of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when
decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the
moment.
The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, &
White, 1939) gives no continuous feedback or supervision because
the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to
obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style
is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all, failing in
supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher
costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines.
The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in
order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains
and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine
interest to do a good job.
The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and
concentrate on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to
reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same
motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement
in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to
achieve expected results.
The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal
accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order
to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to
reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to
change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic
leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame
than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.
The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform
certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It
gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the
group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal
in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to
evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not
up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected
outcome is reached.
The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be
effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal
achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal
attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command
to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big
picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the
details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the
organization to reach the companys vision.
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures
group or organizational environment to affect the emotional and
psychological perception of an individuals place in that group or
organization. An understanding and application of group psychology
and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The
leader uses organizational culture to inspire individuals and
develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on
creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the
fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each
other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language,
to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to
do what is required for the benefit of all.
"Leadership is the energetic process of getting people fully and
willingly committed to a new and sustainable course of action, to
meet commonly
agreed objectives whilst having commonly held values"
EXERCISE
At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify
the level of leadership they have.
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer
After taking the test, ask them to:
1. Write an analysis of their result 2. Identify their strengths
and weaknesses 3. Identify what aspects they should improve 4.
Identify what aspects
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UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of transferring information from a
sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the
communicated information is understood by both sender and receiver.
It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by
several methods. Communication requires that all parties understand
a common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such
as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal,
physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage,
touch, eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication is defined
as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to
create shared understanding. This process requires a vast
repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing,
listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and
evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers
to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It
is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.
Communication is the articulation of sending a message, through
different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a
being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc.
Communication happens at many levels (even for one single
action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as
certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a
portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about
communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of
communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication
range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with
each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only
including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic
interaction.
Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few
major dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated),
source, emisor, sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form),
channel (through which medium), destination, receiver, target or
decoder (to whom), and the purpose or pragmatic aspect. Between
parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and
experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These
acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of
communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group
communicating. Together, communication content and form make
messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be
oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a
corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information
transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
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UNIT 1
1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols), 2.
pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions
and
their users) and 3. semantic (study of relationships between
signs and symbols and what
they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least
two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set
of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores
autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via
diaries or self-talk.
In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in
natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an
emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a
slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked
reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called
a
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the
transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of
content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the
desired effect. One problem with this
encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of
encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each
possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two
code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical.
Although something like code books is implied by the model, they
are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual
difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative
and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of
information.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Language
A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such
as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols
which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about
communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written
symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language?
Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a
language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal
communication can be considered as a separated language.
Dialogue
A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more
entities. The etymological origins of the word (in Greek
(di,through) + (logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through
meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have
come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix
-(di-,through) and the prefix - (di-, two) leading to the
assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two
parties.
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through
sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be
communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial
expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing,
hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics.
Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage,
including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as
prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise,
written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style,
spatial arrangement of
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UNIT 1
words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English
words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or
combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written
or message form.
EXERCISE
At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify
the level of leadership they have.
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer
After taking the test, ask them to:
5. Write an analysis of their result 6. Identify their strengths
and weaknesses 7. Identify what aspects they should improve 8.
Identify what aspects
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. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of
intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by
which people handle grievances standing up for what they consider
to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways
include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching,
terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and
avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any
given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the
social structure or social geometry of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from
conflict resolution. The latter refers to resolving the dispute to
the approval of one or both parties, whereas the former concerns an
ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it
considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to
reframe the positions of the conflict parties.
Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts
1. Poor communications a. Employees experience continuing
surprises, they aren't informed of new decisions, programs, etc. b.
Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't
involved in decision-making. c. As a result, employees trust the
"rumor mill" more than management.
2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient.
There is: a. Disagreement about "who does what". b. Stress from
working with inadequate resources.
3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions
among managers and employees, for example: a. Strong personal
natures don't match. b. We often don't like in others what we don't
like in ourselves.
4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing,
too-strong or uninformed leadership (at any level in the
organization), evidenced by: a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the
buck" with little follow-through on decisions. b. Employees see the
same continued issues in the workplace. c. Supervisors don't
understand the jobs of their subordinates
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UNIT 1
Ways People Deal With Conflict
There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on
the current situation. Here are the major ways that people use to
deal with conflict. 1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore
it. a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue.
Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time.
2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent
that you compromise yourself. a. Use this approach very sparingly
and infrequently, for example, in situations when you know that you
will have another more useful approach in the very near future.
Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and
causes conflicts within yourself.
3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and
addressing the issue. Competitors love accommodators. a. Use when
you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take. a. Use when the goal is
to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together. a. Use when the
goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs. b. Use
when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
EXERCISE Ask students to role play a conflict first following
these steps, then not following them. Analyze the result. Step1
Decide whether you want to confront the person who is bothering
you. It is usually better to air grievances in the open than to let
them fester. Step2 Speak to the other person calmly, politely and
rationally. Focus on the situation and facts, avoiding gossip and
personal attacks. Step3 Be careful not to express hostility in your
posture, facial expression or tone. Be assertive without being
aggressive. Step4 Listen to the other person carefully: What is she
trying to say? Be sure you understand her position. Step5
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Express interest in what the other person is saying. You can
acknowledge her ideas without necessarily agreeing or submitting.
Saying, "I understand that you feel this way. Here's how I feel..."
acknowledges both positions. Step6 Communicate clearly what you
want, offering positive suggestions and recommendations. Be willing
to be flexible. Step7 Speak to your supervisor if a problem with a
difficult co-worker seriously threatens your work, but avoid
whining.
Glossary of Term Business Administration
1. Acquisition The acquiring of supplies or services by the
federal government with appropriated funds through purchase or
lease.
2. Affiliates Business concerns, organizations, or individuals
that control each other or that are controlled by a third party.
Control may include shared management or ownership; common use of
facilities, equipment, and employees; or family interest.
3. Best and Final Offer For negotiated procurements, a
contractor's final offer following the conclusion of
discussions.
4. Certificate of Competency
A certificate issued by the Small Business Administration (SBA)
stating that the holder is "responsible" (in terms of capability,
competency, capacity, credit, integrity, perseverance, and
tenacity) for the purpose of receiving and performing a specific
government contract.
5. Certified 8(a) Firm
A firm owned and operated by socially and economically
disadvantaged individuals and eligible to receive federal contracts
under the Small Business Administrations 8(a) Business Development
Program.
6. Contract A mutually binding legal relationship obligating the
seller to furnish supplies or services (including construction) and
the buyer to pay for them.
7. Contracting Purchasing, renting, leasing, or otherwise
obtaining supplies or services from nonfederal sources. Contracting
includes the description of supplies and services required, the
selection and solicitation of sources, the preparation and award of
contracts, and all phases of contract administration. It does not
include grants or cooperative agreements.
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8. Contractor Team Arrangement
An arrangement in which (a) two or more companies form a
partnership or joint venture to act as potential prime contractor;
or (b) an agreement by a potential prime contractor with one or
more other companies to have them act as its subcontractors under a
specified government contract or acquisition program.
9. Electronic Data Interchange standardized electronic versions
of common business documents.
10. Emerging Small Business
A small business concern whose size is no greater than 50
percent of the numerical size standard applicable to the Standard
Industrial Classification code assigned to a contracting
opportunity.
11. Equity An accounting term used to describe the net
investment of owners or stockholders in a business. Under the
accounting equation, equity also represents the result of assets
less liabilities.
12. Fair and Reasonable Price
A price that is fair to both parties, considering the
agreed-upon conditions, promised quality, and timeliness of
contract performance. "Fair and reasonable" price is subject to
statutory and regulatory limitations.
13. Full and Open Competition With respect to a contract action,
"full and open" competition means that all responsible sources are
permitted to compete.
14. Intermediary Organization
Organizations that play a fundamental role in encouraging,
promoting, and facilitating business-to-business linkages and
mentor-protg partnerships. These can include both nonprofit and
for-profit organizations: chambers of commerce; trade associations;
local, civic, and community groups; state and local governments;
academic institutions; and private corporations.
15. Joint Venture In the SBA Mentor-Protg Program, an agreement
between a certified firm and a mentor firm to perform a specific
federal contract.
16. Mentor A business, usually large, or other organization that
has created a specialized program to advance strategic
relationships with small businesses.
17. Negotiation Contracting through the use of either
competitive or other-than
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competitive proposals and discussions. Any contract awarded
without using sealed bidding procedures is a negotiated
contract.
18. One-Stop Capital Shops
OSCSs are the SBAs contribution to the Empowerment
Zones/Enterprise Communities Program, an interagency initiative
that provides resources to economically distressed communities. The
shops provide a full range of SBA lending and technical assistance
programs.
19. Partnering A mutually beneficial business-to-business
relationship based on trust and commitment and that enhances the
capabilities of both parties.
20. Prime Contract A contract awarded directly by the Federal
government.
21. Protg A firm in a developmental stage that aspires to
increasing its capabilities through a mutually beneficial
business-to-business relationship.
22. Request for Proposal (RFP)
A document outlining a government agencys requirements and the
criteria for the evaluation of offers.
23. Small Business A business smaller than a given size as
measured by its employment, business receipts, or business
assets.
24. Small Business Development Centers (SBDC) SBDCs offer a
broad spectrum of business information and guidance as well as
assistance in preparing loan applications.
25. Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code
A code representing a category within the Standard Industrial
Classification System administered by the Statistical Policy
Division of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget. The system
was established to classify all industries in the US economy. A
two-digit code designates each major industry group, which is
coupled with a second two-digit code representing
subcategories.