Testing in the Small (aka Unit Testing, Class Testing) 1209
Jan 29, 2016
Testing in the Small (aka Unit Testing, Class Testing)
1209
Unit Testing
• Focus on the smallest units of code: – Functions– Methods– Subroutines
• Frequently done (at least partially) during code development by code developers
• Often the target of testing frameworks such as JUnit
Each component is
• Tested in isolation from the rest of the system• Tested in a controlled environment
– Uses appropriately chosen input data
– Uses component-level design description as guide
During Unit Tests
• Data transformations across the module are tested• Data structures are tested to ensure data integrity
Unit Test Procedures
Driver
Module to be tested
Stub Stub
Results Testcases
Two fundamental approaches:
• Black box– Based on specification– Inner structure of test object is not considered
• White box– Based on specification– Inner structure of test object is the basis of test case
selection
• Effectiveness of black box is similar to white box, but the mistakes found are different. (Hetzel 1976, Myers 1978)
Black Box Unit Testing
1209
What is black-box testing?
• Unit (code, module) seen as a black box
• No access to the internal or logical structure
• Determine if given input produces expected output.
Input Output
Black Box Testing
• Test set is derived from requirements • Goal is to cover the input space• Lots of approaches to describing input space:
– Equivalence Classes– Boundary Value Analysis– Decision Tables– State Transitions– Use Cases– . . .
Advantage and Disadvantage
• Advantage: it does not require access to the internal logic of a component
• Disadvantage: in most real-world applications, impossible to test all possible inputs
• Need to define an efficient strategy to limit number of test cases
General Black Box Process
• Analyze requirements
• Select valid and invalid inputs
• Determine expected outputs
• Construct tests
• Run tests
• Compare actual outputs to expected outputs
Equivalence classes: Basic Strategy
• Partition the input into equivalence classes– This is the tricky part– It’s an equivalence class if:
• Every test using one element of the class tests the same thing that any other element of the class tests
• If an error is found with one element, it should be found with any element
• If an error is not found with some element, it is not found by any element
• Test a subset from each class
Basic strategy:
Example: fact(n): if n<0, or n>=200 errorif 0<=n<=20, exact valueif 20<n<200, approximate value within .1%
What classes can you see?
G
Basic strategy:
Example: fact(n): if n<0, or n>=200 errorif 0<=n<=20, exact valueif 20<n<200, approximate value within .1%
Obvious classes are n<0, 0<=n<=20, 20<n<200, and 200<=n.
Might be some subclasses here, also, but this is a good start.
Simple Example:
• Suppose you are building an airline reservation system. A traveler can be a child, an adult, or a senior.
• The price depends on the type of traveler. • The seat reservation does not depend on the type
of traveler.• How many test cases can you identify for the
reservation component and the billing component?
G
Finding equivalence classes:
• Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification
Finding equivalence classes:
• Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification
• If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN)
Finding equivalence classes:
• Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification
• If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN)
• If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes (one invalid, two invalid)
Finding equivalence classes:
• Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification
• If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN)
• If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes
• If a set of values is specified where each may be treated differently, create a class for each element of the set and one more for elements outside the set
Finding equivalence classes:
• Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification
• If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN)
• If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes
• If a set of values is specified where each may be treated differently, create a class for each element of the set and one more for elements outside the set
• If there is a condition, create two classes, one satisfying and one not satisfying the condition
Boundary Values:
• Programs that fail at interior elements of a class usually fail at the boundaries too.
• Test the boundaries. – if it should work for 1-99, test 0, 1, 99, 100.– if it works for A-Z, try @, A, Z, [, a, and z
• The hard part is identifying boundaries
Hints
• If a domain is a restricted set, check the boundaries. e.g., D=[1,10], test 0, 1, 10, 11– It may be possible to test the boundaries of outputs,
also.• For ordered sets, check the first and last elements• For complex data structures, the empty list, full
lists, the zero array, and the null pointer should be tested
• Extremely large data sets should be tested• Check for off-by-one errors
More Hints
• Some boundaries are not obvious and may depend on the implementation (use gray box testing if needed)– Numeric limits (e.g., test 255 and 256 for 8-bit
values)– Implementation limits (e.g., max array size)
Boundary Value: in class
• Determine the boundary values for US Postal Service ZIP codes
• Determine the boundary values for a 15- character last name entry.
G
Decision Tables
• Construct a table (to help organize the testing)
• Identify each rule or condition in the system that depends on some input
• For each input to one of these rules, list the combinations of inputs and the expected results
Decision Table Example
Test Case C1
Student
C2
Senior
Result
Discount?
1 T T T
2 T F T
3 F T T
4 F F F
Theater ticket prices are discounted for senior citizens and students.
Pairwise Testing
Problem 1From Lee Copeland, A Practitioner’s Guide to Software Test Design, Artech
House Publishers, 2004.
• A web site must operate correctly with different browsers: IE 5, IE 6, and IE 7; Mozilla 1.1; Opera 7; FireFox 2, 3, and 4, and Chrome.
• It must work using RealPlayer, MediaPlayer, or no plugin.• It needs to run under Windows ME, NT, 2000, XP, and
Vista, 7.0, and 8.0• It needs to accept pages from IIS, Apache and WebLogic
running on Windows NT, 2000, and Linux servers
• How many different configurations are there?
G
Problem 1
• A web site must operate correctly with different browsers: IE 5, IE 6, and IE 7; Mozilla 1.1; Opera 7; FireFox 2, 3, and 4, and Chrome.
• It must work using RealPlayer, MediaPlayer, or no plugin.• It needs to run under Windows ME, NT, 2000, XP, Vista,
7.0, and 8.0• It needs to accept pages from IIS, Apache and WebLogic
running on Windows NT, 2000, and Linux servers
• How many different configurations are there?• 9 browsers x 3 plugins x 7 OS x 3 web servers x 3 server
OSs = 1701 combinations
Problem 2
• A bank is ready to test a data processing system• Customer types
– Gold (i.e., normal)– Platinum (i.e., important)– Business– Non profits
• Account types– Checking– Savings– Mortgages – Consumer loans– Commercial loans
• States (with different rules): CA, NV, UT, ID, AZ, NM
• How many different configurations are there?
From Lee Copeland, A Practitioner’s Guide to Software Test Design, Artech House Publishers, 2004.
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases• Choose a few that the programmers already ran
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases• Choose a few that the programmers already ran• Choose the tests that are easy to create
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases• Choose a few that the programmers already ran• Choose the tests that are easy to create• List all combinations and choose first few
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases• Choose a few that the programmers already ran• Choose the tests that are easy to create• List all combinations and choose first few• List all combinations and randomly choose some
When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …)
• Give up and don’t test• Test all combinations … miss targets, delay
product launch, and go out of business• Choose one or two cases• Choose a few that the programmers already ran• Choose the tests that are easy to create• List all combinations and choose first few• List all combinations and randomly choose some• “Magically” choose a small subset with high
probability of revealing defects
Orthogonal Arrays
• A 2-D array with the property– All pairwise combinations occur in every pair of
columns
• Example: consider 3 variables (columns) with {A,B}, {1,2}, and (α,β)
1 2 3
1 1 A α
2 1 B β
3 2 A β
4 2 B α
Orthogonal Array Example
1 2 3
1 1 A α
2 1 B β
3 2 A β
4 2 B α
Look at each pair of columns (1 and 2),( 1 and 3), and (2 and 3)
Does each of the 4 pairings appear in each?
(Yes, of course!)
Pairwise Testing Algorithm
1. Identify variables
2. Determine choices for each variable
3. Locate an orthogonal array
4. Map test cases to the orthogonal array
5. Construct tests
Example using Bank
1. Identify variables1. Customers (4)2. Account types (5)3. States (6)
2. Determine choices for each variable1. Customer types (Gold, Platinum, Business, Non Profit)2. Account types (Checking, Savings, Mortgages, Consumer loans,
Commercial loans3. States (CA, NV, UT, ID, AZ, NM)
3. Locate an orthogonal array 4. Map test cases to the orthogonal array5. Construct tests
Locate an orthogonal array (look up on web)
1 1 1
1 2 2
1 3 3
1 4 4
2 1 2
2 2 1
2 3 4
2 4 3
3 1 3
3 2 4
3 3 1
3 4 2
4 1 4
4 2 3
4 3 2
4 4 1
5 5 1
5 1 2
5 2 3
5 3 4
6 5 2
6 1 1
6 2 4
6 3 3
1 5 3
2 5 4
3 5 1
4 5 2
5 4 1
6 4 2
Map Test Cases (30)CA Check Gold
CA Save Plat
CA Mort Busi
CA Cons NonP
NV Check Plat
NV Save Gold
NV Mort NonP
NV Cons Busi
UT Check Busi
UT Save NonP
UT Mort Gold
UT Cons Plat
ID Check NonP
ID Save Busi
ID Mort Plat
ID Cons Gold
AZ Comm Gold
AZ Check Plat
AZ Save Busi
AZ Mort NonP
NM Comm Plat
NM Check Gold
NM Save NonP
NM Mort Busi
CA Comm Busi
NV Comm NonP
UT Comm Gold
ID Comm Plat
AZ Cons Gold
NM Cons Plat
Pairwise Summary• When the combination is large, test all pairs,
not all combinations
• Studies indicate that most defects are single or double-mode effects – Can be found in pairing– Few defects require more than two modes
• Orthogonal arrays have the pairwise property and can be found or generated
State Transition Testing
State Transition Testing
• Build STD of system or component• Cover the STD
– Visit each state– Trigger each event– Exercises each transition– Exercise each path*
* Might not be possible
Example
Res MadePaid
CancelledNon Pay
Ticketed
CancelledCust
Used
Cust Order/start timer
Payment madeTicket Printed
Time Expires
Ticket DeliveredCancel/refund
Cancel/refund
Cancel
Customer makes reservation and haslimited time to pay. May cancel at anytime.
Groups: How many tests to visit each state?
Example: Each State
Res MadePaid
CancelledNon Pay
Ticketed
CancelledCust
Used
Cust Order/start timer
Payment madeTicket Printed
Time Expires
Ticket DeliveredCancel/refund
Cancel/refund
Cancel
3 tests needed: From start to final From start to cancelled non-pay From start to Res Made to Cancelled Cust
Example: Each Event
Res MadePaid
CancelledNon Pay
Ticketed
CancelledCust
Used
Cust Order/start timer
Payment madeTicket Printed
Time Expires
Ticket DeliveredCancel/refund
Cancel/refund
Cancel
3 tests needed: From start to final From start to cancelled non-pay From start to Res Made to Cancelled Cust
Example: Each Transition
Res MadePaid
CancelledNon Pay
Ticketed
CancelledCust
Used
Cust Order/start timer
Payment madeTicket Printed
Time Expires
Ticket DeliveredCancel/refund
Cancel/refund
Cancel
5 tests needed
Use Case Testing
• Use the use cases to specify test cases
• Use case specifies both normal, alternate, and exceptional operations
• Use cases may not have sufficient detail– Beizer estimates that 30-40% of effort in testing
transactions is generating the test data– Budget for this!
White-Box Testing
Pfleeger, S. Software Engineering Theory and Practice 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall, 2001.Ghezzi, C. et al., Fundamentals of Software Engineering. Prentice Hall, 2002.Pressman, R., Software Engineering A Practitioner’s Approach, Mc Graw Hill, 2005.Hutchinson, Marnie, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003.
0310
White Box Testing
• Also known as: – Glass box testing– Structural testing
• Test set is derived from structure of code • Code structure represented as a Control Flow Graph• Goal is to cover the CFG
Control Flow Graphs• Programs are made of three kinds of statements:
– Sequence (i.e., series of statements)
– Condition (i.e., if statement)
– Iteration (i.e., while, for, repeat statements)
Control Flow Graphs• Programs are made of three kinds of statements:
– Sequence (i.e., series of statements)
– Condition (i.e., if statement)
– Iteration (i.e., while, for, repeat statements)
• CFG: visual representation of flow of control.– Node represents a sequence of statements with single entry
and single exit
– Edge represents transfer of control from one node to another
Control Flow Graph (CFG)
n1
Join
n3
n1n1
Join
Sequence If-then-else If-then Iterative
Control Flow Graph (CFG)
n1
Join
n3
n1n1
Join
Sequence If-then-else If-then Iterative
When drawing CFG, ensure that there is one exit: include the join node if needed
Example 1: CFG
1. read (result);2. read (x,k)3. while result < 0 then {4. ptr false5. if x > k then6. ptr true7. x x + 18. result result + 1 }9. print result
Draw CFG
Example 1: CFG
1. read (result);2. read (x,k)3. while result < 0 then {4. ptr false5. if x > k then6. ptr true7. x x + 18. result result + 1 }9. print result
3
5
6
7
9
8
2
1
4
Example 1: CFG
3
4,5
6
Join
9
1. read (result);2. read (x,k)3. while result < 0 then {4. ptr false5. if x > k then6. ptr true7. x x + 18. result result + 1 }9. print result
7,8
1,2
3
5
6
7
9
8
2
1
4
In Class: Write CFGsExample 2
1. if (a < b) then 2. while(a < n)3. a a + 1;4. else 5. while(b < n)6. b b + 1;
Example 3
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a 0 && b 0) then {3. c a + b;4. if c > 10 then 5. c max6. else c min }7. else print ‘Done’
Example 4
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a 0 || b 0) then {3. c a + b4. while( c < 100)5. c a + b; }6. c a * b
Write a CFG
Example 2
1. if (a < b) then 2. while (a < n)3. a a + 1;4. else 5. while (b < n)6. b b + 1;
1
2
3
Join
5
6
Answers
Example 3
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a 0 && b 0) then {3. c a + b;4. if c > 10 then 5. c max6. else c min }7. else print ‘Done’
1,2
Join
3,4
5 6
Join
7
Answers
Example 4
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a 0 || b 0) then {3. c a + b4. while( c < 100)5. c a + b; }6. c a * b
1, 2
3
Join
4
5
6
Coverage
• Statement
• Branch
• Condition
• Path
• Def-use
• Others
Statement Coverage
• Every statement gets executed at least once
• Every node in the CFG gets visited at least once
Examples: number of paths needed
for Statement Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
Examples: number of paths needed
for Statement Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
4 1
Branch coverage
• Every decision is made true and false• Every edge in a CFG of the program gets
traversed at least once• Also known as
– Decision coverage– All edge coverage– Basis path coverage
• Branch is finer than statement• C1 is finer than C2 if
T1C1 T2C2 T2 T1
Examples: number of paths needed
for Branch Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
Examples: number of paths needed
for Branch Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
5 2
Condition coverage
• Every complex condition is made true and false by every possible combination– E.G., (x and y)
• x = true, y = true• x=false, y=true• x = true, y= false• x =false, y = false
• There are lots of different types of condition coverage: Condition, multiple condition, condition/decision, modified condition/decision (MCDC), …I’m only covering the simplest.
• Condition coverage is not finer than branch coverage – There are pathological cases where you can achieve Condition and not
Branch– Under most circumstances, achieving Condition achieves Branch
Condition Coverage: CFGs• One way to determine the number of paths is to break the compound
conditional into atomic conditionals• Suppose you were writing the CFG for the assembly language
implementation of the control construct If (A AND B) then
CEndif
(short circuit eval) (no short circuit eval) LD A LD A ; in general, lots of BZ :endif LAND B ; code for A and
B LD B BZ :endif BZ :endif JSR C JSR C :endif nop:endif nop
AND Condition
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a == 0 && b == 0) then {3. c a + b }4. else c a * b
paths:1, 2A,2B,3, J1, 2A, 2B, 4, J1, 2A, 4, J
2A
2B
Join
3
4
1
OR Condition
1. read (a,b); 2. if (a == 0 || b == 0) then }3. c a + b;4. while( c < 100)5. c a + b;}
Paths:1, 2A, 3, 4, 5, 4 … J1, 2A, 3, 4, J1, 2A, 2B, 3, 4, 5, 4, … J1,2A, 2B, J
2A
3
Join
4
2B
5
1
Path
• A path is a sequence of statements
• A path is sequence of branches
• A path is a sequence of edges
Examples: number of paths needed
for Path Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
Examples: number of paths needed
for Path Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003)
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
2
3
4
7
5
1
8
9
6
5 16
Path Coverage-1• Every distinct path through code
is executed at least once
• Example1. read (x)2. read (z)3. if x 0 then begin4. y x * z;5. x z end6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then8. print y9. else print ‘Invalid’
• Test Paths:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 8, J21, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 9, J21, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 8, J2,1, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 9, J2
1,2,3
4,5
Join1
6
7
8
Join2
9
Counting Paths
• It is not feasible to calculate the total number of paths
Linearly independent paths
• It is feasible to calculate the number of linearly independent paths
• The number of linearly independent paths is the number of end-to-end paths required to touch every path segment at least once
• A linearly independent path introduces at least one new set of process statements or a new condition
Cyclomatic Complexity• Software metric for the logical complexity of a
program.• Defines the number of independent paths in the
basis set of a program• Provides the upper bound for the number of tests
that must be conducted to ensure that all statements been have executed at least once
• For Edges (E) and Nodes (N) V(G) = E – N + 2
Examples: Complexity of CFGs
1
2
3
1 3,4
5 6
Join
3,4
5
Join
N=3E=2E-N+2= 2-3+2= 1=V(G)
N=1E=0E-N+2= 0-1+2= 1=V(G)
N=4E=4E-N+2= 4-4+2= 2=V(G)
N=3E=3E-N+2= 3-3+2= 2=V(G)
Example1
2,3
6
10
8
4,5
9
7
11
V(G) = 11 – 9 + 2 = 4
Independent paths:1-111-2-3-4-5-10-1-111-2-3-6-8-9-10-1…-111-2-3-6-7-9-10-1…-11
In Class: Compute the cyclomatic complexity
3
4,5
6
Join
9
7,8
1,2
1
2
3
Join
5
6
1,2
Join
3,4
5 6
Join
7
1, 2
3
Join
4
5
6
Example 1: CFG
3
4,5
6
Join
9
7,8
1,2N=7E=8E-N+2= 8-7+2= 3=V(G)
Example 21
2
3
Join
5
6
N=6E=8E-N+2= 8-6+2= 4=V(G)
Answers
1,2
Join
3,4
5 6
Join
7
N=7E=8E-N+2= 8-7+2= 3=V(G)
Answers
1, 2
3
Join
4
5
6
N=6E=7E-N+2= 7-6+2= 3=V(G)
Independent Path Coverage• Basis set does not yield minimal
test set• Example
1. read (x)2. read (z)3. if x 0 then begin4. y x * z;5. x z end6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then8. print y9. else print ‘Invalid’
• Cyclomatic complexity: 3• Test Paths:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 8, J21, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 9, J21, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 8, J2,
1,2,3
4,5
Join1
6
7
8
Join2
9
Def-Use Coverage• Def-use coverage: every path
from every definition of every variable to every use of that definition is exercised in some test.
• Example1. read (x)2. read (z)3. if x 0 then begin4. y x * z;5. x z end6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then8. print y9. else print ‘Invalid’
1,2,3
4,5
Join
6
7
8
Join
9
Def: x, zUse: x
Def: y, xUse: x, z
Use: none
Use: y
Use: yUse: none
Test Path: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, J
Strength of Coverage
Statement
Branch
Def-Use
Path
Arrows point from weaker to stronger coverage.
Stronger coverage requires more test cases.
Condition
What paths don’t tell you
• Timing errors
• Unanticipated error conditions
• User interface inconsistency (or anything else)
• Configuration errors
• Capacity errors