Term paper on impact of organic farming in Nepal.docx

7/28/2019 Term paper on impact of organic farming in Nepal.docx

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A term paper on:

IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN NEPAL

Submitted to:

Associate Prof. Ramananda Yadav. Ph. D.

Department of Soil Science and Agri-Engineering

Institute of Agriculture and Animal SciencesRampur, Chitwan, Nepal

Submitted By

Krishna Prashad TiwariM.Sc.Ag (Horticulture)

3rd Semester

R 2010-HRT-02M

February, 2012


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IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN NEPAL

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of introduction

To increase the supply of agriculture production, new technology is being used. This includes

genetic modification, chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides in agriculture. The use of

chemical provides instant benefits but in long run these chemicals destroy the production capacity

of the soil. They also leave negative impact on the life of the human beings, and lead to other

environmental problems too. At the same time the genetic modification of the food is also

decimating the natural variety of plants. On the other hand urbanization, industrialization and

development of various other infrastructures have led to the rapid loss of agricultural land and the

production too. The worlds population, which is rapidly increasing, will suffer from this loss. We

must not be only commercial for the production of agricultural things as it has long run effects on

human life and the environment too. We use various chemical fertilizers so as to yield a goodamount of crop but in other hand it will leave a long run effect on human life and the environment.

We must not think of agriculture with a commercial mind, viewing it for our individual benefits.

Therefore, by proper utilization of natural resources, which are gifts of nature, we should be able to

produce high quality agricultural products while compensating for nature. If we do not become

timely conscious and become aware of this situation, then it will be beyond the control and will be a

great threat to the human existence in this world. Necessary steps must be taken immediately for

preserving environment and its creatures by supporting (institutionalizing) organic farming

globally. The only way we can save our planet is through sustainable organic agriculture.

Nepal is an agriculture-based economy with about 85 % population dependent on agriculturewhereas 80 % of the population survives as agriculture labors. The farmers have been doing hard

labor but they are not able to improve their quality of living and are compelled to live a miserable

life. Nepal has a history of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides for the last 35 years for higher

agriculture production yields. Before the use of chemical fertilizers, the quality of rice was very

high and full of flavor, while the rice is being cooked in kitchen all the surrounding areas would be

full of the aroma. With the use of fertilizer, the quality of rice has deteriorated; the production is

high but the quality of taste and even differs in the amount of nutrition it provides to us. Similarly,

the use of chemicals in agriculture has been decreasing the quality of our food. Due to the use of

synthetic fertilizer and pesticides all agriculture products are being contaminated and being

unhealthier. Also, using these kinds of chemical inputs affects the ecosystem and imbalance theecological cycle. It also has direct effect on climatic change and global warming.

1.2 Concept of organic agriculture

According to the International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM), organic agricultureincludes all agricultural systems that promote the environmentally, socially and economically soundproduction of food and fibers (Willer & Yussefi, 2006). These systems take soil fertility as a key to


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successful production. By respecting the natural capacity of plants, animals and the landscape,organic farming aims to optimize quality in all aspects of agriculture and environment (Ibid). Butorganic production is not merely concerned with a product, but also with the whole system used toproduce and deliver the product to the ultimate consumer, including chain of custody, handling andprocessing (Scialabba & Hattam, 2002).

Organic farming largely excludes synthetic inputs - pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers and focuses

instead on biological processes such as composting and other measures to maintain soil fertility,

natural pest control and diversifying crops and livestock. Organic agriculture gives priority to long-

term ecological health, such as biodiversity and soil quality, contrasting with conventional farming,

which concentrates on short-term productivity gains.

There are scientific studies, peer-reviewed and published, documenting organic agricultures

positive outcomes. Furthermore, certified organic production is just the tip of the iceberg in terms

of land managed organically but not certified as such.De facto organic farming is prevalent in

resource-poor and/or agriculturally marginal regions where local populations have limited

engagement with the cash economy. Farmers rely on locally available natural resources to maintain

soil fertility and to combat pests and diseases. They are showing the way towards sustainable

agriculture through sophisticated systems of crop rotation, soil management, and pest and disease

control, based on traditional knowledge.

Organic farming has its roots in the variously named biodynamic, regenerative agriculture, nature

farming and permculture movements which have developed in different countries. Numerous

adaptations of the guidelines have taken place, but the common understanding is that:

Practicing organic agriculture involves managing the agro-ecosystem as an

autonomous system, based on the primary production capacity of the soil under localclimatic conditions. Agro-ecosystem management implies treating the system, on anyscale, as a living organism supporting its own vital potential for biomass and animal

production, along with biological mechanisms for mineral balancing, soil

improvement and pest control. .. Farmers, their families and rural communities, arean integral part of this agro-ecosystem. Both sexes are involved on equal terms.

(UNDP, 1992)

1.3 Organic farming in Nepalese context

A research focused on the problems and potentials of organic agriculture in Nepal basing on the

study of stakeholders of organic agriculture found that about 2.5% of households of urban areas are

consuming organic products and almost 30% are found to have desire. Most of the organic

production and marketing system in Nepal is on the basis of community trust. Market for organic

products is quite rudimentary and legal certification hasnt started. There has been lacuna in

research on the technologies to support organic agriculture.


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Most of the farmers are well aware about the negative repercussion of the indiscriminate use of the

agro-chemicals in their farm and opined that they would like to shift from inorganic towards

organic agriculture; however, marketing for such products is the greatest bottleneck. All domestic

organics reach to consumers without labeling. Consumers have a belief that organic food is

healthier, less polluted and more natural, than conventionally produced foods. Many of the

consumers are of the view that quality of the organic products is good and thats why these products

are expensive. Most of them are willing to pay 10-15% of more price to the organic products over

inorganic while they are willing to pay 20-30% more price to the organic products if they are

labeled. Organic products are usually sold directly from farmers or through specialized shops and

restaurants. Organic industry is too small and a long way to go in Nepal. Due to the lack of

financial support for conversion, organic farmers rely only on consumers willingness to pay higher

prices to obtain compensation for lower yields or higher costs that may arise due to the organic

practice. Till date there is a vacuum of government policy to support organic opportunities in the

country. Managing own Internal Control Systems better prepares farmers to manage plethora of

other standards that are increasingly mandated for the trade. Political commitments such asavoiding conflicting drive to maximize production, hammering proactive policy, providing market

incentives and institutionalization of Nepalese organic movement are imperative to further enhance

organic sector in Nepal.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The major objectives of this study are:

To assess the scenario of organic farming in Nepal.

To collect the latest information regarding potential achievements on livelihood of Nepalese people.

To compile impacts driven due to adoption of organic agriculture in Nepal.

2. METHODOLOGY

Since the study is limited to a term paper during a course under graduation in IAAS, the study is

completely based on review of national and international articles concerned with the topic of study.

Therefore, collection and review of essential materials were performed in February 2012 and the

report has been made by compiling essential statements, facts about the changes aroused by organic

or sustainable agriculture or permaculture.


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3. IMPACT OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

A. MICRO ELEMENTS

3.1 Changes on yields

A study on conventional and alternative farming systems for tomatoes over four years indicate thatorganic and low-input agriculture produce yields comparable to conventional systems. Nitrogen

(N) availability was the most important factor limiting yield in organic systems, and can be

satisfied by biological inputs.

Another experiment examined organic and conventional potatoes and sweet corn over three years.

Results showed that yield and vitamin C content of potatoes were not affected by the two different

regimes. While one variety of conventional corn out-produced the organic, there was no difference

between the two in yield of another variety or the vitamin C or E contents. Results indicate that

long-term application of composts is producing higher soil fertility and comparable plant growth. A

review of replicated research results in seven different US Universities and from Rodale ResearchCenter, Pennsylvania and the Michael Fields Center, Wisconsin over the past 10 years showed that

organic farming systems resulted in yields comparable to industrial, high input agriculture.

Corn: With 69 total cropping seasons, organic yields were 94% of conventionally produced corn.

Soybeans: Data from five states over 55 growing seasons showed organic yields were 94% of

conventional yields.

Wheat: Two institutions with 16 cropping year experiments showed that organic wheat produced

97% of the conventional yields.

Tomatoes: Fourteen years of comparative research on tomatoes showed no yield differences.

The most remarkable results of organic farming, however, have come from small farmers in

developing countries. Case studies of organic practices show dramatic increases in yields as well as

benefits to soil quality, reduction in pests and diseases and general improvement in taste and

nutritional content. For example, in Brazil the use of green manures and cover crops increased

maize yields by between 20% and 250%; in Tigray, Ethiopia, yields of crops from composted plots

were 3-5 times higher than those treated only with chemicals; yield increases of 175% have been

reported from farms in Nepal adopting agro-ecological practices; and in Peru the restoration of

traditional Incan terracing has led to increases of 150% for a range of upland crops.

Projects in Senegal involving 2000 farmers promoted stall-fed livestock, composting systems, useof green manures, water harvesting systems and rock phosphate. Yields of millet and peanuts

increased dramatically, by 75-195% and 75-165% respectively. Because the soils have greater

water retaining capacity, fluctuations in yields are less pronounced between high and low rainfall

years. A project in Honduras, which emphasized soil conservation practices and organic fertilizers,

saw a tripling or quadrupling of yields.

In Santa Catarina, Brazil, focus has been placed on soil and water conservation, using contour grass


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barriers, contour ploughing and green manures. Some 60 different crop species, leguminous and

non-leguminous, have been inter-cropped or planted during fallow periods. These have had major

impacts on yields, soil quality, levels of biological activity and water-retaining capacity. Yields of

maize and soybeans have increased by 66%.

3.2 Efficient productionThe worlds longest running experiment comparing organic and conventional farming pronounced

the former a success. The 21-year study found that soils nourished with manure were more fertile

and produced more crops for a given input of nitrogen or other fertilizer. Nutrient input in the

organic systems was 34 to 51% lower than in the conventional systems, whereas mean crop yield

was only 20% lower over 21 years, indicating efficient production and use of resources. The

ecological and efficiency gains more than made up for lower yields. In the long term, the organic

approach was commercially viable, producing more food with less energy and fewer resources.

The biggest bonus was improved quality of the soil under organic cultivation. Organic soils had up

to 3.2 times as much biomass and abundance of earthworms, twice as many arthropods (importantpredators and indicators of soil fertility) and 40% more mycorrhizal fungi colonising plant roots.

Mycorrhizal fungi are important in helping roots obtain more nutrients and water from the soil.

The enhanced soil fertility and higher biodiversity is believed to render the organic plots less

dependent on external inputs and provide long-term environmental benefits.

3.3 Improved soil properties

Indeed, organic agriculture is helping to conserve and improve farmers most precious resource,

the topsoil. To counter the problems of hardening, nutrient loss and erosion, organic farmers in the

South are using trees, shrubs and leguminous plants to stabilize and feed soil, dung and compost to

provide nutrients, and terracing or check dams to prevent erosion and conserve groundwater.

Field experiments conducted at three organic and three conventional vegetable farms in 1996-1997

examined the effects of synthetic fertilisers and alternative soil amendments, including compost.

Propagule densities ofTrichoderma species (beneficial soil fungi that are biological control agents

of plant-pathogenic fungi) and thermophilic microorganisms (a major constituent of which was

Actinomycetes, which suppressesPhytophthora) were greater in organic soils. In contrast, densities

ofPhytophthora andPythium (both plant pathogens) were lower in organic soils. While the study

recorded increased enteric bacteria in organic soils, the researchers stressed that this was not a

problem, as survival rates in soil are minimal. Critics of organic farming have disingenuously

pointed to the possible human health effects of using manure. But untreated manure is notallowedin certified organic culture, and treated manure (known widely as compost) is safe - this is what is

used in organic farming. Unlike conventional regimes (where manure might be used), mandatory

organic certification bodies inspect farms to ensure standards are met.

Little yield difference was observed in the first year. In the second year, tomato yields were higher

on farms with a history of organic production, regardless of soil amendment type, probably due to


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the benefits of long-term organic amendments. Mineral concentrations were higher in organic soils

whilst soil quality on conventional farms was significantly improved by the addition of organic

fertilizer.

Another means to restore soil fertility in organic systems is through legumes. A 15-year study

compared three maize/soybean agro-ecosystems. One was a conventional system using mineral Nfertilizer and pesticides. The other two systems were managed organically. One was manure-based,

where grasses and legumes, grown as part of a crop rotation, were fed to cattle. The manure

provided N for maize production. The other did not have livestock; N fixed by legumes was

incorporated into soil.

Amazingly, the 10-year-average maize yields differed by less than 1% among the three systems.

Soil organic matter and N content increased markedly in the manure system and, to a lesser degree,

in the legume system, but were unchanged or declined in the conventional system. The latter had

greater environmental impacts - 60% more nitrate leached into groundwater over a 5-year period

than in the organic systems.

3.4 No increased pests

Because organic farms dont use synthetic pesticides, critics claim that losses due to pests would

rise. However, research on tomato production has found that the withdrawal of synthetic

insecticides does not lead to increased crop losses as a result of pest damage. There was no

significant difference in pest damage levels on 18 commercial farms, half of which were certified

organic systems and half, conventional operations.

Arthropod biodiversity was on average one-third greater on organic farms than on conventional

farms. There was no significant difference between the two for abundance of pests, but densities of

natural enemies were more abundant on organic farms, with greater species richness of allfunctional groups (herbivores, predators, parasitoids). Thus, any particular pest species in organic

farms would be associated with a greater variety of herbivores (i.e. diluted) and subject to a wider

variety and greater abundance of potential parasitoids and predators.

At the same time, research has shown that pest control is achievable without pesticides, reversing

crop losses. For example, in East Africa, maize and sorghum face two major pestsstem borer and

Striga, a parasitic plant. Field margins are planted with trap crops that attract stem borer, such as

Napier grass. Pests are lured away from the crop into a trapthe grass produces a sticky substance

that kills stemborer larvae. The crops are inter-planted with molasses grass (Desmodium

uncinatum) and two legumes: silverleaf and greenleaf. The legumes bind N, enriching the soil. Butthats not all.Desmodium also repels stemborers andStriga.

Korean researchers recently reported that avoiding pesticides in paddy fields encourages the muddy

loach fish, which effectively control mosquitoes that spread malaria and Japanese encephalitis. The

larvae numbers of the mosquito vectors were significantly lower in organic sites.


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3.5 Higher biodiversity

Maintaining agricultural biodiversity is vital to ensuring long-term food security. Organic farms

often exhibit greater biodiversity than conventional farms, with more trees, a wider diversity of

crops and many different natural predators, which control pests and help prevent disease.

Proving with stunning results that planting a diversity of crops is beneficial (compared withmonocultures), thousands of Chinese rice farmers have doubled yields and nearly eliminated its

most devastating disease, without using chemicals or spending more. Under the direction of

scientists, farmers in Yunnan implemented a simple change that radically restricted the incidence

of rice blast. Instead of planting large stands of a single type of rice, as they typically have done,

they planted a mixture of two different kinds of rice: a standard rice that does not usually succumb

to rice blast disease and a much more valuable sticky rice known to be very susceptible.

Resistant plants not only blocked the airborne spores, but as more farmers participated, positive

effects began to multiply. Not only were spores not blowing in from the next row, they were no

longer coming from the next farmers field either, rapidly halting the diseases spread. The stickyrice plants, which rise above the shorter, standard rice plants, enjoyed sunnier, warmer and drier

conditions that also discouraged the growth of ice blast.

Furthermore, empirical evidence from a study conducted since 1994 shows that biodiverse

ecosystems are 2-3 times more productive than monocultures. In experimental plots, both

aboveground and total biomass increased significantly with species number. The high diversity

plots were fairly immune to the invasion and growth of weeds, but this was not so for monocultures

and low diversity plots. Thus, biodiverse systems are also less prone to weeds!

3.6 GHGs emissions

Organic agriculture not only have enabled agriculture-influenced ecosystems to better adjust to the

effects of climate change but also offers potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural

greenhouse gases. Mitigation is a process of reducing Green House Gases (GHGs) which are

responsible for change in climate and climatic variability. The main GHGs include methane,

nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide.

Organic agriculture not only have enabled

ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of

climate change but also offers potential to reduce

the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases. In

organic agriculture, soil fertility is maintainedmainly through farm internal inputs (organic

manures, legume production, wide crop rotations

etc.); energy-demanding synthetic fertilizers and

plant protection agents are rejected; and there is

less or no use of fossil fuel. The carbon sink idea

of the Kyoto Protocol (Article 3.4) may thereforeFig: Sources of GHGs


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partly be accomplished efficiently by organic agriculture (Food and Agriculture Organization,

2008). In order to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector, suggestions by IPCC (2007a)

included improving crop and grazing land management to increase soil carbon storage; improving

nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to reduce N; and dedicated energy crops to replace fossil

fuel use (IPCC, 2007b).

3.7 Change in cash crop income

Engagement in certified organic cash crop production has improved household food access by

increasing household income that may be used to access more food through the market which may

be either through the organic price premium, by reducing the unit cost of production, or because it

enables the adoption of a new cash crop not formerly produced by the household. The little

research done to date suggests that organic farmers in developing countries can increase their

income by 30%-200% after the organic conversion period (Onduru et al, 2002; Parrot et al, 2006).

3.8 Sustainable farming with better soil environment

Research published inNature investigated the sustainability of organic, conventional and

integrated (combining organic and conventional methods) apple production systems in Washington

from 1994-1999. All three gave comparable yields, with no observable differences in physiological

disorders or pest and disease damage.

The organic system ranked first in environmental and economic sustainability, the integrated

system second and the conventional system last. A sustainable farm must produce adequate high-

quality yields, be profitable, protect the environment, conserve resources and be socially

responsible in the long term. Specific indicators used were soil quality, horticultural performance,

orchard profitability, environmental quality and energy efficiency.

Soil quality ratings in 1998 and 1999 for the organic and integrated systems were significantly

higher than for the conventional system, due to the addition of compost and mulch. There were

satisfactory levels of nutrients among all three systems. A consumer taste test found organic apples

less tart at harvest and sweeter than conventional apples after six months of storage.

3.9 Value of the trade

Estimating the volumes and value of products traded is difficult as no countries separate organic

products in their trade statistics can be found. Segger (1997) estimated total current global trade in

organic produce to be US$11 billion, over US$4 billion of which takes place in the USA and

US$4.5 billion in Europe. With growth rates of 25-30%, he expected global value of organic trade

to reach US$100 billion by 2006. IIED (1997) estimated that the value of the organic premium to

developing countries in 1997 was US$500 million. The data clearly tells the value of trade is

increasing rapidly, and is far more than the market inflation.


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3.10 Household food security and expenditures

This section concerns how the income from organic farming was spent, who controlled it (men or

women), and how it contributed to household food security in terms of amounts and quality of food

purchased. In this regard we examine differences in men and womens priorities and perceptions.

We also examine changes in womens personal cash income since organic conversion because suchchanges affect food consumption in proportion to how much of these incomes women spend on

food.

Income earned by women

Few married women are operating their own pineapple plot in Terai region and some hilly districts

ofNepal (in addition to the family plot controlled by the husband) that allowed them to earn

personal income from pineapple sales. Apart from households headed by widows or divorcees,

most households in these areas, income is being governed by married women. In all cases this was

from a plot much smaller than that operated by the husband. It is noteworthy that the women had

not experienced a reduction in their personal income as a result of the increased emphasis onpineapple growing (by their husbands) since organic certification, although this issue was not

investigated in depth.

Ranking of how the revenue from pineapple is spent by the household (overall ranking from four

focus groups)

Source: focus group interview, October 2006 (EPOPA, 2007)

Similarly, coffee (the organic coffee) is being planted and marketed by many cooperatives in local

level or in international market in Nepal, the special pocket areas are Gulmi, Kabhrepalanchok,

Syngja, Arghakhachhi, Sindhupalanchok, and Dhading districts. As many males migrate seasonally

to India or to foreign countries for income generation or males may be involved in other

agricultural works rather intensively in organic coffee production; females are the regular farmer ofthe commodity.


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Ranking by men and women of how the income from coffee is spent by the household

The impact of income from coffee production and marketing is mainly goes to females in the case

of smallholders. The table below shows the impact of such income on livelihood of the household.

3.10 Change in farming system

Two types of transition to sustainable agriculture have been assessed: from modern or conventional

high-external input agriculture (such as farming in Green Revolution lands or in the industrializedcountries); and from traditional, rainfed agriculture where cereal yields have largely remained

constant over centuries. As these transitions are recent (within the past ten years), they provide

compelling evidence that similar improvements could occur elsewhere and that they could be

repeated on a larger scale.

The yield improvements by adopting organic farming differ according to whether agricultural

systems are in high-yielding (HY), medium-yielding (MY) and low-yielding (LY) countries. There

are currently 56 LY countries, 65 MY countries and 46 HY countries (countries with a very small

area under cereals were not included in the analysis).


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Changes in coffee management practices due to organic conversion

B.

The greatest increases following a transition to sustainable agriculture are in rainfed agriculture in

the lowest yield countries, where the average new yields for wheat, maize and sorghum-millet are

of the order of double the yields of conventional or pre-sustainable agriculture.

B. MACRO ELEMENTS

4. ECOSYSTEMS GOODS AND SERVICES

Organic agriculture provides a basis for maintaining environmental goods and services at the

farm and landscape level. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2008), organicagriculture provides the following environmental goods and services.

Organic agriculture promotes ecological resilience, improved biodiversity, healthymanagement of farms and the surrounding environment, and builds on community knowledge

and strength. Hence, organic agriculture has been proved to be effective for enhanced


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adaptive capacity of farmers adversely affected by climate change.

Organic agriculture and environmental goods and services


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5. SUSTAINABLE FOOD SECURITY

The sustainable production of food is the first pillar of food security. In this section we address twofundamental questions:

to food security, particularly at the local level, or can current andfuture populations be fed by sustainable agriculture?

The Sustainable Agriculture Programme of IIED has examined the extent and impact of sustainableagriculture in a selected number of countries, and used this empirical evidence to estimatesustainable agricultures potential contribution to global food production. Whilst we were aware

that many projects and programmes had improved agricultural yields, these data have never beencollated in one place.

The government and non-government programmes and projects have included in this analysis shareimportant common characteristics. They have:-conserving technologies in conjunction with group or collective

approaches to agricultural improvement and natural resource management;

-centred activities at the centre of their agenda - hence,these activities are occurring on local peoples terms, and so are more likely to persist after theprojects and programmes have ended;

-for-work to buy the participation of local people, or toencourage them to adopt particular technologies, and thus improvements are unlikely tofade away or simply disappear at the end of projects or programmes;

-processing, marketing, andother off-farm activities, thus creating employment and income-generating opportunities andretaining the surplus in the rural economy.

6. IMPLICATIONS AT NATIONAL LEVEL IN NEPAL

Despite the alarming impacts-both potential and realized of climate change on agriculture, there is

hardly any information available related to climate change, agriculture and organic agriculture in

Nepal. Organic agriculture is beginning to gain attention both in the Government and in the non-government sector these days. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC) throughits district level offices has started working in organic agriculture but the efforts are still

not adequate. The ministry has already finalized the organic agriculture standard forcertification for Nepal.

The Government of Nepal through the Ministry of Environment Science and Technology


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(MoEST) is going to prepare a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) for Nepal.

Though it is not yet clear how the government is going to prepare the NAPA, the involvement ofMoAC and other non-governmental organizations in the process of NAPA formulation is vital for

the integration of organic agriculture and adaptation related issues.

7. COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Organic agriculture is based on ecological processes; knowledge of the agro-ecosystem is thus a

pre-requisite to any organic farm. Farmers with a traditional knowledge base are potentially better

able to develop ecological processes to respond to the effects of climate change and some other

changes in soil environment and farm productivity. Community knowledge represents a process of

learning as much as a single body of information. Traditional knowledge is not just a system for the

present, but a source of institutional memory about what practices have worked best over time.

Such knowledge has been described as a reservoir of adaptations, a whole set of practices that

may be used again if the need arises (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). Organic

agriculture has promoted improved soil quality and efficient water use, agro-ecosystems and strong

community knowledge processes which in turn help to improve farm resilience against the adverse

impacts of climate change and strengthen farms adaptive capacity.

8. CONCLUSION

The impact of organic agriculture in Nepal has been reviewed and some major and some minorchanges have been known due to the adoption of organic agriculture in Nepal.

The major elements that has made changes over the social and environmental aspects of Nepal and

Nepalese agriculture economy are: changes in income of farmers due to premium price of organicproduct, changes in soil environment especially improving the soil flora and fauna activity andmaking soil more productive lessening the soil pollution, changes in household economy, changesin female income and expenditure pattern, improvements in biodiversity, reduction of agriculturalinput costs, and utilization of local resources.

The macro elements changes due to the adoption of organic agriculture are social change, croppingpattern shifts, farm environment improvements, farmer health hazard reduction, and so on.


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