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Module 2 Introducing South Africa

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Tourism Qualifications Guiding FET Certificate: Tourist Guiding NQF4 Culture 71549

FET Certificate: Tourist Guiding NQF4 Nature 71549

National Certificate in Tourism: Guiding NQF2 Culture 17174

National Certificate in Tourism: Guiding NQF2 Nature 17174

Site Guide Culture NQF2

Site Guide Nature NQF2

Dangerous Game

Nature Site Guide (Dangerous Game Area) NQF2

Hospitality National Certificate: Fast Food Services NQF3

National Certificate in Accommodation Services NQF2

National Certificate in Professional Cookery NQF4

National Certificate in Food & Beverage Services NQF 4

Bar Attendant NQF 2

Table Attendant NQF 2

Kitchen Cleaner NQF 2

Room Attendant NQF2

Laundry Assistant NQF2

Public Area Cleaner NQF2

Assistant Housekeeper NQF2

Event Support & Car Rental Qualifications

Tourism

FET Certificate: Event Support NQF4

RPL Event Support Education & Training Qualifications

Assessor

Moderator

Facilitate Learning Coach Learners Design and Develop (Assessment Designer)

Agriculture Qualifications

Primary Agriculture

National Certificate: Animal Production NQF1

National Certificate: Animal Production NQF2 National Certificate: Animal Production NQF3 National Certificate: Animal Production NQF4 National Certificate: Animal Production NQF5

National Certificate: Plant ProductionNQF1

National Certificate: Plant ProductionNQF2 National Certificate: Plant ProductionNQF3



National Certificate: Mixed Farming NQF1

National Certificate: Mixed Farming NQF2

Secondary Agriculture

National Certificate: AgriTrade Processes NQF2 National Certificate: AgriTrade & Sales NQF4 Health & Welfare Qualifications Perform basic life support and first aid procedures NQF1 First Aid Level 1



KINDLY NOTE:

ALL STATISTICS CONTAINED HEREIN ARE APPROXIMATE AND SUBJECT TO CHANGE

INDEX DEMOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AFRICA .......................................................................................................................................... 5

Population Figures .................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Individual Provinces .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 Racial ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5

Groupings ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Languages .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Religious Practices (census 2001) .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Population growth rate ............................................................................................................................................................ 6 Life expectancy at birth ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

ECONOMY .................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 Natural Resources .................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Mineral Wealth .................................................................................................................................................................. 6 Energy ............................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Trading Partners ................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Major Industries and Commerce ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Building and Construction Industry .................................................................................................................................. 12 Electrical Power Industry ................................................................................................................................................. 13 Financial Services Industry .............................................................................................................................................. 13 Iron and Steel Industry .................................................................................................................................................... 15 Manufacturing Industry .................................................................................................................................................... 16 Media Industry ................................................................................................................................................................. 16 Mining Industry ................................................................................................................................................................ 19 Oil and Gas Industry ........................................................................................................................................................ 21 Paper and Pulp Industry .................................................................................................................................................. 22 Tourism Industry .............................................................................................................................................................. 22 Fishing Industry ............................................................................................................................................................... 22 Food Industry .................................................................................................................................................................. 24 Agricultural Industry ......................................................................................................................................................... 24

Tax Systems of South Africa ................................................................................................................................................. 31 South African Revenue Service ....................................................................................................................................... 31 Sources of Revenue ........................................................................................................................................................ 31

Employment Figures ............................................................................................................................................................. 32 Economic Trends .................................................................................................................................................................. 33 Land Redistribution Policy .................................................................................................................................................... 33

INSTITUTIONS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 34 Education System ................................................................................................................................................................. 35 Legal System ........................................................................................................................................................................ 36

Courts ............................................................................................................................................................................. 36 Legal Practitioners ........................................................................................................................................................... 37 Constitution ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37

Tourism Institutions............................................................................................................................................................... 38 NATIONAL SYMBOLS ............................................................................................................................................................... 40

National Orders & Awards ............................................................................................................................................... 43 SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNANCE ............................................................................................................................................ 45 INFRASTRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................................................. 49

Transport .............................................................................................................................................................................. 49 Transport Agencies ......................................................................................................................................................... 49 General ........................................................................................................................................................................... 49

Tourism ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 Top Attractions ................................................................................................................................................................ 50 Western Cape ................................................................................................................................................................. 50 Northern Cape ................................................................................................................................................................. 50 Free State ....................................................................................................................................................................... 50 Eastern Cape .................................................................................................................................................................. 50 Limpopo .......................................................................................................................................................................... 51 North West ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Mpumalanga ................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Gauteng .......................................................................................................................................................................... 51 KwaZulu-Natal ................................................................................................................................................................. 51

Social Infrastructure & Services ............................................................................................................................................ 51 Primary healthcare .......................................................................................................................................................... 51 Community health ........................................................................................................................................................... 52 Provincial health departments ......................................................................................................................................... 52 Welfare Services ............................................................................................................................................................. 53

CULTURAL HERITAGE ............................................................................................................................................................. 56 Arts and culture initiatives ..................................................................................................................................................... 56

Legacy projects ............................................................................................................................................................... 56


National Certificate in Tourism: Guiding 17174 Introduce South Africa to Tourists

Arts and culture organisations .............................................................................................................................................. 56 Cultural tourism .................................................................................................................................................................... 57

Cultural villages .............................................................................................................................................................. 58 Arts festivals ................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Theatre ........................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Music .............................................................................................................................................................................. 58 Indigenous music ............................................................................................................................................................ 58 Dance ............................................................................................................................................................................. 59 Rock art .......................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Crafts .............................................................................................................................................................................. 59 Museums ........................................................................................................................................................................ 60

Religion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 60 Christian churches .......................................................................................................................................................... 61 African traditionalists ....................................................................................................................................................... 61 Other religions ................................................................................................................................................................ 62

World Heritage Sites ............................................................................................................................................................ 62 The Cradle of Human Kind .............................................................................................................................................. 62 Robben Island................................................................................................................................................................. 62 Greater St Lucia Wetland ................................................................................................................................................ 63 Drakensberg uKhahlamba Park ...................................................................................................................................... 64 Mapungubwe .................................................................................................................................................................. 64 Cape Floral Region ......................................................................................................................................................... 64 Vredefort Dome .............................................................................................................................................................. 65 Richtersveld Cultual and Botanical Landscape ................................................................................................................ 65

NATURAL HERITAGE .............................................................................................................................................................. 66 Biosphere reserves .............................................................................................................................................................. 66 Biological diversity ................................................................................................................................................................ 66

Savanna biome ............................................................................................................................................................... 66 Nama-Karoo biome ......................................................................................................................................................... 66 Grassland biome ............................................................................................................................................................. 67 Succulent Karoo biome ................................................................................................................................................... 67 Fynbos biome ................................................................................................................................................................. 67 Forest biome ................................................................................................................................................................... 67 Thicket biome ................................................................................................................................................................. 67

Flagship Species .................................................................................................................................................................. 69 The Big Five ................................................................................................................................................................... 69 The Big Six ..................................................................................................................................................................... 69 Other species.................................................................................................................................................................. 69 The Big Two ................................................................................................................................................................... 69

Topography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 69 The Land ........................................................................................................................................................................ 69 General Climate and Temperatures ................................................................................................................................ 71

PERIODISATION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 72 The early inhabitants ............................................................................................................................................................ 72 The early colonial period ...................................................................................................................................................... 72 The British colonial era ......................................................................................................................................................... 73 The mineral revolution .......................................................................................................................................................... 75 The Anglo-Boer/South African War (October 1899 – May 1902) and its aftermath ............................................................... 75 Segregation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Apartheid ............................................................................................................................................................................. 77 The end of apartheid ............................................................................................................................................................ 78 The First Decade of Freedom ............................................................................................................................................... 80 Into the Second Decade of Freedom .................................................................................................................................... 81

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................................................... 82

Issue date June 07 Version 2 Page 4 of 82


DEMOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AFRICA Population Figures Individual Provinces Gauteng 8.83 mil

Mpumalanga 3.12 mil

North West 3.66 mil

KwaZulu-Natal 9.42 mil

Free State 2.76 mil Total Population 44 819 778 Limpopo 5.27 mil

Eastern Cape 6.43 mil

Northern Cape 0.82 mil

Western Cape 4.52 mil

Racial African = 79% White = 9.6%

Coloured = 8.9% Indian/Asian = 2.5%

Groupings The Tsonga The Khoi The Venda The San

Afrikaners English Coloureds Indians

The Nguni People – Swazi, Xhosa, Zulu

The Sotho –Tswana (Southern, Northern and Western Sotho)

Immigrants from rest of Africa, Europe and Asia – maintaining strong cultural identity

Languages

Official: English (8.2%) Afrikaans (13.3%) isiNdebele (1.6%) Sepedi (9.4%) Sesotho (6.9%) Setswana (8.2%) SiSwati (2.6%) Xitsongo (4.2%) Tshivenda (1.7%) isiXhosa (17.6%) isiZulu (23.8%) Other: Chinese, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Signage



Religious Practices (census 2001) Christianity = 79.8% African Traditional = 0.3%

Judaism = 0.2% Islam = 1.5%

Hinduism = 1.2% No Religion = 15.1%

Other (include Buddhism) = 0.6% Undetermined = 1.4%

Population growth rate Total Population Growth = 0.5%

Birth rate = 24.56 births/1,000 population

Death rate = 14.69 deaths/1,000 population Life expectancy at birth Total population = 51.1 years Male = 50.41 years Female = 51.81 years Infant mortality rate = 58.88 deaths/1,000 live births ECONOMY Natural Resources Mineral Wealth South Africa's mineral wealth is found in diverse geological formations, some of which are unique and extensive by world standards. Some of the country's minerals include:

• Gold the unique and widespread - Witwatersrand Basin yields some 96% of South Africa's gold output.

• Diamonds (in kimberlites, alluvial and marine) – the country is among the world's top producers.

• Titanium heavy mineral-sand occurrences containing titanium minerals are found along the coasts.

• Manganese enormous reserves of manganese are found in the sedimentary rocks of the Transvaal Supergroup.

• PGMs and chrome these minerals occur in the Bushveld Complex in Mpumalanga, Limpopo and North West. More than half of the global reserves of chrome and platinum are found in this deposit.

• Coal and anthracite beds occur in the Karoo Basin in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo.

• Copper phosphate, titanium, iron, vermiculite and zirconium are found in the Phalaborwa Igneous Complex in Limpopo.



South Africa's reserves of the following seven commodities rank highest in the world:

South Africa exports the following minerals:

South Africa imports the following minerals due to the insufficiency of local resources or the fact that their deposits in SA cannot be economically exploited, and another factor is specialised grades:

Diamonds Alumina and other non-ferrous minerals Certain ferroalloys Coking coal

Energy South Africa’s GDP in the 26th highest in the world, but its primary energy consumption ranks 16th. The energy sector is critical to the South African economy, contributing about 15% of GDP and employing about 250 000 people. Its energy intensity is above average, with only 10 other countries having higher commercial primary energy intensities. This high-energy intensity is largely a result of the economy’s structure, with large-scale, energy-intensive primary minerals beneficiation industries and mining industries dominating. In addition, there is a heavy reliance on coal for generation of most of the electricity and a significant proportion of the liquid fuels consumed in the country. Furthermore, South Africa’s industry has not generally used the latest in energy-efficient technologies, mainly as a result of relatively low energy costs. Industry is the largest energy consumer, accounting for nearly half of total consumption. Households and transport make up most of the other half, while agriculture accounts for only 3% of consumption.

Manganese Vanadium

Chromium Alumina-silicates

Platinum Group Metals Vermiculite

Gold

Aluminium Iron ore

Alumina-silicates Manganese ore & products

Chrome ore & alloys Phosphate rock

Coal Silicon products

Dimension stone Titanium products

Ferrochromium Vanadium

Ferromanganese Vermiculite

Fluorspar Zirconium



• Households Energy consumed by households represents some 17% of the country’s net use. Most household energy is obtained from fuel wood (50% of net energy), primarily in rural areas, with the remainder coming from coal (18%), illuminating paraffin (7%), and a small amount from liquid petroleum gas. • Industry and Mining They are the most important sub-sectors in terms of energy consumption. They mainly use electricity and coal as energy sources. • Transport Liquid fuels such as petrol and diesel account for 92% of energy used for transport. Rail transport accounts for less than 5% of the total national electricity consumption. Petrol sales account for more than half of the total sales of local petroleum products. • Coal South Africa’s indigenous energy resource base is dominated by coal. Many of the deposits can be exploited at extremely favourable costs and, as a result, a large coal-mining industry has developed. Coal is exported mainly through Richards Bay. • Nuclear power South Africa has one nuclear power station in operation. The Eskom nuclear power station, called Koeberg, is located in the Western Cape. Koeberg’s two reactors have operated safely since their commission in 1984 and 1985. Koeberg supplies 1800 megawatt to the national grid when both reactors are operating at full power, contributing approximately 6% of South Africa’s electricity. • Liquid fuels South Africa consumed 21 267ML of liquid fuel products in 2002 and 25 338 ML in 2003. Thirty-six percent of the demand is met by synthetic fuels (synfuels) produced locally, largely from coal and a small amount from natural gas. Products refined locally from imported crude oil meet the rest. The petrol price in SA is linked to the price of petrol in United States (US) Dollars in certain international markets for petrol. This means that the domestic price is influenced by supply and demand for petroleum products in the international markets, combined with the Rand/Dollar exchange rate. • Indigenous oil and gas The National Petroleum, Gas and Oil Corporation of South Africa (PetroSA) were officially launched in Cape Town in October 2002. As the national petroleum company in South Africa, PetroSA is responsible for the exploration and exploitation of oil and natural gas, as well as the production and marketing of synthetic fuels produced from offshore gas at the world's largest commercial gas-to-liquids plant in Mossel Bay - Mossgas. The import of refined products is restricted to special cases where local producers cannot meet demand. It is subject to State control with a view to promoting local refinery utilisation. When overproduction occurs, export permits are required and generally granted, provided that both South Africa’s and other Southern African Customers Union members’ requirements are met. More diesel than petrol is exported, owing to the balance of supply and demand of petrol and diesel relative to refinery configurations. Although petrol and diesel make up 55% of total liquid-fuel exports, South Africa is also the main supplier of all other liquid fuels to Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland. In addition to coal gas and liquid petroleum gas, South Africa produced some 15 234 t of natural gas and 271 billion t of associated condensate in 2002. • Electricity South Africa, which supplies two-thirds of Africa’s electricity, is one of the four cheapest electricity producers in the world. Ninety-two percent of South African electricity is produced from coal.



Generation is currently dominated by Eskom, which also owns and operates the national grid. Eskom currently supplies more than 95% of South Africa’s electricity. • Biomass Fuel wood, which comes mainly from natural woodlands, is the primary source of energy used by households in most rural areas for the purpose of cooking and heating. In some areas, this is already almost completely depleted and in others it is under heavy pressure. • Renewables Renewable energy sources, other than biomass, have not been exploited to the full in South Africa. • Solar Most areas in South Africa average more than 2 500 hours of sunshine per year, and average daily solar-radiation levels range between 4.5 and 6.5 kWh/m² in one day. The Southern African region, and in fact the whole of Africa, is well endowed with sunshine all year round. The annual 24-hour global solar radiation average is about 220 W/m² for South Africa, compared to about 150 W/m² for parts of the USA, and about 100 W/m² for Europe and the United Kingdom, making the local resource one of the highest in the world. The solar resource is by far the most readily accessible in South Africa. It lends itself to a number of potential uses. A pilot programme has been launched to establish a limited number of public-private sector institutions in conjunction with the relevant municipalities to provide electricity services on an integrated basis. Once the underlying managerial and funding issues have been resolved, the process will be expanded to cover all the rural areas. Solar power is increasingly being used for water pumping through the rural water provision and sanitation programme of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. • Wind Wind as an energy source is only practical in strong and steady wind areas. South Africa has fair wind potential, especially along the coastal areas. At present, however, wind is not used to generate electricity in this country. For the future it presents itself as a competitive energy source. Wind power is primarily used for water pumping, with about 300 000 windmills being used for watering livestock and supplying communities with water. The first wind-energy farm in Africa was opened at Klipheuwel in the Western Cape on 21 February 2003. This experimental wind farm, property of Eskom, will explore the use of wind energy for bulk electricity-generation. Wind energy is environmentally friendly and helps reduce global warming and GHGs. • Hydro South Africa has limited potential for large-scale hydro-electrical power owing to its limited water resources. River-flows in South Africa are not constant, varying between floods and very low flows. For this reason, the running of river schemes is generally not a feasible option. Relatively large and expensive storage dams are normally required, even for small hydro-stations. South Africa has two conventional hydroelectric power stations and two pumped storage schemes. Pumped storage-generation involves the construction of two adjacent reservoirs, or dams, one at a significantly higher elevation than the other. During periods of low demand on the Eskom grid, excess energy is used to pump water from the lower reservoir to the higher reservoir via underground tunnels. During peak demand periods the process is reversed. The stored water is allowed to flow back via the tunnels to the lower reservoir through hydraulic turbines, driving generators. Apart from a small quantity of water lost to evaporation, pumped storage schemes, like conventional hydro-stations, do not consume water. Once one of the reservoirs is filled, the same active volume is used over and over again.



Trading Partners The centrepiece of South Africa's foreign economic policy is the SADC, constituted by Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, the Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Within the SADC, a smaller group of countries, South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland (BLNS countries), have organised themselves into SACU. A sizeable share of South Africa's exports (currently estimated at over R38.8 billion at the end of 2004), are destined for SACU and other SADC countries. Zimbabwe is the main destination for South Africa’s exports into Africa, absorbing well over R6 billion of South Africa’s exports. It is the largest importer within the SADC region, importing over 24,4% of South Africa’s exports into Africa. Mozambique’s position is improving. The country is importing more than it did in 2002 (from 16,4% to 19,5%), absorbing over R5 billion of South Africa’s exports. South Africa's imports from the region are focused on a few countries, with the top 10 countries accounting for between 80% and 90% of total imports from Africa. Zimbabwe is South Africa's top supplier in Africa, followed by Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia and Angola. Europe is the largest source of investment for South Africa and accounts for almost half of South Africa's total foreign trade. Seven of South Africa's top 10 trading partners are European countries. The United Kingdom (UK), with its historic links with South Africa, is South Africa's third-largest trading partner and the largest foreign investor in South Africa. Germany is South Africa's second-largest trading partner and an influential member of the EU. The Germany-South Africa BNC intends expanding the strong commercial links that already exist between the two countries. South Africa is the Netherlands' main trading partner in Africa, with exports totalling R740 million in 2002. Likewise, the Netherlands is one of South Africa's top 10 trading partners and offers prospects of increased involvement in the EU. Spain invested R2,02 billion in South Africa, making it the fourth-largest new investor in South Africa in 2002. Major Bilateral Trading Partners of South Africa: 1 - United States - SA’s first and foremost trading partner 2 - United Kingdom 3 - Germany 4 - Japan 5 - The Netherlands 6 - Belgium - on a par with Italy 7 - Italy - on a par with Belgium 8 - Zimbabwe - but it is SA’s number one trading partner in Africa Exports to the USA increased marginally in nominal terms from R29 billion in 2003 to R30 billion in 2004. Imports from the USA also recorded a paltry increase in nominal terms from R25 billion to R26 billion from 2003 to 2004. Canada is South Africa's second-largest trading partner in North America. Since the lifting of sanctions in 1994, bilateral trade between the two countries has been on the increase, from R904 million in 1993 to R4 billion in 2004. South Africa's major trading partners in Latin America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Peru. Both South Africa and Brazil regard each other as strategic partners with cooperation taking place in multilateral forums such as the WTO. Chile is becoming an increasingly important partner for South Africa. South African mining companies are heavily involved in mining activities in Chile. Bilateral trade between South Africa and the Andean Community (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela) has been growing at a relatively slow pace since 1994. The Andean Community,



more specifically Colombia and Peru, offers great potential for South African companies participating in the mining industry. South Africa is a member of the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC), a project-based regional economic grouping of 19 countries washed by the Indian Ocean. This group covers the eastern coastline of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, southern Asia and Singapore, Indonesia and Australia. Between 1995 and 2002, the IOR-ARC accounted for a small, but significant, average of a 14% share of South Africa's global trade. Relations with Australia have also been cemented via the JMC. South African manufactured exports to Australia grew by 17,3% in 2001/02. Japan is South Africa's largest trading partner in Asia and its fourth-largest overall trading partner. It also became South Africa's third-largest export destination during 2002. South Korea is a large trading partner for South Africa in Asia. Economic and trade relations between South Africa and the People's Republic of China have grown rapidly since the formal establishment of diplomatic relations. South African exports to Taiwan amounted to R5,12 billion in 2000, while imports amounted to R5,42 billion in the same period. The following commodities are imported and exported to the abovementioned countries:

Exports Imports Diamonds Antibiotics, medicaments Mineral ores, Platinum Group Metals, manganese and zirconium ores, non-ally Pig Iron, precious metals and semi-finished stainless steel products

Dextrin & modified starches, Potassium chloride, citric acid, peptones and their derivatives

Helicopters, light aircraft and aircraft engines Radiography & X-ray equipment, apparatus & chemicals

Mining machinery; crushing & grinding machinery Orthopaedic appliances Petroleum Oils for road craft, aircraft, spacecraft and vessels

Contact lenses

Reactor initiators Machines, plant & laboratory equipment Steam and vapour-heating boilers Centrifuges and driers Acetone Ultra Violet and infra ray lamps & equipment Chemical fertiliser, fungicides and herbicides Antisera and other blood fractions Telephony and satellite apparatus Surgical instruments Passenger vehicles Magnetic and optical machines Vehicle parts and accessories Lip make-up preparations Pneumatic tyres and pneumatic tools Petroleum jelly products Charcoal wood, chemical wood & pulp and paper & paperboard

Cocoa butter fat and oil

Coal briquettes and fuel wood Electric apparatus for telephony, optical fibres and cables

Containers for transporting fluids Transmission apparatus combined with reception apparatus

Plastics Headphones, earphones and microphones combined with speaker sets

Paraffin wax Video projectors and video games Salts and esters of tartaric acid Records, tapes, CDs and other recorded media Leather Automatic data-processing machinery Flooring textiles and products Air conditioning machinery Bamboo, cane and wooden furniture Printing machinery Cotton, wool, mohair, clothing and clothing textiles

Textile spinning machinery

Vegetable seeds Passenger vehicles, motor cycles and mopeds Fruit and fruit juices (apple, citrus, pear, pineapple)

Suspension shock absorbers

Wines Re-treaded tyres Cane sugar and cane molasses Vulcanised rubber articles



Exports Imports

Solid sucrose Fuel-lubricating or cooling-medium pumps Frozen fish, chilled/dried/salted crustaceans, frozen shrimps and prawns

Self-propelled trucks

Sculptures and statuary, paintings, drawings and pastels

Tractors, combine harvesters, threshers, fodder balers, hay and grass mowers

Zoological, botanical, mineralogical & anatomical collections / pieces

Bulldozers, graders, mechanical shovels and excavators

Scrapers & levellers, front-end shovel loaders Refractory bricks, blocks and tiles Boring and sinking machinery and equipment Gears and gearing equipment Air compressors Rolls for rolling mills Turbo jets, propellers and blades Filter and purifying machinery Gaskets, washers and seals, ball and roller bearings, spherical roller bearings Fairground, amusement park and amusement arcade machinery and equipment Household electric appliances, parts and accessories Polyurethane’s & styrene, polymers of styrene Tobacco, tobacco refuse & tobacco substitutes, cheroots, cigars and cigarettes Bovine or pre-tanned leather Seed, cotton seed Knitted and crocheted fabrics Bulbs, tubers or tuberous roots

Major Industries and Commerce Building and Construction Industry The Construction Industry Development Board’s (CIDB) – launched on 24 April 2001 – mandate is to:

Drive an integrated industrial development strategy Provide strategic leadership to construction industry stakeholders to stimulate growth, reform

and improvement of the construction sector for effective delivery and the industry’s enhanced role in the country’s economy.

Projects that are being prioritised and developed include:

Rollout of procurement and public sector delivery best practice to address improved spending of the infrastructure budget.

The Know Your Rights and Responsibilities Campaign. The Register of Projects and Register of Contractors are being developed to promote

improved demand- and supply-side performance. Establishing a body of knowledge and a website as a resource to the industry. Developing CIDB governance procedures.

The industry has been faced with many problems:

One of the chief being a shortage of skilled artisans and labourers. Bringing in previously disadvantaged groups into the industry has heightened this shortage. Another key issue is to bring about a plan for provision of affordable housing.



The installation of suitable equipment and monitoring systems for evaluation and reporting

purposes is another constraint in housing delivery. The Council for the Built Environment (CBE) was launched in April 2002. It ensures proper coordination between government and the built environment professions, and proper application of policies by the respective councils. The CBE also promotes a range of new priorities and acts as an appeal body for affected professionals and members of the public. Since the launch of the Strategic Empowerment Programme for Woman in Construction in August 2001, some R188 million worth of construction-related work involving more than 79 projects have been awarded to women-owned enterprises. Electrical Power Industry The State-owned utility Eskom dominates South Africa’s electrical supply industry. At present it supplies almost two-thirds of Africa’s electricity and 98% of South Africa’s. It is one of the largest in the world and has the world’s biggest dry-cooling power station. The electricity generated is mostly coal fired. However, the nuclear power station at Koeberg, accounts for approximately 7% of the country’s total electricity generation. Eskom also supplies electricity to Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, Namibia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. With the present system, no new resources for generating will be needed until at least 2010. In global terms, Eskom is the 7th largest manufacturer and ranks 7th largest in sales. Financial Services Industry The Financial Services Industry consists of:

Banking Land Bank Development Bank

Insurance: Short Term Insurance Group/Employee Benefits: Pension Funds, Provident Funds, Funeral Schemes, Group Life &

Disability Benefits Life Assurance Health Care: Medical Aids, Self-Insurance Programmes, Health Insurance Investment Services Managed Funds (Unit Trusts)

The Banking Industry At the end of December 2004, 35 banks, including 15 branches of foreign banks and two mutual banks, were registered with the Office of the Registrar of Banks. Furthermore, 45 foreign banks had authorised representative offices in South Africa. By the end of December 2004, the banking institutions collectively employed 116 940 workers. Four major groups dominate the South African banking sector, namely:

Amalgamated Banks of South Africa (ABSA) Group Limited

Standard Bank Investment Corporation Limited

First Rand Holdings Limited

Nedcor Limited



Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) In terms of the DBSA Act, 1997 (Act 13 of 1997), the primary purpose of the Bank is to promote economic development and growth, HRD and institutional capacity-building by mobilising financial and other resources from the national or international private and public sectors for sustainable development projects and programmes. The DBSA operates in South Africa and in all SADC countries. Its mandate is focused on infrastructure, acting as a catalyst for investments in partnership with the private sector. The Bank’s capital structure and financial policy have been changed, and there is a comprehensive approach to risk management.

South African Reserve Bank The Reserve Bank and the Ministry of Finance form the monetary authority in South Africa. The Reserve Bank has been given a significant degree of autonomy in terms of the Constitution, 1996, and must perform its functions independently. However, the Reserve Bank must hold regular consultations with the Minister of Finance. The South African Reserve Bank Act, 1989, governs its management, powers and functions.

The Reserve Bank formulates and implements monetary policy and regulates the supply of money by influencing its cost. Monetary police is guided by the objectives of the Reserve Bank, which are formulated to ensure financial stability. Consistent combating of inflation is the cornerstone of the Bank’s policy. A formal inflation-targeting monetary-policy framework has been adopted since 2000. The Reserve Bank is responsible for:

Assisting government in formulating and implementing macro-economic policy Formulating and implementing monetary policy to achieve its primary goal in the interest of the

community it serves Ensuring that the South African money and banking system as a whole is sound, meets the

requirements of the community, and keeps abreast of international finance development Informing the South African community and all interested parties abroad about monetary

policy and the South African economic situation in general. Land and Agricultural Development Bank The Land and Agricultural Development Bank (Land Bank) operate as a development finance institution within the agricultural and agribusiness sectors, and are regulated by the Land and Agricultural Development Bank Act, 2002 (Act 15 of 2002). The Land Bank provides a range of financing products to a broad spectrum of clients within the agricultural industry. Financing products include wholesale and retail financing to commercial and developing farmers, co-operatives and other agriculture-related businesses. Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) The JSE was established on 8 November 1887. In November 2000 it changed its name to JSE Securities Exchange South Africa. It is the largest stock exchange in Africa The JSE Limited is the 18th largest exchange in the world by market capitalisation (some R3.3-trillion as of September 2005). With approximately 400 listed companies and a market liquidity of 31.2% (September 2005), South Africa's exchange is only marginally smaller than Stockholm's and larger than no fewer than nine exchanges officially classified as "developed". The JSE is an essential cog in the functioning of South Africa's economy, providing an orderly market for dealing in securities and thereby creating new investment opportunities in the country. Under one roof, the JSE offers investors the choice of four markets:



• An equities market, including stocks from the Main Board and the small to mid-cap Alternative

Exchange. • An interest rate market. • An active financial derivatives market. • An agricultural products market

Insurance Companies Short-term (non-life) insurance is concerned primarily with risk management. The contracts usually run from year to year and can be cancelled by either party. These contracts apply to engineering, guarantee, liability, motor business, accident and health, property, transportation, and miscellaneous insurance. In essence, long-term insurance consists of life, assistance, sinking fund, health and disability insurance. Long-term insurance and pension and provident funds are concerned with maximising investment results, and life insurance is dominant. Stokvels Stokvels are co-operative rotating saving schemes that mobilise funds among mostly black communities for a variety of purposes. Rotating saving schemes similar to stokvels is also found in other countries such as South Korea, Jamaica, Egypt and Japan. An estimated one million stokvels operate in South Africa. Unit Trusts Equity unit trusts, or so-called open-ended trusts, are investment vehicles that provide a means of participation in the equity, bond and money markets for investors who may not have the time, money or expertise to effect investment successfully in markets on their own. The price of unit is calculated and published daily. Unit-trust management companies create units for sale to the public, either directly or indirectly through independent financial advisors. Management companies may create units in the trust to meet the demand from the public, or may cancel them when the public sell back their holdings of units to the management company. The management company is obliged to buy back any units offered to it at a price determined within 24 hours of receiving any notice of a buy-back from an investor. Various unit trusts in South Africa offer similar ranges of investment plans, varying mainly as to the minimum amounts accepted. Financial Intermediaries and Advisors In preparation for the adoption of the Financial Advisory and Intermediary Services Act, 2002, the FSB underwent restructuring during 2002. Part of the restructuring was the creation of a Financial Intermediary and Advisory Department, which was finalised on 1 August 2002. The Act requires that a wide range of financial-service intermediaries and financial-service advisors in South Africa, obtain a licence to carry out their activities. Other Financial Services

Accounting Legal Advice Business Broking Property Services Emigration Advice Retirement Planning Estate Planning Stock broking Investment Planning Tax Consulting

Iron and Steel Industry South Africa’s iron ore reserves are estimated at 2 300 Mt. More than 45% of these reserves are located in the Northern Cape.



Kumba is a leading global high-grade lump iron ore producer. The principal iron ore assets are the mines at Sishen and Thabazimbi. Together, the mines produce 30Mt pa of iron ore, which accounts for 81% of South Africa’s total demand and 4% of the global sea-borne trade. Sishen is one of the largest single open-pit mines in the world, known for its high grade and consistent quality. The 861km rail system that links Sishen to the dedicated deepwater port and bulk-loading facility at Saldanha Bay is one of the most efficient in the world and has advanced logistical systems for handling and loading iron ore. Sishen is under a contractual obligation to deliver 6,25Mt pa of iron ore to Mittal Steel South Africa Limited at cost plus a 3% management fee and Thabazimbi mine supplies iron ore exclusively to Mittal on the same basis. Mittal Steel South Africa Limited (Iscor) is the largest steel producer on the African continent, producing 7,1Mt of liquid steel per annum. The company has a depth of technical and managerial expertise carefully nurtured since 1928, a reputation for reliability and sharply defined business focus, which has forged the organisation into a modern, highly competitive supplier of steel products to the domestic and global markets. Manufacturing Industry In 2002, manufacturing grew by 5,4%, which was the fastest growth rate since 1995. The decline in employment in manufacturing has eased and there are encouraging signs of possible employment growth in this sector. Although the weak global conditions, compounded by the crisis in the Middle East, were expected to lead to softer conditions in manufacturing in 2003, this should be viewed against the impressive growth rate in 2002. A lowering inflation rate, cuts in interest rates, and reductions in personal income tax, will support significant increases in domestic consumer expenditure, thus increasing domestic demand. Manufacturing for export has replaced commodities as the centrepiece of the South African economy, far exceeding mining in importance. A prime example of this is the automotive industry, which, since 1996, has taken off to remarkable heights, growing tenfold by 2002, in terms of vehicles and components. At the end of August 2002, annual growth in manufacturing exports was 8,7%, according to the Bureau for Economic Research. Media Industry According to the Bill of Rights, as contained in South Africa’s Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes:

Freedom of the press and other media Freedom to receive or impart information or ideas Freedom of artistic creativity Academic freedom and freedom of scientific research

Several laws, policies and organisations act to protect and promote press freedom in South Africa. Broadcasting The Broadcasting Act, 1999 (Act 4 of 1999), and the IBA Act, 1993 (Act 153 of 1993), is aimed at establishing and developing a broadcasting policy to regulate and control all broadcasting to:

Contribute to democracy, nation building, the provision of education, and strengthening the moral fibre of society

Encourage ownership and control of broadcasting services by people from historically disadvantaged communities

Ensure fair competition in the sector Provide for a three-tier system of public, commercial and community broadcasting services Establish a strong and committed public broadcaster to service the needs of all South

Africans.



The Act defines the objectives of the South African broadcasting system, the structure of the SABC, and the roles of the various sectors in meeting these objectives. It also guarantees the independence of the SABC as public broadcaster. Radio

The first radio broadcast in SA took place under the auspices of a broadcasting committee of the South African Railways. The Western Electric Company undertook the first experimental broadcast in Johannesburg on 18 December 1923. During 1924, the Associated Scientific and Technical Association of South Africa began regular broadcasts in Johannesburg. The Cape Peninsula Publicity Broadcasting Association began a similar service, and the Durban Municipality followed suit with its own regular broadcasts. The first radio station, JB Calling, went on air in July 1924. The SABC is the country’s public broadcaster. It introduced its own national news service on 17 July 1950, with daily news bulletins on the English service, the Afrikaans service, and Springbok Radio. Radio Zulu, Radio Xhosa and Radio Sesotho were established on 1 June 1960. The SABC’s national radio network comprises 20 stations, which, combined, reach an average daily adult audience of 20 million. World news is provided by international news agencies and strategically situated foreign correspondents. The SABC also started an external service along the lines of the BBC World Service and the Voice of America in 1966. Called Radio South Africa, the channel was funded by the Department of Foreign Affairs. In the early 1990s, the channel’s name was changed to Channel Africa as part of the transformation of the image and the role of the public broadcaster. It is targeted at audiences in Africa and the Indian Ocean islands, and offers an all-African radio service. Channel Africa comprises four language services (English, French, Kiswahili and Portuguese), reaching millions of listeners throughout Africa. The following private radio stations have been granted licences by ICASA:

Classic FM – Gauteng Cape Talk MW – Western Cape P4 – jazz station in Cape Town and Durban Kaya FM – Youth radio station Gauteng Y-FM – Johannesburg (isiZulu, Sesotho & English) Radio KFM Radio Algoa Radio Oranje Highveld Stereo Radio 702 – Gauteng East Coast Radio Radio Jacaranda

Over the past 10 years, 94 community radio broadcasting and 10 commercial licences were awarded. Television

A one-channel television service was introduced on 5 January 1976. Today, the SABC’s national television network comprises four full-spectrum free-to-air channels, two satellite pay-TV channels aimed at audiences in Africa, and Bop-TV, which the SABC runs on behalf of the State. Combined, the free-to-air channels broadcast in 11 languages and reach a daily adult audience of almost 17 million people via the terrestrial signal distribution network and a satellite signal. South Africa is the country with by far the largest television audience in Africa.



M-Net, South Africa’s first private subscription television service was launched in 1986. Today, it has over 1,23 million subscribers in 49 countries across the African continent. M-Net, which is listed on the JSE, features broad-ranging programme scheduling on its two terrestrial channels in South Africa. The main M-Net channel focuses on movies and sport, but also offers a general entertainment line-up of children’s programmes, series and magazine programmes. It has a daily two-hour ‘open window’ when un-encoded programmes, including the country’s longest-running local soap opera, Egoli Place of Gold, are screened.

Multi Choice Africa (MCA), was formed in 1995 to manage the subscriber services of its sister company, M-Net. It became the first African company on the continent to offer digital satellite broadcasting.

This innovation has been the hallmark of MCA, culminating in its presence in over 50 countries throughout Africa. MCA provides television entertainment through its DStv, Indian, Portuguese and Arabic bouquets, to 638 000 subscribers in South Africa and a total of 860 000 subscribers across 50 countries on the African continent and adjacent Indian Ocean islands. This is done through franchises and joint ventures. The White Paper on Broadcasting Policy, released in June 1998, provided for the extension of free-to-air, pay and regional television services. On 30 March 1998, the consortium Midi Television was awarded the first privately owned free-to-air television licence. The station they operate, e-tv, is a commercial service dependant on advertising. It does not charge subscription fees. The e-tv channel started broadcasting on 1 October 1998. News broadcasts and a 24-hour service were introduced early in 1999. The signal distributor Sentech will be developed into a multimedia company, which will provide infrastructure for digital broadcasting in South Africa as well as international gateway tele-communications. Sentech, the official signal carrier of the SABC, launched its new business initiative in June 2002. Until then, Sentech’s mandate entailed the provision of its network for use by other operators, and the provision of telecommunications services direct to customers or end-users. As part of its new business initiative, Sentech will add to the launch of the submarine cable, which links Africa with Europe and the Far East, by entering the international telecommunication market and providing the necessary infrastructure for African interconnectivity. Printed media Technical handling of the print media in South Africa rates among the best in the world. On the editorial side, concerns have been raised about the general quality of content from a journalistic point of view. Research has shown that journalists lack certain basic skills and the juniorisation of newsrooms has impacted negatively on most of the major publications. The roots of the print media in South Africa can be traced back to the 19th century, when the first issue of a government newspaper, the Cape Town Gazette and African Advertiser/Kaapsche Stads Courant and Afrikaansche Berigter, was published in 1800. Thomas Pringle and John Fairbairn published the first independent publication, The South African Commercial advertiser, in 1824. Eighteen issues later it was banned, and reappeared only after various representations has been made to the authorities in London. South African newspapers and magazines are mainly organised into press groups, which have burgeoned over the years as a result of take-overs. The major press groups are Independent Newspapers (Pty) LTD, Media24 LTD, CTP/Caxton Publishers & Printers LTD, and Johnnic Publishing LTD. Other important media players include Primedia, Nail (New Africa Investments Limited) and Kagiso Media. Nail has unbundled into a commercial company (New Africa Capital) and a media company (New Africa Media). Since 1994, the major press groups have embarked on programmes to boost black empowerment in media ownerships.



Some of the major daily and weekly newspapers:

Beeld East Cape Weekend The Saturday Star Die Burger Herald Soccer-Laduma Business Day Ilanga The Southern Cross The Cape Argus Isolezwe Sowetan Cape Times The Independent On Saturday The Star The Citizen Mail & Guardian The Sunday Independent City Press The Mercury Sunday Sun Daily Dispatch Natal Witness Sunday Times Daily News Post Sunday Tribune Daily Sun Pretoria News Die Volksblad Diamond Fields Advertiser Rapport Weekend Argus

Some of the magazines with the largest circulation: Huisgenoot Reader’s Digest You TV Plus Sarie People Rooi Rose The Motorist True Love Cosmopolitan Online Media Most of the bigger publications have websites on the Internet. There are more than 600 ‘netzines’ listed as online publications in South Africa, with at least 16 of them specialising in daily news. The Mail & Guardian has received worldwide acclaim as the best online publication in Africa. News Agencies The South African Press Association (SAPA), which is a national news agency, is a co-operative, non-profit news-gathering and distribution organisation operating in the interest of its members and the public. SAPA’s foreign news is received from Associated Press (AP) and its representatives in London. The main foreign news agencies operating in South Africa are AFP, AP, Deutsche Press Agentur, Reuters and United Press International. Other agencies are the Eastern Cape News Agency, African Eye News Service in Mpumalanga, and Network Radio News. Journalism Awards

Mondi Paper Magazine and Newspaper Awards Nat Nakasa Award for Courageous Journalism SAPPI Magazine Publishers Association of

South Africa PICA Awards Sanlam Community Press Awards Vodacom awards for journalism across all mediums South African Breweries (SAB) Journalism Awards

Mining Industry During 2001, the mining industry directly contributed 7,5% to gross value added, and an estimated 10,3% through the multiplier effects. The declining trend in mining’s contribution to gross value added in recent years has been reversed since 2001, with the highest levels recorded since 1996, mainly as a consequence of the strong performance of the PGM sector. Mining contributed 10,1% to South Africa’s gross fixed capital



formation during 2001, while sales of primary mineral products accounted for 34,3% of total exports. The inclusion of various processed mineral products such as ferro-alloys and aluminium increased this contribution to more than 40% in 2001. Over the last few years, South African mining houses have transformed into large focused mining companies that include Anglo Platinum, Anglogold, De Beers, Implats and Iscor. The Government is the only shareholder of Alexkor, a diamond mine situated on the west coast in Namaqualand. The Alexkor Limited Amendment Act, 2001 (Act 29 of 2001), was promulgated in November 2001. The Act provides for the sale or disposal of shares held by the State. In June 2003, government announced that it had resolved to defer the finalisation of the bidding process for the disposal of a 51% interest in Alexkor, pending the outcome of a land claim by the Richtersveld community. In October 2003, the Constitutional Court returned the land and mineral rights owned by Alexkor to the Richtersveld community who were forcibly removed from the land in the 1920s. Mineworkers Gold mining, with 47,4% of the mining industry’s labour force, was the largest employer in 2002, followed by PGM mining with 27%. The coal industry employed 12%. Taking into account the multiplier effect of the supply and consumer industries, including dependants, many millions rely on the mining industry for their livelihood. Over the past five years, diminishing economic reserves has plagued South Africa’s goldmines and consequent cost controls. Since 1990, more than 200 000 workers in the gold-mining industry alone have lost their jobs through retrenchments. This trend was reversed in 2002, with a 1,5% increase in employment in the mining sector. Mine Environmental Management Mine environmental management forms an integral part of mineral-resource management. The following national priorities have been identified:

The strengthening of enforcement to prevent mining legacies from happening. This relates to the implementation of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 and other short and long-term strategies to strengthen environmental enforcement.

Identifying mine-pollution ‘hot spots’ and implementing additional measures, norms and standards to address and manage the pollution problems within these areas.

Rehabilitating the mine legacies of the past. In order to facilitate the implementation of these priorities, the Phephafatso (‘clean-up’ in Tswana) Strategy is being finalised. The Strategy is not only an initiative of the Department of Minerals and Energy, but also a co-operative government initiative supported by the mining industry, various parastatals and other role-players. Rehabilitation of Mines Government follows an integrated and co-operative approach with regard to the rehabilitation of the asbestos legacies of the past. Specific responsibilities regarding the management of asbestos pollution have been assigned to specific government departments, namely the Departments of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Minerals and Energy, Water Affairs and Forestry, Trade and Industry, Health, and Labour. Addressing asbestos legacies has always been a priority for the Department. In accordance with the Asbestos Rehabilitation Priority Index database, 145 derelict and ownerless asbestos dump complexes have been identified for rehabilitation. In recent years, the Department has implemented a dedicated programme for the rehabilitation of derelict and ownerless asbestos mines/dumps. Only 84 derelict and/or ownerless asbestos dump complexes in South Africa still need to be rehabilitated.



It is also envisaged that the rehabilitation will be finalised within the next 10 years at a cost of R100 million. The Department spent R17 million during 2002/03 at the old Voorspoed Asbestos Mine, Koegas, Neweng and the Whitebank Complex in the Northern Cape. Chamber of Mines Established in 1889, the Chamber of Mines consists of independent mining finance corporations, individual mines and mining companies. The members account for over 85% of South Africa’s mineral output. The Chamber of Mines provides an extensive advisory and service function for its members and for the industry on a co-operative basis, in areas such as industrial relations, education and training, security and health care, technical, legal and communication services, and the provision of statistical data. All non-core activities of the Chamber have been consolidated in wholly owned subsidiary companies. The following services to the South African mining industry and, in some instances, also to customers outside the mining industry are provided by these subsidiary companies:

Training Examination administration Visits to operational gold mines The monthly newspaper Mining News Mines rescue services Environmental management services Centres for human development

Junior and Small-Scale Mining The economic impact of small-scale mining is difficult to measure, as most of this mining is illegal and criteria to monitor these operations have not yet been developed. One of the most crucial tasks facing government is to legalise small-scale mining by assisting in up-grading these operations into economically viable business units. This task is ongoing and for the Small-Scale Mining Sector (NSC) received over 200 applications of which 16 projects were approved. Oil and Gas Industry The first oil company was established in Cape Town in1884 and imported refined products. In 1954 the first oil refinery was built by Mobil (Durban) and by 1964, the Sasol 1 oil-from-coal plant had been built. Towards the end of the 1980’s, construction of Mossgas began, which produced liquid fuels from natural gas (Bredasdorp). In August 1995 both Caltex and Sasol announced joint ventures with black investment groups. Caltex’s Afric Oil introduced a chain of service stations in the Gauteng area and 1996 saw the introduction of, the environmentally friendly, unleaded gasoline. The EM gas-field complex off Mossel Bay started production in the third quarter of 2000. It will ensure sufficient feedstock to PetroSA to maintain current liquid-fuel production levels at 36 000 barrels (bbls) of petroleum products a day until 2009. PetroSA’s gas-to-liquid plant supplies about 7% of South Africa’s liquid-fuel needs. The products are supplied to oil companies that market them under their own brand names. PetroSA also produces anhydrous alcohols and specialty fuels that are exported and earn the company more than R500 million per year. PetroSA’s oilfield, Sable, situated about 150 km south off the coast of Mossel Bay, is expected to produce 17% of South Africa’s oil needs. The field, which came into operation in August 2003, was initially projected to produce 30 000 to 40 000 bbls of crude oil a day and 20 million to 25 million bbls in the next three years. The net savings in foreign exchange to the country would be equivalent to PetroSA’s bottom-line profit of between US$10 million and US$15 million a year. PetroSA holds 60% working interest in Sable, while Dallas-based partner company Pioneer Natural Resources holds the remaining 40%. The import of refined products is restricted to special cases where local producers cannot meet demand. It is subject to state control to promote local refinery utilisation. When overproduction occurs,



export permits are required and generally granted, provided that both South Africa’s and other Southern African Customs Union members’ requirements are met. More diesel than petrol is exported, owing to the balance of supply and demand of petrol and diesel relative to refinery configurations. Although petrol and diesel make up 55% of total liquid-fuel exports, South Africa is also the main supplier of all other liquid fuels to Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland. In addition to coal gas and LPG, South Africa produced some 930 000 t of natural gas and 104 860 t of associated condensate in 2003. The entire gas and condensate output is dedicated to PetroSA’s liquid-fuel synthesis plant, and accounts for about 1,5% of total primary energy supply. Gas manufactured from coal accounted for 5% of net energy consumption, while LPG accounted for about 6%. Natural and coal gas play separate roles in the energy system, with natural gas being used solely as a feedstock for the production of synthetic fuels, and coal gas as an industrial and domestic fuel. However, current development of regional gas fields will lead to natural gas becoming a more important fuel in South Africa. Paper and Pulp Industry Other than Swaziland, South Africa is the only African producer of paper and pulp. South Africa annually produces about 370 000 tons mechanical wood pulp, 1.5 million tons chemical wood pulp, 316 000 tons newsprint, almost 1 million tons printing and writing paper and over 1 million tons paper and paperboard. South Africa had very little forestation and the only forests of any significance were the Knysna and Tsitsikamma Forests. Man-made forests were introduced to the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal area. These forests are now rich resources for these regions and for the country as a whole. The chief paper and pulp companies are Sappi and Mondi. Tourism Industry Tourism is South Africa’s fastest-growing industry and contributes about 7,1% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In 2004, total international arrivals increased by 2,7%. Although European arrivals decreased by 2,4%, arrivals from North America increased by 10,4%, Central and South America by more than 12%, Australasia by 4,4%, Asia by 3,1% and other African countries by 4,2%. In the first quarter of 2005, there were 1,7 million foreign tourist arrivals – the highest in South African history, representing exceptional growth of more than 10%. At the same time, foreign tourism spending increased by more than 25% to R12,9 billion. Tourism is the fourth-largest industry in South Africa, supporting some 6500 accommodation establishments. The tourism industry employs an estimated 3% of South Africa’s workforce, and is regarded as potentially the largest provider of jobs and earner of foreign exchange. Some 27 000 new direct tourism jobs were created in 2004. It is projected that in 2010, the South African Tourism economy will employ more than 1,2 million people (directly and indirectly). The fastest-growing segment of tourism in South Africa is ecological tourism (ecotourism), which includes nature photography, bird watching, botanical studies, snorkeling, hiking and mountaineering. National and provincial parks in South Africa, as well as private game reserves, involve local communities in the conservation and management of natural resources. These communities are not only benefiting financially from eco-tourism, but are also becoming aware of their responsibility to the environment. Community tourism is becoming increasingly popular, with tourists wanting to experience South Africa’s rural villages and townships. South Africa ranks as the 28th most popular global business tourism destination. To improve this ranking, the Business Tourism Campaign was launched in November 2005 to industry and business leaders in Amsterdam. The campaign was also launched in London in 2005, and an Asian and American rollout is planned for 2006. Fishing Industry The Chief Directorate: Marine and Coastal Management of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is the central government agency primarily responsible for the administration of marine



fisheries in South Africa. This includes marine research, exploitation control, formulating policy advice, and managing a fleet of research ships, including the MV SA Agulhas. The research component of Marine and Coastal Management, advises on the utilisation of living marine resources and the conservation of marine ecosystems, interacting with decision-makers, role-players, and local and international scientific communities. Inland fisheries fall under the jurisdiction of the provincial administrations or the national Department of Agriculture. Some aspects of estuarine research and management, as well as all aspects of mariculture (aquaculture in the sea), fall under the control of Marine and Coastal Management. South Africa’s rich coastal waters are an important source of nutrition and sustainable livelihood for many coastal communities. For this reason, the country’s marine resources must be carefully managed to avoid over-exploitation, and to ensure that the maximum benefit is derived to achieve sustainable economic growth. South Africa’s fisheries are considered to be among the best managed in the world. The Department has followed a precautionary approach in the management of fish stocks. This, coupled with a policy of stock rebuilding, has yielded significant dividends. In 2002, the Department drafted a National Plan of Action for reducing the incidental catch of seabirds in long-line fisheries, after concern was raised over the number of seabirds, especially albatrosses, which are killed by long-line fishing vessels in southern Africa. The Plan sets out the required mitigation measures to reduce the mortality of seabirds to below an interim target of 0,05 birds per 1 000 hooks cast by South Africa’s long-line fisheries for hake, tuna and swordfish, Patagonian toothfish and sharks. Small Pelagic Fish South Africa’s pelagic fishing industry, which catches pilchards for canning, and anchovy for reduction to fishmeal, a major constituent in animal foods, has a frustrating year in 2002. Although fishmeal prices were high in 2002, and there was an exceptional abundance of pilchard and anchovy in South African waters, bad weather, mixed shoals, and the poor availability of fish made it nearly impossible for the industry to catch their full allocations. Demersal Fish Owing to the poor environmental conditions that prevailed in 2002, catch rates in the offshore hake fishery were particularly poor. For the first time in many years, several thousand tons of hake had not been landed by the fishing industry before the close of the season. The TAC for 2003 was reduced slightly from 166 00t, and there will be a further reduction of 6 000t over the next two years. West Coast Rock Lobster The TAC for the west coast rock lobster fishery increased by 25% in 2002, owing to an improvement in the status of stock. The completion of the appeal process in May 2002 saw the number of limited commercial-right-holders in the west coast rock lobster fishing industry increase from 321 to 500. Limited commercial fishing rights of between 200 and 1 500kg each were allocated to historically disadvantaged fishers in five fishing zones between Port Nolloth and Cape Hangklip. The Department has also opened a new area for the commercial exploitation of west coast rock lobster. Limited commercial rights will be allocated predominantly to historically disadvantaged fishers in Hermanus, Gans Bay and Kleinmond. South Coast Rock Lobster In 2002, Marine and Coastal Management scientists recorded a turnaround in the prospects of the south coast lobster fishery, which had been plagued by declining catch rates and annual cuts in the TAC for 12 years. Two consecutive increases in catch rates were recorded in 2001 and 2002. Fishing rights held by Hout Bay Fishing Industries and a joint venture partner were revoked and reallocated to the remaining right-holders in this fishery on a pro rata basis. Squid Eastern Cape towns such as St Francis and Humansdorp have benefited from one of the best squid fishing seasons ever recorded. It is estimated that 4 000t of squid were landed between the opening of



the season on 23 November 2002 and 1 January 2003. Squid shoals moved inshore and were highly available to the fishing fleet between Mossel Bay and East London. Abalone The impact that widespread poaching has had on abalone resources is amply demonstrated by the fishery-independent abalone survey that is carried out annually by Marine and Coastal Management scientists. Results indicate that the average density of abalone in the fishing zone between Hawston and Hermanus has dropped to 0,1 abalone per square metre the lowest level ever recorded. This will impact on the further allocation of fishing rights in this sector. In October 2003, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism released its final policy on the allocation of commercial abalone fishing rights. Earlier, the Minister had announced a dramatic increase in fines for abalone poaching from the previous maximum of R40 000 to R800 000 as a measure to further deter abalone poaching. Subsistence Fishing A community of approximately 5 200 people benefit directly from exemptions issued in December 2002 to 859 subsistence fishers from the Eastern Cape district of Hamburg, and to the Sokhulu subsistence fishers in KwaZulu-Natal, who harvest brown mussel and red bait. Community monitoring and co-management programmes have been established at Sokhulu and are proving highly successful. Seaweed Abalone farms are creating an enormous demand for fresh kelp fronds. Research into seaweed cultivation for use on abalone farms is being undertaken, to establish whether the nutrient-rich wastewater from abalone farms can be effectively utilised to cultivate certain seaweeds for abalone feed. This would have the additional benefit of purifying wastewater, which could then be re-circulated on the farm. New Opportunities The Department plans to develop 12 new fisheries over the next five years. Some of the fisheries that have been earmarked are Eastern Cape abalone, limpets, ornamental fish, east coast rock lobster, sand soldier and Indian Ocean squid in KwaZulu-Natal, as well as a directed monk fishery. The termination of the Japanese and Taiwanese fisheries agreements saw the departure of the foreign fleets in January 2003. This has opened the door for the development of the local tuna long-line industry, which has struggled to establish itself under difficult conditions. The experimental tuna fishery will be brought to an end and longer-term fishing rights will be allocated to South Africans. Food Industry The food industry is a reflection of South Africa’s agricultural industry. South Africa is self-sufficient in producing food except in case of severe drought or flooding. This is with the exception of rice, which is imported from the US and the Far East. There is a diversity of food processing industries in South Africa, varying for small to large. South Africa is renowned for its frozen and canned fruit and vegetables, as well as its frozen seafood industry. South African fruit and fruit juices are found in supermarkets worldwide. The processed meat industry is an important part of South Africa’s economy. Agricultural Industry South Africa has a dual agricultural economy, comprising a well-developed commercial sector and a predominantly subsistence-orientated sector in the rural areas. About 13% of South Africa’s surface area can be used for crop production. High-potential arable land comprises only 22% of the total arable land. Some 1,3 million hectares are under irrigation. The most important factor limiting agricultural production is the availability of water. Rainfall is distributed unevenly across the country. Almost 50% of South Africa’s water is used for agricultural purposes. The country can be subdivided into a number of farming regions according to climate, natural vegetation, types of soil and type of farming practiced. Agricultural activities in these regions range



from intensive crop production and mixed farming in winter-rainfall and high summer-rainfall areas, to cattle ranching in the Bushveld and sheep-farming in the more arid regions. Primary agriculture contributes about 3% to GDP of South Africa and less than 9% of formal employment. However, there are strong backward and forward linkages into the economy, so that the agro-industrial sector is estimated to comprise 15% of GDP. Today, South Africa is not only self-sufficient in virtually all major agricultural products, but in a normal year it is also a net food exporter. However, with very low average rainfall and high variability within and between seasons, agriculture is vulnerable to the effects of drought. When there is a major drought, strong downward pressure is placed on GDP. In good years, however, the contribution of agriculture can be vital to lifting the economy. Despite the farming industry’s declining share of GDP, it remains vitally important to the economy, and the development and stability of the southern African region. For the past five years, agriculture exports have contributed on average approximately 8% of total South African exports. Normally, South Africa is a net exporter of agricultural products in Rand value. The largest export groups are wine, citrus, sugar, grapes, maize, fruit juice, wool and deciduous fruit such as apples, pears, peaches and apricots. Other important export products are non-alcoholic beverages, cigars and cigarettes, food preparations, meat, avocados, pineapples, peanuts, preserved fruit and nuts, hides and skins, and dairy products.

Gross value of agricultural production, 2002 ('000 t)

Field crops Maize 13 906 Wheat 4 213 Hay 1 778 Grain sorghum 382 Sugar cane 3 284 Groundnuts 322 Tobacco 529 Sunflower seed 2 160 Cotton 155 Other 1 237 Total 27 966 Horticulture Viticulture 2 088 Citrus 2 915 Subtropical fruit 941 Deciduous and other fruit 4 396 Vegetables 3 522 Potatoes 2 438 Other 1 124 Total 17 424 Animal products Wool 1 269 Poultry and poultry products 10 767



Cattle and cattle slaughtered 5 289 Sheep and goats slaughtered 1 413

Pigs slaughtered 1 090 Fresh milk 2 794 Milk for dairy products 1 391 Other 1 558 Total 25 571 Grand total 70 961

Field crops and horticulture The largest area of farmland is planted with maize, followed by wheat and, to an extent, sugar cane and sunflowers.

Maize The maize industry plays a very important role in the economy. Maize is the largest locally produced field crop, and the most important source of carbohydrates in the SADC for animal and human consumption. South Africa is the main maize produces in the SADC with an average production of approximately 9,1 metric tons per annum over the past 10 years. It is estimated that more than 9 000 commercial producers of maize are responsible for the major part of the South African crop, while the rest is produced by many thousands of small-scale producers. Maize is produced mainly in the North West, the north-western, northern and eastern Free State, the Mpumalanga Highveld, and the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands. Local commercial consumption of maize amounts to approximately 7,5 MT and surplus maize is usually exported.



Wheat

Wheat is produced in the winter-rainfall areas of the Western Cape and the eastern parts of the Free State. Production in the Western Cape is the highest, but there are considerable annual fluctuations.

Barley Barley is produced mainly in the southern coastal plains of the Western Cape. The area where barley is planted was estimated at 72 400 ha for the 2002/03 production season, and production was estimated at 183 260 t.

Groundnuts Groundnuts are grown mainly in the Free State, North West and Northern Cape. Groundnut plantings decreased by 47% in 2002/03.

Sunflowers South Africa is the world’s 11th largest producer of sunflower seed. Sunflower seed is produced in the Free State, North West and on the Mpumalanga Highveld, as well as in Limpopo.

Lucerne For many years, Oudtshoorn, De Rust and Douglas were the only areas in South Africa in which lucerne seed was produced in reasonable quantity. Today, the Oudtshoorn district is responsible for about 90 % of the lucerne seed production in South Africa. A lucerne plant can produce 100 to 120 lucerne bales per hectare every three weeks, provided enough water is available.

Sorghum Sorghum is cultivated mostly in the drier parts of the summer-rainfall areas such as Mpumalanga, Free State, Limpopo and North West.

Sugar cane South Africa is ranked as the world’s 12th largest sugar producer. Sugar cane is grown in 15 cane-producing areas extending from northern Pondoland in the Eastern Cape, through the coastal belt and Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, to the Mpumalanga Lowveld. An estimated 2,5 mt of sugar is produced per season. About 50% of this is marketed in South Africa. The remainder is exported to numerous markets in Africa, the Middle East, North America and Asia. Based on the actual sales and selling prices in 2002/03, it is estimated that the South African sugar industry contributed R2,0 billion to South Africa’s foreign exchange earnings.

Deciduous fruit Deciduous fruit is grown mainly in the Western Cape and in the Langkloof Valley in the Eastern Cape. Smaller production areas are found along the Orange River and in the Free State, Mpumalanga and Gauteng. This industry’s export-earnings represent 11% of the country’s total earnings from agricultural exports. In 2002, apples made up the largest percentage of the crop (38%), while pears totalled 21% and grapes 19%. Approximately 76% of the total crop was produced in the Western Cape, 11% in the Northern Cape and 13% in the Eastern Cape. Wine & Spirits The wine and spirits industry in South Africa is a very important part of the agricultural sector. South Africa is ranked as the 8th largest wine producer in the world. It is also pioneering an integrated production system, including and environmentally friendly approach to winemaking. In 2002, South African wine growers produced a grape harvest of 8,3 hectolitres, of which 66% was used in wine making. About 106 330 ha of land are under cultivation with about 317 million vines. About 84% of wines are still produced by co-operatives. Some 4 390 primary wine producers employ about 67 000 people. According to the South African Wine and Spirits Export Association, the export of white wine increased from 20 million litres in 1992 to 218 ML in 2002. The long-awaited Wine and Spirits Agreement between South Africa and the EU was signed on 28 January 2002. It is anticipated that the Agreement will improve access into the large European market for South African wine and spirits.



Since 1 January 2000, the Directorate: Marketing of the Department of Agriculture has issued export permits for sparkling wines in terms of the Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) between South Africa and the EU for 472 500 litres to be exported at reduced levels of duty on the European community. Export permit for 42,02 ML white and red wine have been issued since March 2002, when the Wine and Spirits Agreement came into effect. Part of the Agreement involves phasing out names traditionally used in South Africa for specific types of wine. The names ‘port’ and ‘sherry’ will be phased out over five years for exports to non-SADC markets, starting from 1 January 2000. They must be phased out of all markets after 12 years. South Africa will also phase out the names grappa, ouzo, korn/kornbrand, jägertee and pacharan within five years of signing the agreement. The EU is the largest destination for South African wines, accounting for 75% of total exports in this sector in 2002. At the same time, it is the largest supplier of imported wine and spirits to the South African market. Citrus Citrus production is largely limited to the irrigation areas of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, the Eastern and Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Pineapples Pineapples are grown in the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal. Sub-tropical Crops Other sub-tropical crops such as avocados, mangos, bananas, litchis, guavas, pawpaws, granadillas, and macadamia and pecan nuts are produced mainly in Mpumalanga and Limpopo at Levubu and Letaba, and in the subtropical coastal areas of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. Potatoes About 40% of the country’s potato crop is grown in the high-lying areas of the Free State and Mpumalanga. Limpopo, the Eastern, Western and Northern Cape, and the high-lying areas of KwaZulu-Natal are also important production areas. About two-thirds of the country’s total potato crop is produced under irrigation. Of the total crop, 50% is delivered to fresh-produce markets and a further 16% is processed. The South African potato processing industry grew by more than 100% over the past five years. Vegetable Crops In terms of gross income to the grower (apart from potatoes, which contribute 40%), tomatoes, onions, green mealies and sweetcorn are probably the most important vegetable crops. These crops contribute 37% to the income derived from vegetables. Tomatoes are produced countrywide, but manly in Limpopo, the Mpumalanga Lowveld and Middleveld, the Pongola area of KwaZulu-Natal, the southern parts of the Eastern Cape, and the Western Cape. Onions are grown in Mpumalanga; in the districts of Caledon, Ceres and Worcester in the Western Cape; and at Venterstad and the adjoining areas in the Southern Free State. Cabbages are also grown countrywide, but are more concentrated in Mpumalanga and the Camperdown and Greytown districts of KwaZulu-Natal.



Cotton Cotton is cultivated in Mpumalanga, Limpopo, Northern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and North West. It constitutes 74% of natural fibre and 42% of all fibre processed in South Africa. Cotton is grown under irrigation as well as in dry-land conditions. Cotton under irrigation usually contributes almost as much to the national crop as that grown in dry-land conditions, although the number of hectares under dry-land conditions is much more than those under irrigation. 75% of local production is harvested by hand. Tobacco Virginia tobacco is produced mainly in Mpumalanga and Limpopo, with smaller quantities of Oriental tobacco being produced in the Western and Eastern Cape. There are more than 1 000 growers in the country, who produce an annual average of 34 million kg of about 24 000 ha of land. The crop represents 173 different grades of Virginia, and five different grades of Oriental tobacco. Honeybush Tea Honeybush tea grows mainly in the coastal and mountainous areas of the Western Cape but also in certain areas in the Eastern Cape. From a small beginning in 1993, the Honeybush has grown to a commercial crop, with a production of more than 100 t of processed tea per annum. In the last eight years, the industry has seen an improvement in the quality of tea and the establishment of export standards, the construction of a large processing and packaging facility in Mossel Bay, increased consumer awareness, appearance of several brand names on supermarket shelves, and a growing overseas market. The South African Honeybush Tea Association was established in 1999 to enable producers of this beverage to formalise their industry in response to the growing demand for their product. The ARC is developing a method to create interspecies crosses between different Honeybush tea species. Rooibos Tea Rooibos tea is an indigenous herb produced mainly in the Cedarberg area of the Western Cape. In 2002, the demand for rooibos was estimated to be 3 500 t compared with 3 200 t exported in 2000. The active producers of rooibos tea are estimated at 320, ranging from small to large farming enterprises. Ornamental Plants Ornamental plants are produced throughout the country, but production aimed particularly at the export market is concentrated in the central parts of Limpopo, Mpumalanga and Gauteng. Ornamental plant production includes nursery plants, cut flowers and pot plants. The country’s most important plant export products are gladioli, proteas, bulbs, chrysanthemum cuttings and roses. Amaryllis bulbs are a lucrative export product to the USA. In support of the protea and fynbos industry, the ARC is involved in several ongoing research activities. During 2002/03, about 1 613 accessions of the indigenous fynbos were maintained by the ARC at Eisenburg and 3 000 seedlings from 110 candidate cultivars of fynbos were produced. The ARC completed the project on proteaceae breeding and production, which was funded by the Fifth Framework Programme of the EU. The fynbos industry is being transported from ‘wild harvesting’ to ‘cultivation’, with an array of cultivars planted. Further fynbos species have potential for development as crops, provided the necessary research funding can be secured. Dried flowers form an important component of the fynbos industry. A large variety of proteas, conebushes and other products are well established in the marketplace. South Africa is the leading exporter of protea cut flowers, accounting for more than half of proteas sold on the world market. South African proteas and so-called Cape greens (fynbos) are mainly marketed in Europe.



Livestock Livestock is farmed in most parts of South Africa. Numbers vary according to climatic condition. Stockbreeders concentrate mainly on the development of breeds that are well adapted to diverse climatic and environmental conditions. The latest estimates for cattle and sheep are 13,6 million and 29,0 million, respectively. South Africa normally produces 85% of its meat requirements, while 15% is imported from Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, Australia, New Zealand and European countries. The livestock industry is currently the largest national agricultural sector. The local demand for products, which generally outstrips production, creates a dependence on imports, even though there are untapped productions reserves within communal farming.

Cattle Cattle ranches are found mainly in the Eastern Cape, parts of the Free State and KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and the Northern Cape. The indigenous Afrikaner and Nguni, and the locally developed Bonsmara and Drakensberger, are popular beef breeds, but British, European and American breeds, such as Brahman, Charolais, Hereford, Angus, Santa Gertrudis, Simmentaler and Sussex are maintained as pure breeds and used in crossbreeding.

Sheep Sheep-farming is concentrated mainly in the Northern and Eastern Cape, Western Cape, Free State, and Mpumalanga, with Ermelo in Mpumalanga being one of the largest wool-producing districts. Most sheep are fine-woolled Merinos (50%). Other breeds include the locally developed Afrino (a woolled mutton breed adapted to arid conditions), the South African Mutton Merino, the Dohne and the Merino Land Sheep. Non-wool breeds such as the Dorper, a highly productive, locally developed mutton breed for arid regions, and the woolled Merino account for most of South Africa’s mutton production.

Goat The indigenous meat-producing Boer goat accounts for about 30% of all commercial goats. The Angora goat is used for mohair production. South Africa has about 3 500 Angora farmers.

Pig Compared with the mainly extensive cattle and sheep industries, the poultry and pig industries are more intensive and are located on farms near metropolitan areas such as Gauteng, Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. The predominant pig breeds are the South African Landrace and the Large White.

Poultry South Africa’s annual poultry meat production is estimated at 950 000 t. Broiler production contributes about 82% to total poultry-meat production, with the rest made up of mature chicken slaughter (culls), small-scale and backyard poultry production, ducks, geese, turkeys and other specialised white-meat products. Commercial producers slaughtered an estimated 541 million broilers during 2002. The gross value of broilers and other fowls slaughtered during this period is estimated at R8 252 million.

Ostrich South Africa accounts for 72% of world sales of ostrich products, namely leather, meat and feathers. The Klein Karoo Co-operative is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of ostrich products. According to the Co-operative, there is a big increase in the demand for ostrich meat abroad.

Game South Africa has more game and a wider variety of game species than most countries. Game farming has grown over the years, and today it is a viable industry with great economic potential. The main game areas are in Limpopo, North West, Mpumalanga, Free State, Eastern Cape, the Karoo, the Kalahari in the Northern Cape, and the thorn scrub of KwaZulu-Natal. Despite periodic droughts in the past, game numbers have consistently increased. The South African Game Ranchers’ Organisation, as well as local organisations in each province, services the industry.



Dairy Dairy-farming is practised throughout South Africa, with the highest concentration of dairy farms in the eastern and northern Free State, North West, the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands, the Eastern and Western Cape, the Gauteng metropolitan area, and the southern parts of Mpumalanga. he ARC fully participates in the Multiple Across-Country Evaluation for all four major dairy breeds in South Africa, namely Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire. A new rye grass cultivar bred by the ARC improves the milk production of a Jersey herd by 0,9 litres per cow per day, and the production of a Holstein herd by 1,5 litres per cow per day. The South African Milk Federation co-ordinates industry matters, including the information and research functions financed by means of voluntary levies. Market forces determine price. The dairy industry is an important employer as some 4 300 milk producers employ about 60 000 farm workers and indirectly provide jobs to some 40 000 people. Milk production for 2002/03 was estimated at 1,94 ML. Aquaculture The aquaculture industry in South Africa continues to make meaningful progress in cultivation technology, marketing strategy, marketing practise and scientific innovation. Mussels, trout, tilapia, ratfish, oysters and waterblommetjies (Cape pondweed) are the major aquaculture species. Mussel farming occurs mainly at Saldanha Bay. The Abalone Farmers’ Association of South Africa has been instrumental in formulating product standards. Bee-keeping The South African honey industry is sill small, worth some R27 million annually. The ARC presents beekeeping courses and provides on-farm support for between 12 and 18 months. Tax Systems of South Africa As of 2001, South Africa’s source-based income tax system was replaced with a residence-based system. With effect from the years of assessment commencing on or after 1 January 2001, residence are (subject to certain exclusions) taxed on their worldwide income, irrespective of where their income was earned. Foreign taxes are credited against South African tax payable on foreign income. Foreign income and taxes are transferred into the South African monetary unit, the Rand. International tax agreements are important for encouraging investment and trade flows between nations. By reaching agreement on the allocation of taxing rights between residence and source countries of international investors, double-taxation agreements provide a solid platform for growth in international trade and investment, by providing a certain tax framework. South African Revenue Service In accordance with the SARS Act, 1997, the Service is an administratively autonomous (outside the Public Service, but within the public administration) organ of State. It aims to provide an enhanced, transparent and client-orientated service to ensure optimum and equitable collection of revenue. Its main functions are to:

collect and administer all national taxes, duties and levies collect revenue that may by imposed under any other legislation, as agreed upon between

SARS and an organ of State or institution entitled to the revenue provide protection against the illegal importation and exploration of goods facilitate trade advise the Minister of Finance on all revenue-related matters.

Sources of Revenue Income Tax



Income tax is the Government’s main source of income and is levied in terms of the Income Tax Act, 1962 (Act 58 of 1962). In South Africa, income tax is South African residents on their worldwide income, with appropriate relief to avoid double taxation. Non-residents are taxed on their income from a South African source. Tax is levied on taxable income, which, in essence, consists of gross income less allowable deductions as per the Act. Companies are taxed at a rate of 30%. In addition to this, secondary tax is levied on companies at a rate of 12.5% on all income distributed by way of dividends. A formula tax applies to gold-mining companies. Small business corporations benefit from a graduated tax rate of 15% on the first R150 000 of taxable income and can write off certain investment expenditure in the year in which it is incurred. Value-added Tax VAT is levied on the supply of all goods and services rendered by registered vendors throughout the business cycle. It is the Government’s second biggest source of income. Effectively, the Tax is levied on the value added by an enterprise. As vendors levy and pay over the tax included in their prices, VAT is borne by the final consumer. VAT is also levied on the importation of goods and services into South Africa by any person. It is levied at the standard rate of 14%, but certain supplies are subject to the zero-rate or are exempt from VAT. The prices of goods and services must be quoted / displayed on an inclusive basis, which means that VAT has to be included in all prices on products, price lists, advertisements and quotations. Customs Duty South Africa is a signatory of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) agreement, together with Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland. The five member countries of SACU apply the same customs and excise legislation, the same rates of customs and excise duties on imported and locally manufactured goods, and the same import duties on imported goods. The uniform application of tariffs and the harmonisation of procedures simplify trade within the SACU common customs area. Import duties, including anti-dumping and countervailing duties, are used as mechanisms to protect the local industry. Customs and excise revenue collected in SACU is shared according to a formula that has been in place since 1969. A new SACU Agreement was signed in October 2002. Skills Development Levy A skills development levy was introduced on 1 April 2000. This is a compulsory levy scheme for the funding of education and training. SARS administers the collection thereof. The rate was at 1% of payroll as from 1 April 2001 and is payable by employers who are registered with SARS for employees’ tax purposes, or employers who have an annual payroll in excess of R250 000. Other

Excise Duty Transfer Duty Estate Duty Stamp Duty Marketable Securities Tax (MST) Uncertified Securities Tax (UST) Air Passenger Departure Tax

Employment Figures Unemployment rate 2003: Male – 24,7% Female – 32% Average – 28% (In February 2001 unemployment rate stood at 26.4% of the total possible workforce)



Absorption 2003: Male – 47,2% Female – 32,2% Average – 39,5% Labour force participation rate 2003: Male – 62,7% Female – 47,4% Average – 54,8% Employment by industry 2003 (Thousand): Agriculture – 1 212 Mining – 552 Manufacturing – 1 550 Utilities – 91 Construction – 664 Trade – 2 429 Transport – 537 Finance – 1 098 Services – 2 180 Private households – 1 075 Unspecified – 34 Total – 11 424 Employment in the formal and informal sector 2003: Formal sector (excluding agriculture) – 64,8% Informal sector (excluding agriculture) – 16,7% Domestic workers – 7,9% Agriculture – 10,7% Total – 100% Economic Trends South Africa falls into a middle income bracket. The economy is based chiefly based on mineral and energy resources. This brings mining into prominence and makes it the basis of the manufacturing industry. A good infrastructure, well developed electricity, water and transport networks lend to the stability

of the economy. As do the well developed professional services. It hosts one of the largest stock exchanges in the world. And the government is committed to free trade, privatisation and foreign investment. This is the up side of the economy. The down side has been both unemployment and crime. These have had a definite negative impact on the global investment sector. There have also been corruption issues to deal with, not only on the home front. Cross-border VAT infringements have been rife. The government has brought in stricter control measures. Land Redistribution Policy The Chief Directorate: Land Reform Implementation Management and Co-ordination is located in the Branch: Land and Tenure Reform. The Chief Directorate’s aim is the actual delivery of land and tenure reform. This is primarily done through nine provincial Land Reform Offices and 36 operational regions. Important policy and systems developments that have enhanced delivery and will further broaden its scope are the following:



The approval of version seven of the Grants and Services Document that regulates the use of

grants. This version enables spending against LRAD structures. Financial and responsibility management delegations in terms of the Provision of Land and

Assistance Act, 1993 (Act 126 of 1993), as well as the related structures for project assessment and approval at district and provincial level, which were finalised in 2001.

The LRAD planning agreement with the Land Bank in August 2001. In August 2001, the Department entered into an agency agreement with Land Bank for the implementation of the LRAD, particularly for projects with a loan component. The LRAD Programme was officially launched by the Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs at Nkomazi in Mpumalanga in August 2001 and paved the way for implementation in other provinces. The main objective of the LRAD, in line with the Department’s mission to provide access to land and to extend land rights to the previously disadvantaged communities, is to redistribute white-owned agricultural land to black people. By March 2003, progress was being made in resolving cases in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga, where the majority of labour tenants are found. This is not only being achieved in terms of provision of land, but also by ensuring that the land is used productively to improve the quality of live of the labour tenants. From August 2001 until December 2002, the Department transferred a total of 295 024 ha to 140 227 beneficiaries. During the first quarter of 2002/03, the Department transferred 214 farms through the LRAD programme, yielding 185 609 ha to 6 769 beneficiaries. In total 8 139 ha were transferred to previously disadvantaged beneficiaries, including labour tenants. The objectives of the Land and Tenure Reform Programme are:

increased sustainable land-use better access to land-administration services researching land-redistribution targets decrease in State-owned land increased State-land vesting increased security of land tenure.

In 1995, the Commission on the Restitution of Land Rights was established in terms of the Restitution Act, 1994 (Act 22 of 1994), which aims to:

provide equitable redress and restoration to victims of dispossessions, particularly the landless and the poor

contribute towards the equitable redistribution of land in South Africa promote reconciliation through the restitution process facilitate development initiatives by bringing together all relevant stakeholders, especially

provincial governments and municipalities. By 2002, approximately 68 000 claims had been lodged, of which 72% were urban and 28% rural. A total of 36 489 claims had been settled, involving about 85 000 households. Urban claims mostly involved financial compensation for victims of forced removals; the total compensation made by December 2002 was R1,2 billion. For rural claimants, the restitution mainly takes the form of restoration of land, and by December 2002, approximately 571 232 ha had been restored at a cost of approximately R442 million. Some of the challenges faced in processing the rural claims included difficulty in obtaining relevant documentation and information; unresolved disputes; unregistered and un-surveyed land rights; and poor infrastructure, which often hampered accessibility. The Commission is intent on meeting the President’s directive that all claims should be resolved by 2005. INSTITUTIONS



Education System Education is vital to the economic prosperity of SA. It is by far the best instrument of improving the quality of life of each and every South African. It contributes dynamically towards a democratic, productive and peaceful society. The Bill of Rights, contained in the Constitution 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), states that everyone has the right to a basic education. This included adult basic education and further education. This, the State, will endeavour to make progressively available and accessible. SA has a single national education system, it is run by the National Dept. of Education and nine provincial departments. Accommodates: (2004) 11,8 million school learners. 450 000 university students. 200 000 university of technology students. 460 000 FET college students It encompasses: (2004) 26 000 primary, secondary, combined and intermediate schools, 350 000 educators. Formal education in South Africa is categorised into three levels:

General Education and Training (GET): Consists of: A reception year and learners to Grade 9. An equivalent adult basic education qualification.

Higher Education and Training (HET): Consists of: 8 separate and incorporated universities, 3 merged universities, 5 universities of technology, 6

comprehensive institutions A range of national diplomas and certificates. (up to & including post-doctoral degrees). These are integrated within the NQF provided for by the SA Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act

1995 (Act 58 of 1995).

Further Education and Training (FET): Consists of: 50 FET institutions. (Reduced from 152) Comprises: Grades 10-12 in school education. Out-of-school youth. Adult learners. Technical, youth and community colleges. A range of industry-based and non-formal education-providers. FET consists of all learning and training from NQF levels 2-4. Equivalent grades 10-12 in the school system. National Certificate 1-3 in technical colleges. Developed new school-leaving certificate namely FET Certificate, to replace the current Senior

Certificate in 2008. Adult Basic and Education Training (ABET): In 2000, the SA National Literacy Initiative (SANLI) was launched. Its aims were to see to the establishment of a voluntary service to reach the 3,3 million adults who

are illiterate. ABET is part of this voluntary service. ABET Policy and planning: Since the establishment of SANLI in 2002, more than 320 000 adults have been reached in

various non-formal sites, while more than 635 913 have been reached through the public adult learning centres.



The Adult Basic Education Act, 2000 (Act 52 of 2000), and the regulations for a National ABET

Board, provided the framework for the establishment; governance and funding of the first ABET centres.

Provincial departments of education finalised learning programmes for all ABET levels. Eight learning areas: Language, literacy and communication; Mathematics, literacy and

mathematical sciences; Economic and management sciences; Life orientation; Arts and culture; Natural science; Technology; Human and social sciences.

Legal System South Africa’s legal system is based on Roman-Dutch Law and no Jury System (English Common Law). Courts

• Constitutional Court: Is situated in Johannesburg, is the highest court in all constitutional matters. It is the only court that may adjudicate disputes between organs of state in the national or provincial sphere concerning the constitutional status, powers or functions of any of those organs of state or decides on the constitutionality of any amendment to the Constitution or any parliamentary or provincial Bill. Makes the final decision whether an Act of Parliament, a provincial Act or conduct of the President is constitutional. It consists of the Chief Justice of South Africa, the Deputy Chief Justice and nine Constitutional Court judges. Justice Pius Langa was appointed the Chief Justice of South Africa with effect from 1 June 2005, following the retirement of Chief Justice Arthur Chaskalson. Justice Dikgang Moseneke became Deputy Chief Justice.

• Supreme Court of Appeal:

Is situated in Bloemfontein, in the Free State, is the highest court in respect of all other matters. It consists of the President and Deputy President of the Supreme Court of Appeal and a number of judges of appeal determined by an Act of Parliament. The Supreme Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear and determine an appeal against any decision of a high court. Decisions of the Supreme Court of Appeal are binding on all courts of a lower order, and the decisions of high courts are binding on magistrate’s courts within the respective areas of jurisdiction of the divisions.

• High courts

There are 10 high court divisions: Cape of Good Hope (with its seat in Cape Town), Eastern Cape (Grahamstown), Northern Cape (Kimberley), Orange Free State (Bloemfontein), Natal (Pietermaritzburg), Transvaal (Pretoria), Transkei (Umtata), Ciskei (Bisho), Venda (Sibasa), and Bophuthatswana (Mmabatho). Each of these divisions, with the exception of Venda, is composed of a Judge President and, if the President so determines, one or more deputy judges president, and as many judges as the President may determine from time to time. There are also three local divisions: the Witwatersrand Local Division (Johannesburg), Durban and Coast Local Division (Durban) and South-Eastern Cape Division (Port Elizabeth). A provincial or local division has jurisdiction in its own area over all persons residing or present in that area. These divisions hear matters that are of such a serious nature that the lower courts would not be competent to make an appropriate judgment or impose a penalty. Except where minimum or maximum sentences are prescribed by law, their penal jurisdiction is unlimited and includes life imprisonment in certain specified cases.

• Circuit local divisions

These are itinerant courts, each presided over by a judge of the provincial division. These courts periodically visit areas designated by the Judge President of the provincial division concerned.



• Other high courts

The Land Claims Court and the Labour Court have the same status as the High Court. Decisions of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court of Appeal and the high courts are an important source of law. These courts are required to uphold and enforce the Constitution, which has an extensive Bill of Rights binding all state organs and all persons.

• Regional courts

The Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development may divide the country into magisterial districts and create regional divisions consisting of districts. Unlike the High Court, the penal jurisdiction of regional courts is limited by legislation.

• Magistrate’s courts

Magisterial districts have been grouped into 13 clusters headed by chief magistrates. This system has streamlined, simplified and provided uniform court-management systems applicable throughout South Africa, in terms of judicial provincial boundaries. In terms of the Magistrates Act, 1993 (Act 90 of 1993), all magistrates in South Africa fall outside the ambit of the Public Service. The aim is to strengthen the independence of the judiciary. By March 2005, there were 366 magistrate’s offices, 50 detached offices, 103 branch courts and 227 periodical courts in South Africa, with 1 767 magistrates.

• Other Courts

Community courts, Family court pilot project, Municipal courts, Equality courts, Small claims courts, Civil courts, Sexual Offenses courts, Consumer courts, Courts for Income Tax offenses

Legal Practitioners The legal profession is divided into two branches – advocates and attorneys – who are subject to strict ethical codes. Advocates are organised into Bar associations or societies, one each at the seat of the various divisions of the High Court. The General Council of the Bar of South Africa is the co-ordinating body of the various Bar associations. There is a law society for attorneys in each of the provinces. A practicing attorney is ipso jure a member of at least one of these societies, which seek to promote the interests of the profession. The Law Society of South Africa is the co-ordinating body of the various independent law societies. In terms of the Right of Appearance in Courts Act, 1995 (Act 62 of 1995), advocates can appear in any court, while attorneys may be heard in all of the country’s lower courts and can also acquire the right of appearance in the superior courts.

• Other legal practitioners In terms of the NPA Act, 1998, state advocates and prosecutors are separated from the Public Service in certain respects, notably the determination of salaries. State attorneys derive their power from the State Attorney Act, 1957 (Act 56 of 1957), and protect the interests of the State in the most cost-effective manner possible. They do this by acting on behalf of the State in legal matters covering a wide spectrum of the law. State attorneys are involved in the drafting of contracts where the State is a party, and also act on behalf of elected and appointed officials acting in the performance of their duties.

Constitution The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996(Act 108 of 1996) was approved 4 December 1996. It took effect 4 February 1997. Constitution is based on the Freedom Charter signed at Kliptown Soweto in 1955. Its aims are: To heal the divisions of the past. To establish a society founded on:

Democratic values Social justice



Fundamental human rights. To improve the quality of life of all citizens. To free the potential of each person. To lay foundations for a democratic and open society. To bring about a government based on the will of the people. To ensure each and every citizen is equally protected by law.

Differences Between Current Constitution and Previous Constitutions: Brief Background: After the end of the Anglo-Boer War, the British left the civil and political right of blacks to become

the issue of the new government. In 1907 and 1908 the Boer Republics were ‘white only’ franchises. The British helped build these ‘white only’ governments. From 1910-1961 the Union of South Africa entrenched the segregationalist policies of the

republics. And 1961-1994 saw Apartheid take them even further. Yesteryear: Today: Policy of Segregation Freedom of equality in race and gender. Segregated Schooling Freedom of choice in educational institutions Homelands established Freedom to reside anywhere in SA Forced removals The right to retain land Homes demolished The right to retain property Pass laws Freedom of movement Industrial decentralisation Freedom in the workplace No ownership rights Freedom of ownership No governing own communities The right to stand for election in any body Not permitted to vote The right for all to vote No freedom of speech Freedom of speech, opinions & religion Tourism Institutions South Africa is a tourist paradise – offering scenic beauty, diverse wildlife, a kaleidoscope of cultures and traditions, and endless opportunities to explore the outdoors through sport and adventure activities. Tourism is South Africa’s fastest-growing industry and contributes about 7,1% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). South Africa ranks as the 28th most popular global business tourism destination. To improve this ranking, the Business Tourism Campaign was launched in November 2005 to industry and business leaders in Amsterdam. The campaign was also launched in London in 2005. DEAT At national level, the Tourism Branch in the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism leads and directs tourism-policy formulation and implementation towards national tourism growth. It works in partnership with South African Tourism, the provincial tourism authorities, the tourism industry and other relevant stakeholders. It aims to ensure and accelerate the practical delivery of tourism benefits to the broad spectrum of South Africans, while maintaining sustainability and quality of life. The White Paper on Tourism provides a policy framework for tourism development and entails the following programmes:

A special empowerment programme for capacity building Establishing a tourism infrastructure investigations programme that will culminate in identified

public infrastructure investment programmes Mobilising funds to aggressively market South Africa as a tourism destination in international

markets, through a focused marketing strategy Launching a domestic tourism and travel campaign

The Tourism Forum The Tourism Forum was established in December 1998 as an advisory body to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. It comprises leadership drawn from government, business, public



institutions and labour, with the common purpose of ensuring growth and development of the tourism sector. The Forum agree to support the following key strategic areas:

Sustainable funding mechanisms Information systems Human resource development (HRD) programmes International marketing The Welcome Campaign

Tourism and Hospitality Education and Training Authority (THETA) THETA comprises the following chambers: Hospitality, Conservation and Tourist Guiding, Sport, Recreation and Fitness, Tourism and Travel Services, Gaming and Lotteries. Every chamber has its own committee that helps the THETA to identify industry needs. The Tourism Learnership Project (TLP) is a multimillion rand partnership between the Business Trust, THETA and the Department of Labour. South African Tourism Institute (SATI) The SATI was established with the assistance of the Spanish Government, which provided some R13 million for the project. The SATI has initiated a number of projects that create a supportive learning environment for teachers, high-school learners and employees in the tourism industry. The SATI focuses on teacher-development programmes aimed at enhancing the quality of the Travel, Tourism and Hospitality subjects. A SATI resource centre has also been established, containing electronic and physical resources on many aspects of tourism and its related industries. The centre is open to the public. Other developmental projects are also underway that include working with tourism role-players to develop levels of customer service and staff training. SATSA The Southern Africa Tourism Services Association (SATSA) is the member driven association representing the private sector of the incoming tourism industry in Southern Africa. SATSA is a non-profit association, dedicated to providing and maintaining the highest possible standards in the tourism industry within South Africa. Not only is SATSA of benefit to businesses within the industry, in successfully aligning with an association of such a high calibre, it is also extremely useful to tourists wishing to experience tourism at its best. By doing business with a SATSA accredited member, people area able to achieve piece of mind and a guarantee that they are receiving the best possible services within the tourism industry. SATOUR In 1996 Satour was restructured. A new board was announced 1 April 1997. It was to serve a 3-year term with the following provincial representatives: Cape Town Tourism (formerly Captour) The Tourism Business Council Satour (itself) Phalaborwa Association for Tourism North-West Parks & Tourism Board South African National Civics Authorisation Satour has over 14 international offices situated in various countries worldwide. FEDHASA Since 1949 Fedhasa has been representing the South African Hospitality Industry on a local, Provincial, national and global level to protect the interests of all stakeholders of the industry, thereby enabling members to achieve their objectives SA Host SA Host, a basic customer service training programme, was introduced in December 2001. The programme was originally developed in Canada and has been successfully run in 14 countries. It educates trainers to run the programme for learners who, if successful, are awarded a certificate and a lapel badge. Welcome Campaign Launched in December 1999 by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, the Welcome Campaign encourages all South Africans to embrace tourism and share South Africa’s rich natural and



cultural heritage. The Campaign is run as a national general awareness campaign, through road shows and community outreach programmes. Key events in which the Campaign has featured include the World Summit on Sustainable Development and the ICC Cricket World Cup. Another facet of the Campaign is Tourism Month. This annual promotion, held in September, is designed to promote a culture of tourism among all South Africans. Sho't Left Campaign The second Sho’t Left Campaign was launched in February 2005. This R20-million domestic marketing campaign aims to increase the number of domestic tourists nationally. The campaign showcases accessible holiday opportunities in all nine provinces. The campaign facilitated closer co-operation with the private sector, and particularly the Association of Southern African Travel Agents (ASATA). ASATA was also working with South African Tourism to develop the Sho’t Left Enterprise Programme where travel agencies employ domestic agents to stimulate the domestic travel market. In alignment with the Tourism Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) Charter, this project also addresses unemployment and skills transfer. NATIONAL SYMBOLS FLAG

The national flag was designed by a former South African State Herald, Mr Fred Brownell, and was first used on 27 April 1994. Its colours are black, blue, green, red, yellow and white, but no universal symbolism is attached to the colours since different colours and colour combinations mean different things to different people. The central design, starting as a “V” at the flag-post, coming together in the centre

and extending towards the edge in a single line represents the coming together of the diverse elements that form the South African society. COAT OF ARMS

A national coat of arms, or State emblem, is the highest visual symbol of the State. The coat of arms is also a central part of the Great Seal, traditionally considered to be the highest emblem of the State. Absolute authority is given to every document with an impression of the Great Seal on it, as this means that the President of South Africa has approved it. The new coat of arms replaces one that served South Africa since 17 September 1910. The change reflects the Government’s aim to highlight the democratic change in South Africa and a new sense of patriotism.

The symbols of the new Coat of Arms: The oval shape of Foundation:

• The Motto The motto is: !ke e: /xarra //ke, written in the Khoisan language of the /Xam people, literally meaning: diverse people unite. It addresses each individual effort to harness the unity between thought and action. On a collective scale it calls for the nation to unite in a common sense of belonging and national pride.

• The ears of wheat An emblem of fertility, it also symbolises the idea of germination, growth and the feasible development of any potential. It relates to the nourishment of the people and signifies the agricultural aspects of the earth.

• Elephant tusks Elephants symbolises wisdom, strength, moderation and eternity.

• The shield It has a dual function as a vehicle for the display of identity and of spiritual defenses. It contains the primary symbol of our nation.

• The human figures Issue date June 07 Version 2 Page 40 of 82


The figure are derived from images on the Linton stone, a world famous example of South African Rock Art, now housed and displayed in the South African Museum in Cape Town. The Khoisan, the oldest known inhabitants of our land and most probably on the earth, testifies to our common humanity and heritage as South Africans and as humanity in general. The figures are depicted in an attitude of greeting, symbolising unity. This also represents the beginning of the individual’s transformation into the greater sense of belonging to the nation and by extension, collective Humanity.

• The spear and knobkierie Dual symbols of defense and authority, they in turn represent the powerful legs of the secretary bird. The spear and knobkierie are lying down, symbolising peace.

The oval shape of Ascendance

• The protea The protea is an emblem of the beauty of our land and the flowering of our potential as a nation in pursuit of the African Renaissance. The protea symbolises the holistic integration of forces that grow from the earth and are nurtured from above. The most popular colours of Africa have been assigned to the protea – green, gold, red and black.

• The secretary bird The secretary bird is characterised in flight, the natural consequence of growth and speed. It is the equivalent of the lion on earth. A powerful bird whose legs – depicted as the spear and knobkierie – serve it well in its hunt for snakes symbolising protection of the nation against its enemies. It is a messenger of the heavens and conducts its grace upon the earth, in this sense it is a symbol of divine majesty. Its uplifted wings are an emblem of the ascendance of our nation, whilst simultaneously offering us its protection. It is depicted in gold, which clearly symbolises its association with the sun and the highest power.

• The rising sun An emblem of brightness, splendour and the supreme principle of the nature of energy, it symbolises the promise of rebirth, the active faculties of reflection, knowledge, good judgement and willpower. It is the symbol of the source of life, of light and the ultimate wholeness of Humanity.

The completed structure of the Coat of Arms combines the lower and higher oval shape in a symbol of infinity. The path that connects the lower edges of the scroll, through the lines of the tusks, with the horizon above which the sun rises at the top, forms the shape of the cosmic egg from which the secretary bird rises. In the symbolic sense this is the implied rebirth of the spirit of our great and heroic nation. Mr Ian Bekker’s, director of FCB, design was chosen by the Cabinet. The new Coat of Arms enhances Batho Pele – “People First”. ANTHEM Our National Anthem is a shortened and combined version of “Nkosi Sikelel iAfrica” and “The Call of South Africa”. The “Stem van Suid Afrika” (Call of South Africa) is a poem written by CJ Langenhoven in May 1918. The Reverend ML de Villiers composed the music in 1921. It was first sung publicly at the official hoisting of the national flag in Cape Town on 31 May 1928, but it was not until 2 May 1957 that Government made the announcement that Die Stem had been accepted as the official national anthem of South Africa. In 1952 the official English version of the national anthem, the Call of South Africa was accepted for official use. Enoch Sontonga, a Methodist mission schoolteacher, composed Nkosi Sikelel iAfrica in 1897. The words of the first stanza were originally written in Xhosa as a hymn. The poet, Samuel Mqhayi, later added seven additional stanzas in Xhosa. Moses Mphahlele published a Sesotho version in 1942. Nkosi Sikelel iAfrica was popularised at concerts held in Johannesburg by Revered JL Dube’s Ohlange Zulu Choir. It became a popular church hymn that was later adopted as an anthem at political meetings. It was sung as an act of defiance during the apartheid years. The first stanza is generally sung in Xhosa or Zulu followed by the Sesotho version. Apparently there is no standard version or translation of Nkosi and the words vary from place to place and from occasion to occasion.


Tel: +27 11 676 3000 | Web: www.guideacademy.co.za Words of the official version: Nkosi sikelel’ iAfrica Maluphakanyisw’ uphondo iwayo, Yizwa imithandazo yethu, Nkosi sikelela, thina lusapho lwayo. Morena boloka setjhaba sa heso, O fedise dintwa le matshwenyeho, O se boloke, O se boloke setjhaba sa heso, Setjhaba sa South Africa – South Africa.

Uit die blou van onse hemel, Uit die diepte van ons see, Oor ons ewige gebergtes, Waar die kranse antwoord gee, Sounds the call to come together, And united we shall stand, Let us live and strive for freedom, In South Africa our land.

ANIMAL

Typical of the Springbuck is the ‘pronk’ (jumping display), which lead to its common name. Both sexes have horns but those of the ram are thicker and rougher. This species has adapted to the dry, barren areas and open grass plains and is thus found especially in the Free State, North West Province and in the Karoo up to the west coast. They are herd animals and move in small herds during winter, but often crowed together in bigger herds in summer. They eat both grass and leaves and can go

without drinking water, because they get enough moisture from the succulent leaves. Where drinking water is available they will use it. Springbuck stand 75cm high and weigh about 40kg. They breed throughout the year and lambs are born after a 6-month gestation period. BIRD

This elegant crane, that stands about one meter high, is almost entirely restricted to South Africa in its distribution. The Blue Crane is a light blue-grey, has a long neck supporting a rather bulbous head, long legs and elegant wing plumes, which sweep to the ground. It eats seeds, insects and reptiles. Blue Cranes lay their eggs in the bare veld, often close to water. They are quite common in the Karoo, but are also seen in the grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal and the highveld, usually in pairs or small family

parties. The Blue Crane has a distinctive ratting croak, ‘kraaaarrrk’, fairly high-pitched at call, which can be heard from far away. It is, however usually quiet. The habitat of the Blue Crane is open grass fields of Karoo-like plains with low shrubby bushes. It likes wet parts and lays its two eggs on the ground. It grazes in the field and eats seeds, insects and small reptiles. FISH

The Galjoen is found only along the South African coast. It keeps to mostly shallow water, is often found in rough surf and sometimes right next to the shore and is known to every angler. Near rocks the colour of the Galjoen is almost completely back, while in sandy areas the colour is silver-bronze. It is also known in KwaZulu-Natal as blackfish or black bream. The record size is over 55cm and

7kg, however the average is much smaller. The Galjoen is a game fighter. The diet of the Galjoen consists mainly of red bait (ascidians), small mussels and barnacles. The scales are very firmly attached. The fins are well developed with prominent spines. FLOWER

The Giant or King Protea is widely distributed in the southwestern and southern areas of the Western Cape, from the Cedarberg up to just east of Grahamstown. The artichoke-like appearance of the flower heads of the King Protea lead to the specific name ‘cynaroides’, which means ‘like cynara’ (the artichoke). The name does not do justice to the beautiful flower heads of the protea, which is the largest in the genus. A number of varieties in colour and leaf shapes are found, but the most beautiful is the

pink coloured flower. TREE

The Yellowwood family is primeval and has been present in this part of Africa for more that 100 million years. The species is widespread and is found from Table Mountain, along the southern and eastern Cape coast, in the ravines of the Drakensberg up to the Soutpansberg and the Blouberg in the Northern Province.



In forests they can grow up to 40 metres in height with the base of the trunk sometimes up to 3 metres in diameter. In contrast, trees that grows in unsheltered places like mountain-slopes are often short, bushy and gnarled. The bark of the Real Yellowwood is khaki-coloured to grey when it is old, deeply split and peels off in strips. The crown is relatively small in relation to its height and is often covered with grey lichen. Male and female cones resemble pinecones and are white, light green or pink. The female cones have a fleshy podocarpium on which the seed, which takes on the shape and colour of a cherry, develops. National Orders & Awards The Order of Mapungubwe:

This Order is awarded to South African citizens for excellence and exceptional achievement. This Order can be awarded in three classes – The Platinum Order of Mapungubwe (Platinum), The Gold Order of Mapungubwe (Gold) and The Bronze Order of Mapungubwe (Bronze). The symbolism / design elements: Mapungubwe: The Mapungubwe Kingdom existed in the northern corner of our country a millennium ago. The Kingdom had a sophisticated state system and developed agriculture. It also developed a mining and metallurgy industry. The Kingdom traded with countries as far as China.

During its time, it represented excellence of human thought and ingenuity. 1. Four corners of the globe – symbolise the achievements of South Africans all over the world. 2. Rising sun – the new dawn emerging from Africa 3. Mapungubwe hill – forms the background, a sandstone hill on mudstone deposit in an arid

subtropical area with erratic summer rains. Excavations showed that excellence grew out of the most difficult natural circumstances.

4. Mapungubwe rhino – the now most well known artefact found in a grave at the excavation site, a gold-plated figurine formed around a soft core, probably sculpted wood, testimony to the excellence of human resourcefulness present in the Kingdom.

5. Mapungubwe sceptre – emerging from the gold melting pot on either side, another of the artefacts found in a grave at the excavation site.

6. Decorated gold metal pot – the basic symmetric forms on the overflowing gold melting pot symbolises the abundance of excellence, science and creativity, testimony to the earliest achievements in metallurgy.

7. Furnace – the purifying and life sustaining properties of fire, employed since the Iron Age, to advance development and excellence in societies and communities.

The Order of the Baobab:

This Order is to be awarded to South African citizens for distinguished service. The service awarded is well above and beyond the ordinary call of duty. It is an award for exceptional and distinguished contributions in the following categories:

The struggle for democracy Building democracy and human rights Nation building Peace and security Journalism, literature, arts, culture, sport and music Business and the economy

Science, medicine and technological innovation Community service This Order can be awarded in three classes: Supreme Counsellor of the Order of the Baobab (Gold), Grand Counsellor of the Order of the Baobab (Silver) and Counsellor of the Order of the Baobab (Bronze). The symbolism / design elements:



This Order finds its inspiration from the Baobab, which is a tropical African tree. The origin of the name Baobab is part of the many rich legends and mysteries of Africa. It has probably been more often described than any other tree in Africa for among other things its vitality, and magical and symbolic value too indigenous people. The endurance and tolerance shown by the tree in growing old is reflective of the sustained and exceptional service to South Africa that is awarded by this Order. Similarly the service rendered, still ensures the enduring and growing status of South Africa. The Baobab is an important element in many African agro forestry systems. It provides bark for cloth and rope, fruits for food and fuel, and many other useful products. The familiar, broad and strong protruding root system supports a massive tree commonly known as a place for many important meetings and protection in traditional African societies. 1. Baobab (Baobab or Adonsonia Digitata) – known for its roots and longevity. Provides not only

shade and a place for meetings, but is also central in supporting the communities it is found in. 2. Nonagon shape – a nine-sided polygon background symbolising the many different areas of

possible contribution and service to building a prosperous and advancing nation. The icon is also symbolic of the nine provinces of our country.

3. Exterior organic holding shape – Baobab bark texture finish, the bark is commonly used for the making of mats and hats.

The Order of the Companions of O.R. Tambo:

This Order is to be awarded to foreign nationals (Heads of State and Government) and other foreign dignitaries. It is to be awarded for friendship shown to South Africa. It is therefore an order of peace, co-operation and active expression of solidarity and support. The Order constitutes an essential pillar of international and multilateral relations. This Order can be awarded in three classes – Supreme Companion of O.R. Tambo (Gold), Grand Companion of O.R. Tambo (Silver) and Companion of O.R. Tambo (Bronze). The symbolism / design elements:

O.R. Tambo: Played a major role in the growth and development of the international movement of solidarity against racism and apartheid. He established the first missions of the liberation movement in Egypt, Morocco, Ghana and London. This was a modest start to bring the friends of South Africa together throughout the world in a continuous and sustained mobilisation of the international community in support of a free and democratic South Africa and against the evils of racism, oppression and apartheid. Majola (Mole Snake): The snake that visits babies when they are born. It never harms

the baby or members of the family and the only friendly way to drive it away is for the mother to squirt it with her own breast milk. It visits the baby to prepare it for a successful and safe adult life. It comes as a friend and protector. The friendship it expresses is not anchored in a benign demonstration of goodwill but rather an active expression of solidarity and striving to support and encourage long-term success of the young and growing members of the human race. The snake lives on in African mythology because of a classical narrative called "he wrath of the ancestors" by AC Jordan. This narrative subverts the conventional notion of a snake as merely venomous and introduces a broader African interpretation that understands the serpent as a friend and a member of a dynamic ecology. 1. Walking stick – carved out of dark, indigenous wood it is a symbol of appreciation for the support

and solidarity shown, and similarly a commitment to support and stand by the recipient in turn. 2. Majola – the watchful eye with hooks at both the top and bottom symbolises recognition for the

active expression of solidarity and support for South Africa. 3. A tomoye of four sections – is inspired by the universal ying and yang that speak of a meeting

point for diverse spiritual energies. Other National Orders and Awards



The Order of Luthuli

The Order of Ikhamanga

The Mendi Decoration of Bravery

The Woltemade Award for Bravery

The Order of the Southern Cross

The Order for Meritorious Service

The Order of the Star of SA

The Order of Good Hope

SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNANCE In Brief Form of Government: Republic. Head of State and Government: President. Legislature: Parliament (National Assembly and Senate). Independence from the British: 31 May 1910. National holiday: Freedom Day, 27 April (1994) Constitution: 10 December 1996 The Constitutional Court certified a new constitution on 4 December 1996. It was signed by then President Mandela on 10 December 1996. Entered into effect 3 February 1997. It is still being implemented in phases. Executive branch Chief of state and Head of Government: President Thabo Mbeki - 16 June 1999. Head of government: President Thabo Mbeki - 16 June 1999. Executive Deputy President Jacob Zuma - 17 June 1999. The Cabinet – appointed by the President. The National Assembly elects the President for a five-year term. The previous election was held 2 June 1999. Thabo Mbeki was elected president with by acclamation. (100% of National Assembly vote) Government Government is constituted as national, provincial and local spheres, which are distinctive,

interdependent and interrelated. The powers of the law-makers (legislative authorities), governments (executive authorities) and

courts (judicial authorities) are separate from one another.



Parliament Parliament is the legislative authority of SA and has the power to make laws for the country in

accordance with the Constitution. It consists of the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces (NCOP). Parliamentary sittings are open to the public. The National Assembly The National Assembly consists of no fewer than 350 and no more than 400 members. These are elected through a system of proportional representation. The National Assembly, elected for a term of five years, is presided over by a Speaker, assisted

by a Deputy Speaker. The National Assembly is elected to represent the people and to ensure democratic governance

as required by the Constitution. It does this by electing the President, by providing a national forum for public consideration of

issues, by passing legislation, and by scrutinising and overseeing executive action. The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) The NCOP consists of 54 permanent members and 36 special delegates, and aims to represent

provincial interests in the national sphere of government. Delegations from each province consist of 10 representatives. The NCOP gets a mandate from the provinces before it can make certain decisions. It cannot, however, initiate a Bill concerning money, which is the prerogative of the Minister of

Finance. Law-making Any Bill may be introduced in the National Assembly. A Bill passed by the National Assembly must be referred to the NCOP for consideration. A Bill affecting the provinces may be introduced in the NCOP. After the Council has passed it, it must be referred to the Assembly. A Bill concerning money must be introduced in the Assembly and must be referred to the Council

for consideration and approval after being passed. If the Council rejects a Bill or passes it subject to amendments, the Assembly must reconsider the

Bill and pass it again with or without amendments. There are special conditions for the approval of laws dealing with provinces The President The President is the Head of State and leads the Cabinet. He or she is elected by the National Assembly from among its members, and leads the country in

the interest of national unity, in accordance with the Constitution and the law. Deputy President The President appoints the Deputy President from among the members of the National Assembly. The Deputy President must assist the President in executing government functions. The Cabinet The Cabinet consists of the President, as head of the Cabinet, the Deputy President and

Ministers. The President appoints the Deputy President and Ministers, assigns their powers and functions,

and may dismiss them. The President may select any number of Ministers from among the members of the National

Assembly, and may select no more than two Ministers from outside the Assembly. The President appoints a member of the Cabinet to be the leader of government business in the

National Assembly. Deputy Ministers The President may appoint Deputy Ministers from among the members of the National Assembly. Traditional Leadership According to Chapter 12 of the Constitution, the institution, status and role of traditional

leadership, according to customary law, are recognised, subject to the Constitution.



The Directorate: Traditional Leadership and Institutions in the Department of Provincial and Local

Government gives support to traditional leaders and institutions, and is responsible for the development of policy in this regard.

It also renders an anthropological service, and gives advice and support to traditional leadership and institutions with regard to governance and development matters.

It advises and supports the National House of Traditional Leaders, and maintains a database on traditional leadership and institutions

Early in 2001, the Department of Justice and Constitutional Development granted all appointed traditional leaders powers to become commissioners of oath.

This brings justice services closer to communities. Houses of Traditional Leaders The Constitution mandates the establishment of Houses of Traditional Leaders by means of either

provincial or national legislation. Provincial houses of traditional leaders have been established in all six provinces where traditional

leaders are found, namely the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, the Free State, Mpumalanga, Limpopo and the North-West.

National House of Traditional Leaders The National House of Traditional Leaders was established in April 1997. Each provincial House of Traditional Leaders nominated three members to be represented in the

National House, which then elected its own office-bearers. The National House advises national government on the role of traditional leaders and on

customary law. It may also conduct its own investigations and advise the country's President on request. Political pressure groups Congress of South African Trade Unions or COSATU South African Communist Party or SACP South African National Civics Organization or SANCO COSATU and SACP are in a formal alliance with the ANC Provincial Government In accordance with the Constitution, each of the 9 provinces has its own legislature consisting of

between 30-80 members. This number is determined in terms of a formula set out in national legislation. The members are elected in terms of proportional representation. The Executive Council of a province consists of a Premier and a number of members. The Provincial Legislature elects the Premier. Decisions are taken by consensus, as happens in the national Cabinet. Besides being able to make provincial laws, a provincial legislature may adopt a constitution for its

province if two-thirds of its members agree. However, a provincial constitution must correspond with the national Constitution as confirmed by

the CC. Local government The recognition of local government in the Constitution as a sphere of government has enhanced

the status of local government as a whole and of municipalities in particular. It has given them a new dynamic role as instruments of delivery. The relationship between the three spheres of government is outlined in Chapter Three of the

Constitution, which, among other things, requires Parliament to establish structures and institutions to promote and facilitate intergovernmental relations.

According to the Constitution and the Organised Local Government Act 1997 (Act 52 of 1997), which formally recognise the SA Local Government Association (SALGA) and the 9 provincial local government associations, organised local government may designate up to 10 part-time representatives, to represent the different categories of municipalities and to participate in proceedings of the NCOP.

Human Rights Commission The Constitution makes provision for a Human Rights Commission consisting of a chairperson

and 10 members.



The appointment of commissioners is regulated by the Constitution. The SA Human Rights Commission (SAHRC), launched 21 March 1996, comprises a Commission

and a Secretariat. The SA Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was set up by the Government of

National Unity to help deal with what happened under apartheid. The conflict during this period resulted in violence and human rights abuses from all sides. No section of society escaped these abuses. The TRC was based on the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, No 34 of 1995. The TRC effected its mandate through 3 committees: The Amnesty Committee Reparation and Rehabilitation (R&R) Committee Human Rights Violations (HRV) Committee. The Commission is currently in suspension while the work of the Amnesty Committee is

completed. The remaining work of the R&R and HRV Committees has been designated to the former

chairs of those Committees, and now forms part of the Amnesty Committee.



INFRASTRUCTURE Transport The Department of Transport aims to establish a national transport system that enables national, provincial and local provision of efficient, affordable and fully integrated infrastructure and services. The transport system seeks to best meet the needs of transport users and promote economic and social development, while being environmentally and economically sustainable. The department’s other key objectives include:

• Facilitating access and affordability of public transport to the commuting public • Planning, developing and maintaining transport infrastructure to improve mobility and quality of

life and contribute to economic development • Promoting sector and enterprise reforms to create a reliable, safe and competitive transport

system. Transport Agencies National Roads Agency (SANRAL) SANRAL provides and manages an adequate and sustainable primary road network in SA. Its purpose is to maintain and develop the national road network and to manage assets with an

estimated value of more than R135 billion. South African Maritime Safety Agency (SAMSA) SAMSA’s responsibilities include the promotion of safety of life and property at sea. Prevention of sea pollution from ships. Coordination of overall technical operations. It has policies in respect of legal issues, foreign relations, marine pollution and certain safety

matters. Cross-border Road Transport Agency (CBRTA) The Agency regulates and controls access to the cross-border road transport market by the road

transport industry. The main source of income for the CBRTA is fees charged for cross-border permits.

South African Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) CAA is a stand-alone authority charged with promoting, regulating and enforcing civil

aviation safety and security. Its establishment is consistent with international trends in regulating civil aviation. It mirrors steps taken with the establishment of SAMSA, SANRAL and the CBRTA. General South Africa has by far the most developed transport infrastructure in Africa. The rail system, which links all major centres, is almost entirely administrated by the state-owned Transnet through its railway division Spoornet. Passenger services are slow by Western European standards, but the provision of luxury and semi-luxury trains is an attraction. Car ownership is almost universal among whites and rising rapidly in the rest of the population, although less so in rural areas. Communing for blacks is largely by public transport, including buses, minibus taxis and, in larger cities like Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, commuter railways. South African Airways provides an extensive network of air services between all major cities in South Africa, between Johannesburg and a variety of destinations in Africa, and between South Africa and major cities in Europe, the Americas, East Asia and Australia. Domestic routes have opened to competition in recent years with Airlink, SA Express and Comair providing the main services. In addition, smaller airlines operate about 200 routes linking smaller towns to the major centres. Johannesburg has the country’s major international airport, but Cape Town has a small number of direct overseas flights.



The ports of Durban, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town provide large container terminals. Durban is the busiest port for general cargo. East London is the only river port in South Africa. Saldanha Bay, northwest of Cape Town, is the largest port on the west coast of Africa. It was developed primarily for the export of iron ore from Northern Cape. Richard’s Bay, one of the best artificial harbours in the world, was developed primarily to handle bulk cargoes, including coal. Tourism Top Attractions

Attraction Area Kruger National Park Limpopo and Mpumalanga Table Mountain Cape Town The Garden Route Western Cape Victoria and Albert Waterfront Cape Town Robben Island Off Cape Coast Gold Reef City Gauteng Shakaland/Zulu Villages KwaZulu Natal Soweto Gauteng Cradle of Humankind North West, Gauteng Cape Point Cape Town Wine Route Western Cape Kirstenbosch Gardens Cape Town Pretoria Sights Gauteng Drakensberg Resorts KwaZulu Natal Blyde River Canyon Mpumalanga Cango Caves, Oudtshoorn Western Cape Private Game Parks Mpumalanga Durban’s Golden Mile KwaZulu Natal Ostrich Farms, Oudtshoorn Western Cape Pilgrim’s Rest Mpumalanga

Western Cape The Western Cape lies at the southern tip of the African continent. Considered one of the most beautiful regions in Africa, it is also the place where two oceans meet and the home of the famous fynbos vegetation. The paternal presence of Table Mountain, the pristine coastline with its white sandy beaches, the magnificent countryside with its bountiful rivers, vleis and dams, fauna and flora, together with the warm summer climate and friendly community, make the Western Cape the perfect holiday destination. Northern Cape Characterised by its vast expanses of space and silence, blazing summer sunshine and interesting and friendly people, the Northern Cape is a province rich with culture. Free State The Free State lies in the heart of South Africa with the Kingdom of Lesotho nestling in the hollow of its bean-like shape. Between the Vaal River in the north and the Orange River in the south, this immense rolling prairie stretches as far as the eye can see. This central region is characterised by endless rolling prairies of wheat, sunflower and maize fields, and forms the principal breadbasket of South Africa. Eastern Cape The main feature of the Eastern Cape is its magnificent coastline. With its wide-open sandy beaches, secluded lagoons and towering cliffs, the Indian Ocean coastline provides the province with a rich



natural tourist attraction, which is also a paradise for water sports enthusiasts. Added to the diverse coastal experiences are more than 60 state-owned game reserves and more than 30 private game farms, which collectively cover an area greater than the Kruger National Park. Limpopo Limpopo is a land of dramatic contrasts characterised by hot savanna plains and mist-clad mountains, age-old indigenous forests and cycads alongside latter-day plantations, and ancient mountain fortresses and the luxury of contemporary infrastructure and modern-day facilities. Steeped in history, Limpopo celebrates a rich cultural heritage, and at many archaeological sites the mysteries of the past and ancient peoples are still being unearthed. The present tranquility of the province belies a turbulent past, to which many monuments and museums attest. Much of the land, particularly in the Kruger National Park and other game and nature reserves is unspoilt, providing sanctuary to large numbers of game. North West North West is blessed with several cultural villages that entertain and enrich. A number of excellent game reserves have been established, including the Pilanesberg National Park, known as the ‘Jewel of the North West’. It is set in a crater on an extinct volcano and is home to the Big Five as well as a wide variety of smaller game and birds. Mpumalanga Mpumalanga – The Place Where The Sun Rises – epitomises every traveler’s dream of the true African experience. Located in the northeastern part of South Africa, the province is bordered by Mozambique to the east and the Kingdom of Swaziland to the south and east. The climate and topography vary from cool highland grasslands at 1 600 m above sea level, through the middleveld and escarpment, to the subtropical Lowveld towards the Kruger National Park and many private game reserves. Scenic beauty, climate and wildlife, voted the most attractive features of South Africa, are found in abundance in this province. Attractions range from game viewing and bird watching to scenic drives across the valleys and peaks of the vast Drakensberg escarpment, and include agritourism, industrial and adventure tourism and cultural experiences. Historical sites and villages, old wagon routes and monuments mark events and characters that passed this way in search of adventure and wealth. The cultural heritage of the province is varied and fascinating. The Ndebele beadwork and wall painting in the north-west, the arts and crafts of the Lowveld and the different traditional villages throughout the province offer a unique insight into the people’s history. Gauteng Gauteng, the ‘Place of Gold’, is the economic powerhouse of South Africa. It is characterised by a cosmopolitan, multicultural mix of people from all walks of life. The province’s unique cultural and social legacy is evident from the many excellent museums, theatres, cultural precincts and craft markets. KwaZulu-Natal Also known as the ‘Zulu Kingdom’, KwaZulu-Natal is a many-splendoured interaction of natural wonders, ultra-modern facilities, fascinating cultural imprints and reminders of a dynamic history in a breathtakingly beautiful and varied setting. Social Infrastructure & Services Primary healthcare The policy on universal access to PHC, introduced in 1994, forms the basis of healthcare delivery programmes and has had a major impact on the South African population. 53 health districts were established in line with the new metropolitan and district municipal boundaries. The number of people using these facilities increased significantly across provinces between 2003/04 and 2004/05. In the Eastern Cape, PHC headcounts increased from 13,9 million in 2003/04 to 17,7 million in 2004/05. During the same period in KwaZulu-Natal, the figure increased from 18,5 million to 18,8 million. The services provided by PHC workers include immunisation, communicable and endemic disease prevention, maternity care, screening of children, Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses (IMCI) and child healthcare, health promotion, youth health services, counseling services, taking care of chronic diseases and diseases of older persons, rehabilitation, accident and emergency services, family planning, and oral health services.



Patients visiting PHC clinics are treated mainly by PHC-trained nurses, or, at some clinics, by doctors. Beneficiaries of medical aid schemes are excluded from free services. The National Drug Policy is, to a large extent, based on the essential drugs concept, and is aimed at ensuring the availability of essential drugs of good quality, safety and efficacy to all South Africans. Community health Government launched the Community Health Worker (CHW) Programme in February 2004. It is estimated that there are 40 000 such workers in the country. This category of health workers is an important element of the Presidential initiatives aimed at addressing health and fighting poverty. The massive expansion of the CHW Programme is a vital part of the Social Cluster’s contribution to the Expanded Public Works Programme. The programme will result in the integration of health and social programmes. The Department of Health sees this cadre of health workers as community-based generalist health workers. Their training combines competencies in health promotion, disease prevention, PHC and health-resource networking, as well as co-ordination. Provincial health departments Provincial health departments provide and manage comprehensive health services at all levels of care. The basis for these services is a district-based PHC model. The major emphasis in developing health services in South Africa at provincial level has been the shift from curative hospital-based healthcare to that provided in an integrated community-based manner. Clinics A network of clinics run by government forms the backbone of primary and preventive healthcare in South Africa. Between 1994 and 2004, more than 1 300 clinics were built or upgraded. Hospitals By June 2006, there were 400 provincial public hospitals. The private health sector takes care of some 7 million principal members of medical aid schemes. Ongoing programmes are in place to improve the quality of hospital services. The Charter of Patients’ Rights has been developed, as well as a set of procedures to follow when dealing with complaints and suggestions. By February 2006, the Department of Health was finalising the Hospital Improvement Plan, aimed at addressing the maintenance of buildings, provision and maintenance of equipment, and historical backlog because of neglect in psychiatric hospitals. Working together with the provinces, government was to determine additional authority that was expected to be delegated to hospital management by September 2006, to ensure that they were held accountable for the functioning of hospitals. All maternal deaths are closely investigated as part of the maternal-death surveillance and enquiry process. The renewal of hospital stock focused initially on renovation and maintenance, but has progressed to major rebuilding under the Hospital Revitalisation Programme. The budget allocation for the programme is R1,4 billion in 2006/07; R1,7 billion in 2007/08; and R1,9 billion in 2008/09. The programme, among other things, aims to retain health professionals, especially in remote underserved areas of South Africa, by improving their working environment Emergency medical services (EMS) Provincial departments of health are responsible for EMS, which include ambulance services. Emergency-care practitioners receive nationally standardised training through provincial colleges of emergency care. Some universities of technology also offer diploma and degree programmes in emergency care. Personnel can receive training to the level of advanced life support. These services also include aeromedical and medical-rescue services. Personnel working in this field are required to register with the HPCSA’s Professional Board for Emergency Care. The provision of ambulances increased in many provinces, benefiting especially rural parts of the country. Between 2003/04 and 2004/05, there was a significant increase in the availability of ambulances in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Gauteng. The number of emergency calls and patients transported routinely also increased in these provinces between 2003/04 and 2004/05. during 2006/07, all provinces were required to produce plans to strengthen EMS, as this field is experiencing a shortage of paramedics. private ambulance services also provide services to the community. Some also provide aeromedical services to the private sector. Traditional medicine In August 2003, South Africa launched the National Reference Centre for African Traditional Medicines to research African herbs and to evaluate their medicinal value as part of government’s



campaign to fight HIV, AIDS, TB and other debilitating and chronic diseases and conditions. In 2006, the MRC initiated toxicology studies to further study selected indigenous plants to assess their potential medicinal efficacy. In addition, the Department of Health was planning a national workshop for local and international experts on African traditional medicines. In sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio of traditional health practitioners to the population is about 1:500, while the ratio of medical doctors is 1:40 000. Traditional health practitioners have an important role to play in the lives of African people and have the potential to serve as a critical component of a comprehensive healthcare strategy. In South Africa alone, there are an estimated 200 000 traditional health practitioners. They are the first healthcare providers to be consulted in up to 80% of cases, especially in rural areas, and are deeply interwoven into the fabric of cultural and spiritual life.

HIV/AIDS and STDs The Directorate: HIV/AIDS and STDs is the lead agency responsible for coordinating and guiding the response of the Government and all other sectors working in this field. It promotes quality care and support of HIV-infected persons. In terms of the Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), and the Labour Relations Act, 1995 (Act 66 of 1995), people with HIV are provided with legal protection, and no job applicant or employee may be tested for HIV without his or her informed consent. The South African National AIDS Council (SANAC), launched in January 2000, meets monthly and is chaired by the Deputy President. Sectors that are represented on SANAC include the youth, women, business, labour unions, religious communities, traditional leaders, traditional healers, people living with HIV, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), the hospitality sector, sports, local government, national government Ministers and the media.

Free treatment to pregnant mothers In January 2001, it was announced that the Government would supply the anti-retroviral drug Nevirapine to HIV-positive pregnant women at certain selected hospitals to prevent mother-to-child transmission as part of a two-year programme. About 18 hospitals and at least 30 feeder clinics will be involved at a cost of around R25 million. Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses (IMCI) IMCI is a strategy to promote child health and improve child survival as part of the National Plan of Action for Children. It is being instituted as part of the Department of Health's policy of the National Health System for Universal Primary Care. The core intervention is integrated case management of the five most important causes of childhood deaths and of common associated conditions. Every year some 12 million children, in developing countries, die before they reach their fifth birthday. Many during the first year of life. Seven in 10 of these deaths are due to acute respiratory infections (mostly pneumonia), diarrhoea, measles, malaria or malnutrition, and often to a combination of these conditions. In July 1999, the Minister of Health and her provincial counterparts declared that the IMCI would be in place in every district throughout the country by the end of 2003. Polio and Measles Polio remains a major problem in Africa, although the last confirmed case in South Africa occurred in 1989. All suspected measles cases are actively investigated. Blood and urine specimens are collected to confirm whether the cases are real measles. To date, less than 5% of suspected measles cases proved to be real measles. South Africa implemented three years of mass immunisation campaigns against polio (1995 to 1997), when all children under the age of five years received two extra doses of oral polio vaccine four weeks apart, irrespective of their previous vaccination history. South Africa strives to eliminate measles by the year 2002. A policy has been put in place, following the mass measles immunisation campaigns in 1996 and 1997. All nine provinces in South Africa embarked on a national follow-up campaign in the second half of 2000 when all children aged nine months to four years again received a dose of the measles vaccine, regardless of vaccination history. Welfare Services Social assistance and security In 2004, the South African Social Security Agency (Sassa) Act, 2004 (Act 9 of 2004), and the Social Assistance Act, 2004 (Act 13 of 2004), were signed into law. By mid-2006, the social grants function had been moved from the provinces to the Sassa.



In 2006/07, social-assistance grant programmes received an additional R2,7 billion. Income transfers to households, mainly through social-assistance grant programmes, increased from R42,9 billion in 2002/03 to R74,2 billion in 2005, representing an increase of 20% a year. The Act provides for the rendering of social assistance to persons, mechanisms for the rendering of such assistance, the establishment of an inspectorate for social assistance, and related matters. Operation Isidima is an endeavour by the Department of Social Development to ensure that section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), is given effect, with its primary objective being to restore dignity to citizens who are recipients of social grants. The main focus areas of Operation Isidima include: • reducing the application and processing time for grants to 21 days • enhancing human resource (HR) capacity to a ratio of 1:1000 • upgrading pay and service points in nodal areas • enhancing communication by uniform messaging • standardising the disability-application process • deploying dedicated fraud prevention/detection teams. Social grants contribute more than half of the income of the poorest 20% of households and have doubled in real terms over the past five years. Social grants have been equalised between racial groups and extended to all in need who qualify. Some R6,9 billion was set aside for 2005/06 and an additional R19 billion has been set aside over the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) period for the further extension of the CSG to children under the age of 14 years. By May 2006, more than 7,5 million children were receiving the CSG. The Old-Age Pension Grant is the second-largest social grant. Women qualify at the age of 60 years and men at the age of 65. The Disability Grant is paid to people who have been assessed as permanently or temporarily disabled. By April 2005, the department had reviewed 260 000 recipients of temporary disability grants. As a result of the reviews, by September 2005, 100 000 cases of temporary disability had been terminated. By March 2006, an additional 150 000 recipients of temporary disability grants had been reviewed, resulting in savings of more than R200 million. The rehabilitation of people with disabilities is considered imperative to facilitate the development of an exit strategy for people with disabilities from social grants. Foster care grants are paid to caregivers of children who have been placed with them by the courts. Caregivers of children with disabilities up to the age of 18 years are eligible for the Care Dependency Grant. Once these children turn 18 years old, they are eligible for the Disability Grant. Poverty relief Eradicating poverty is the highest priority in government’s efforts to build a better life for all. In addition to providing social assistance, the Department of Social Development also manages the Poverty-Relief Programme. This programme aims to assist communities in a range of developmental projects. The Independent Development Trust (IDT) has been contracted to provide implementation support of these projects. The programme entrusts state resources to communities to enable them to undertake and dictate development for themselves by themselves. The programme emphasises access to economic opportunities for specific targeted groups and the establishment of local structures able to identify, own and manage the ongoing implementation of development initiatives in the community. The programme focuses on the following: • youth development • women’s co-operatives • HIV and AIDS • food security • older persons • social finance.



Those that need further support will be linked to other institutions that specialise in their areas of focus. The strategy is also intended to bring these projects closer to the provinces and local government. The department is negotiating with relevant stakeholders such as the Department of Trade and Industry, the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (UYF) and the National Empowerment Fund to provide the necessary support to this process. Children and the youth In addition to providing social assistance to children through the CSG and the Foster Care Grant, the Department of Social Development facilitates the provision of services to children and the youth through the provincial departments of social development and NGOs. The implementation of the department’s EPWP will improve services and care to orphans and other vulnerable children, with 5 000 home-based caregivers earmarked for training. A database for orphans and vulnerable children was expected to be established in each province in 2006/07 to help ensure the provision of efficient structures for delivering services at all levels. Various programmes for the protection of children continued, including the installation of the Child Protection Register in provinces. Progress was made in finding permanent homes for children. In 2005/06, 251 inter-country adoptions and 2 256 domestic adoptions were registered. Social-crime prevention The added focus on preventive and diversionary programmes directed at children in conflict with the law saw some 30 000 children diverted from the criminal justice system (CJS) through agreements with the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA), provincial departments of social development and NGOs. Home-based supervision programmes benefited about 1 000 children in conflict with the law. The number of children in correctional-service facilities declined by 40% between 2004 and March 2006. The proposed Child Justice Bill will augment the responsibilities of probation services to ensure that sufficient diversion programmes are in place in rural and urban areas. It will also ensure every arrested child is assessed within 48 hours; additional home based supervision programmes are provided; the numbers of probation and assistant probation officers are increased; and sufficient and secure-care facilities to accommodate children awaiting trial are put in place. The department aimed to reduce the number of children in police cells and prisons by 60% during 2006/07 by reviewing existing legislation and regulations, and developing a departmental social crime prevention strategy and suitable programmes and guidelines for children awaiting trial. Victim-Empowerment Programme (VEP) The VEP facilitates the establishment and integration of interdepartmental/intersectoral programmes and policies for the support, protection and empowerment of victims of crime and violence, with a special focus on women and children. It also ensures that the implementation of such programmes and policies is monitored and evaluated. Services to families This programme favours services promoting the family as the core of society. A well-functioning family addresses the needs of its members in terms of their emotional, physical, intellectual, spiritual and economic well-being. The policy presents a framework and strategy on the role and contribution regarding an integrated and comprehensive approach of service delivery to families. The national and international days for families are celebrated annually on 17 April and 15 May respectively. Child abuse and neglect The department’s priority is fighting child abuse and neglect, as illustrated by the following initiatives:

• Child Protection Register: This programme, tested and revised in 2004, has been implemented in seven provinces. It aims to develop an electronic database in all provinces, linked to a central database at the Department of Social Development, on children younger than 18 years who have been abused, neglected or exploited.

• Draft Policy Framework and Strategic Plan on the Prevention and Management of Child

Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation: The framework has been completed. Effective



implementation is expected to reduce the incidence of abuse and neglect, and to clarify the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders.

• Isolabantwana (Eye of the Child): The South African National Council for Child Welfare

received donor funding from the department for the replication of a prevention programme in communities to eliminate child abuse and to promote child protection. The programme aims to provide a safety net for children within a community where services and support can be provided to children at risk on a 24-hour basis, and in areas where resources are limited. Community members contribute to the success of child-protection services, as they reside in the communities and are familiar with the people, structures and traditions. The programme has been implemented (with a minimum of three sites per province) in all nine provinces according to community needs.

Women Social-development services for women are another priority. This derives from the premise and concern that the inequality that exists between men and women in South Africa is deeply entrenched and has characterised South African society for many decades. Women are subject to discrimination, exploitation and violence despite the Constitution, which affirms the democratic values of human dignity, equality and freedom. An unprecedented effort is therefore required to ensure that the status of women is elevated to protect their rights and speed up gender equality. Economic empowerment The department has established the Flagship Programme: Developmental Programmes for Unemployed omen with Children under Five Years. The programme provides economic and development opportunities and services to unemployed women with children under the age of five years, living in deep rural areas and previously disadvantaged informal settlements. Sixteen projects create income that is distributed among the participating women. The various projects include activities such as eating-houses, overnight facilities, car washes, beauty salons, vegetable gardens, garment making, poultry and egg production, bread-baking, leather works, offal-cleaning, child-minding and paper-and-fabric printing. CULTURAL HERITAGE Arts and culture initiatives Legacy projects Monuments, museums, plaques, outdoor art, heritage trails and other symbolic representations create visible reminders of, and commemorate, the many aspects of South Africa’s past. Several national legacy projects were initiated by government to establish commemorative symbols of South Africa's history and celebrate its heritage. The legacy projects include the:

• Women’s Monument: • Chief Albert Luthuli’s house in KwaDukuza, KwaZulu-Natal • Battle of Blood River/Ncome Project • Samora Machel Project • Nelson Mandela Museum • Constitution Hill Project • Khoisan Project • Freedom Park Project

Arts and culture organisations

• National Heritage Council • South African Heritage Resources Agency • South African Geographical Names Council (SAGNC) • National Arts Council of South Africa



• Arts institutions

State Theatre Playhouse Company ArtsCape Market Theatre Performing Arts Centre of the Free State Windybrow Theatre KwaZulu-Natal Philharmonic Orchestra Cape Philharmonic Orchestra Gauteng Orchestra.

• Business Arts South Africa (BASA) • Arts and Culture Trust (ACT)

Cultural tourism Cultural tourism is one of the most rapidly growing sectors of the multibillion-Rand international tourism industry, and is an area in which South Africa is well-placed to compete. Professional and innovative museums, galleries and theatres are key attractions for cultural tourists.



Cultural villages Most tourists visiting South Africa are eager to explore the country’s cultural diversity. At the same time, an increasing number of local tourists want to learn more about the people they were separated from under apartheid. Various projects around the country offer insight into South Africa’s cultural wealth, ranging from traditional dances and rituals in rural areas, to excursions into the urban and township milieu that give South Africa its defining features. These include Khaya Lendaba near Port Elizabeth; the Basotho Cultural Village situated in the QwaQwa Nature Reserve near Harrismith, Free State; the Makhosini Cultural Village and Tourism Initiative in the Valley of Kings at Umgungundlovu in KwaZulu-Natal; Lesedi Cultural Village near Johannesburg; Tlholego in Magaliesburg; the KoMjekejeke Cultural Village north of Pretoria; the Mapoch Ndebele Village in Winterveld, north-west of Pretoria; the Gaabo Motho Cultural Village in Mabopane; the Rainbow Cultural Village west of the Hartbeespoort Dam, North West; Botshabelo in Middelburg, Mpumalanga; and Shangana in Hazyview, Mpumalanga. Arts festivals The range of arts festivals around South Africa offers visitors the opportunity to combine their pursuit of culture with sightseeing, wine tasting, beach visits, wildlife viewing, history, palaeoanthropology and relaxing in some of South Africa’s most beautiful spots. The National Arts Festival, held annually in July in Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, is one of the largest and most diverse arts gatherings of its kind staged in Africa, rating favourably with similar international festivals. It showcases southern African talent in all arts disciplines. There is also growing interest and participation from artists in other African countries and from the rest of the world. The Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees is a vibrant festival for the performing arts, presented mainly, but not exclusively, in Afrikaans. It is held annually in Oudtshoorn in the first quarter of the year. Disciplines include drama, cabaret and contemporary and classical music. The Arts Alive International Festival, held in Johannesburg, is an annual festival of music, dance, theatre and performance-poetry. Heritage reclamation festivals are also emerging at local level in communities destroyed by apartheid such as Vrededorp (Fietas) in Johannesburg. The Mangaung Cultural Festival (Macufe) is gaining status as one of the biggest cultural tourism events in southern Africa. Aardklop, held annually in Potchefstroom, is inherently Afrikaans, but universal in character. The festival provides a platform for the creativity and talent of local artists. Other festivals that attract visitors at both national and international level are the Joy of Jazz International Festival; Oppikoppi; Calabash; The One City Festival in Taung, North West; the Awesome Africa Music Festival in Durban; the Spier Summer Festival at Spier Estate in the Western Cape; and the Windybrow Theatre Festival in Johannesburg. Theatre The theatre scene in South Africa is vibrant, with many active spaces across the country offering everything from indigenous drama, music, dance, cabaret and satire, to West End and Broadway hits, classical music, opera and ballet. Music South African music is characterised by its fusion of diverse musical forms. It generates R900 million a year and employs over 12 000 people. South Africa has nurtured the development of an array of distinctive styles of music, and it has contributed significantly to music heard on the continent. These styles range from South African jazz, which describes a range of music from early marabi-inspired sounds in the late-1930s and 1940s by bands like the Merry Blackbirds Orchestra, to current performers such as trumpeter Hugh Masekela and others. Kwaito music is very popular. It combines elements of rap, reggae, hip-hop and other musical styles into a distinctly South African style. Music is one of the key cultural industries identified in the Cultural Industrial Growth Strategy Report, and government has committed itself to harnessing its potential. In addition to its cultural value, music plays an important economic role in the country, generating significant copyright revenue. Indigenous music The department funds the annual National Traditional Dance and Music Festival called Zindala Zombili, under the auspices of the African Cultural Heritage Trust. This platform showcases and



promotes the rich and diverse indigenous traditional dance and music of South Africa. The festival consists of 22 regional and eight provincial competitions, culminating in a national festival. Dance South African dance is unique in its vitality and energy. More and more South African dance companies, individual dancers and choreographers are being invited to perform at festivals throughout Europe, Australia and the United States of America (USA). Contemporary work ranges from normal preconceptions of movement and performance art or performance theatre, to the completely unconventional. Added to this is the African experience, which includes traditional dance inspired by wedding ceremonies, battles, rituals and the trifles of everyday life. Rock art There are many traces of ancient cultures that existed in the country in the distant past. The San people left a priceless and unique collection of Stone Age paintings and engravings in South Africa, which is also the largest in the world. The mountains, especially the Drakensberg range and those in the Cape, are home to fascinating rock art panels. Rock engravings are scattered on flat rock surfaces and boulders throughout the interior. The artworks mainly depict hunter-gatherers and their relationship with the animal world and historical events, as well as interaction with and observation of newcomers encroaching upon their living space. Indigenous people with spears and Nguni cattle, Khoikhoi fat-tailed sheep, European settlers on horseback with rifles and wagons, and ships and soldiers in uniform were captured in surprising detail. Immortalised visions of the artists’ spiritual world are found on the sandstone canvases. These depict complex symbols and metaphors to illustrate the supernatural powers and potency they received from nature. The oldest dated rock art in South Africa, an engraved stone, was discovered in a living floor some 10 200 years old at the Wonderwerk Cave near Kuruman in the Northern Cape. The oldest painted stones (6 400 years) were recovered at Boomplaas Cave in the Cango Valley near Oudtshoorn. Three painted stones were also found at the Klasies River caves, which yielded the second oldest painted stone, dating back 3 900 years. The Department of Arts and Culture supports a number of projects, including a rock heritage project in Clanwilliam in the Western Cape. Crafts The crafts industry in South Africa employs over 1,2 million people and generates an income of R3,5 billion a year. The crafts they produce are exported all over the world. The development of South Africa’s crafts industry is an ongoing priority for government, through the Department of Arts and Culture. Numerous stakeholders are involved in various initiatives to develop this sector. As a joint venture with the Department of Trade and Industry, the Department of Arts and Culture is developing a craft marketing strategy geared at enhancing export opportunities to curb the exploitation of crafters. Examples of successful craft projects include the rural development projects in Limpopo, where the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) linked with various rural craft projects to develop new products. In Thohoyandou, in Limpopo, the Ifa textile project is producing fashionable handbags in traditional Venda designs. Crafters of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative in northern KwaZulu-Natal have incorporated minimal interventions in their designs to produce butter dishes, thus creating new marketing opportunities. he department has 115 craft projects in all nine provinces. The products of these and other projects can be viewed at a number of venues, including two state-assisted outlets at the Bus Factory in Newtown, Johannesburg and the Boardwalk in Port Elizabeth.



Museums Museums are the windows to the natural and cultural heritage of a country. South Africa can justifiably be called the museum country of Africa, with the earliest of its museums dating back to the first half of the 19th century. Today, more than 300 of the approximately 1 000 museums in Africa are situated in South Africa. They range from museums of geology, history, the biological sciences and the arts, to mining, agriculture, forestry and many other disciplines. In terms of the Cultural Institutions Act, 1998 (Act 119 of 1998), the declared museum institutions in Gauteng and Cape Town have been grouped together into two new organisations, known as flagship institutions. The following museums report to the Minister of Arts and Culture in terms of the Act: • Northern Flagship Institution, Pretoria • Iziko museums, Cape Town • Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg • National Museum, Bloemfontein • Afrikaanse Taalmuseum, Paarl • National English Literary Museum, Grahamstown • Voortrekker Museum, Pietermaritzburg • War Museum of the Boer Republics, Bloemfontein • Robben Island Museum, Cape Town • William Humphreys Art Gallery, Kimberley • Engelenburg House Art Collection, Pretoria • Nelson Mandela Museum, Umtata. The Northern Flagship consists of the National Cultural History Museum (NCHM) and its former satellite museums (Kruger House, Tswaing Crater Museum, Willem Prinsloo Agricultural Museum, Pioneer Museum, Sammy Marks Museum and the Coert Steynberg Museum), the Transvaal Museum of Natural History in Pretoria, and the South African National Museum of Military History in Johannesburg. The Southern Flagship (renamed Iziko museums of Cape Town) consists of the South African Museum, South African Cultural History Museum and its satellite museums, the South African National Gallery, the William Fehr Collection and the Michaelis Collection. In terms of the Cultural Institutions Act, 1998, the declared museums in other provinces continue to operate as before. These include the National Museum and the Anglo-Boer War Museum (Bloemfontein); the William Humphreys Art Gallery (Kimberley); the Natal Museum and the Voortrekker Museum (Pietermaritzburg); and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity in Grahamstown. The Act also provides for the National Museums Division, comprising the flagship museums and other declared museums. The Robben Island Museum was established as a national monument and museum, and declared South Africa’s first World Heritage Site in 1999. Apart from the declared museums that fall under the department, there are also a number of other national museums, which are administered by central government departments or research councils. Notable examples are the Museum of the Council for Geoscience (Pretoria); the Theiler Veterinary Science Museum at Onderstepoort (Pretoria); the South African Air Force Museum at Air Force Base Zwartkop (Pretoria) with its satellites in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and Durban; the Museum of the Department of Correctional Services (Pretoria); and the Porcinarium (the world’s first pig museum) outside Pretoria on the Irene Campus of the Agricultural Research Council. Religion



Christian churches There are many official and unofficial ecumenical relations between the various churches. One of the most important of these links is the South African Council of Churches (SACC), although it is not representative of the full spectrum of churches. The major African indigenous churches, most of the Afrikaans churches, and the Pentecostal and charismatic churches are, as a rule, not members of the SACC, and usually have their own coordinating liaison bodies. On the whole, training for the church ministry is thorough and intensive, and based on a variety of models due to the variety of church denominations. Apart from the work of the churches, a number of Christian organisations (para-church organisations) operate in South Africa, doing missionary and evangelical work and providing aid and training. African independent churches (AICs) The largest grouping of Christian churches is the AICs, and one of the most dramatic aspects of religious affiliation has been the rise of this movement. Although these churches originally resulted from a number of breakaways from various mission churches (the so-called ‘Ethiopian’ churches), the AICs have developed their own dynamics and momentum, and continue to flourish. The majority are no longer regarded as Ethiopian churches, but rather Zionist or Apostolic churches. The Pentecostal movement also has its independent offshoots in this group. The Zion Christian Church (ZCC) is the largest of these churches in South Africa and the largest church overall. The teaching is a syncretism between Christianity and African Traditional Religion. More than a million members gather twice a year at Zion City, Moria, north-west of Polokwane in Limpopo, at Easter and for the September festival. Traditionally, Easter is the religious highlight of the year. ZCC members, estimated to exceed four million, are not obliged to make the pilgrimage, but have loyally observed the tradition for more than 80 years. The 4 000 or more independent churches have a membership of more than 10 million people, making this movement the single most important religious group in South Africa. The Afrikaans churches are predominantly Protestant. Of these churches, the Dutch Reformed Church family of churches in South Africa is the largest and represents some 3,5 million people. The Dutch Reformed Church, also known as the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, is the largest, with a total of about 1 200 congregations countrywide. The other churches are the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa, the Dutch Reformed Church in Africa and the smaller Reformed Church in Africa, with predominantly Indian members. The Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk and the Gereformeerde Kerk are regarded as sister churches of the Dutch Reformed Church. Roman Catholic Church Although South Africa is predominantly Protestant, the Roman Catholic Church has grown significantly in number and influence in recent years. It works closely with other churches on the socio-political front. The Southern African Catholic Bishops’ Conference, founded more than 50 years ago, is the representative body of this church in southern Africa. Other Christian churches Other established churches in South Africa include the Church of the Province of Southern Africa (Anglican Church), the Methodist Church, various Lutheran and Presbyterian churches, and the Congregational Church. Although the different Baptist groups are not large, they represent a strong church tradition. Together, they form the nucleus of the SACC. The largest traditional Pentecostal churches are the Apostolic Faith Mission, the Assemblies of God and the Full Gospel Church, but there are numerous others. Many of them enjoy fellowship in groups such as the Church Alliance of South Africa, and operate in all communities. African traditionalists Because the traditional religion of the African people has a strong cultural base, the various groups have different rituals, but there are certain common features. A supreme being is generally recognised, but ancestors are of far greater importance, being the deceased elders of the group. They



are regarded as part of the community; indispensable links with the spirit world and the powers that control everyday affairs. These ancestors are not gods, but because they play a key part in bringing about either good or ill fortune, maintaining good relations with them is vital; they have to be appeased regularly through a variety of ritual offerings. While an intimate knowledge of herbs and other therapeutic techniques, as well as the use of supernatural powers, can be applied for the benefit of the individual and the community, some practitioners are masters of black magic, creating fear among people. As a result of close contact with Christianity, many people find themselves in a transitional phase somewhere between African Traditional Religion and Christianity. Other religions The majority of Indians who originally came to South Africa were Hindu. They retained their Hindu religion and today some two-thirds of South Africa’s Indians are Hindus. The rest are Muslims and a minority are Christians. The Muslim community in South Africa is small, but growing rapidly. The Cape Malays, who are mostly descended from Indonesian slaves, make up most of this group, with the remaining 20% being of Indian descent. The Jewish population is less than 100 000. Of these, the majority are Orthodox Jews. Buddhism is barely organised in South Africa. However, the Nan Hua Buddhist temple has been built at Bronkhorstspruit near Pretoria. The number of Parsees has decreased, while there is a small group of Jains in Durban. Followers of the Baha’I Faith are establishing groups and temples in various parts of the country. World Heritage Sites The Cradle of Human Kind The 47 000 hectare Cradle of Humankind is a unique location blessed with a greater wealth of the prehistory of humankind that almost any other place on Earth. Officially called the Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai and Environs World Heritage Site, the Cradle contains more than 12 major fossil sites and dozens of minor ones that present us with an intriguing mixture of mystery and revelation about much of our ancient past. The Cradle of Humankind lies in the Witwatersrand Basin on the edge of the divide between the highveld grassland and the more vegetated Bushveld in the province of Gauteng. It is a summer rainfall area where the higher lying reaches are rolling grassland while the well-watered valleys have thick riverine bush thinning into mixed woodlands on the slopes. Beneath the 2,6-billion-year-old dolomitic hills found in the Cradle of Humankind lies a series of extensive underground caverns. These geological time capsules have preserved the fossil remnants of tens of thousands of extinct animals, as well as the bones and cultural remains of our own ancestors, the hominids. Included in the Cradle of Humankind is the world-famous Sterkfontein Cave, which has become synonymous with the South African search for human origins.

The Caves Thirteen cave sites comprise the Cradle of Humankind. These caves are presently being carefully excavated, but there are many more known cave sites in the area, and possibly hundreds are yet to be discovered. The world famous Sterkfontein Caves are home to a number of very significant specimens of Australopithecus africanus including Mrs Ples and Little Foot respectively dated to 2,8 and 3,3 million years old. The Caves have also yielded numerous stone tools, which are between 2 and 1,4 million years old and are thought to represent the existence of Homo ergaster.

Robben Island For 400 years, from its beginnings as a dumping ground for mutineers up until its modern life as museum, Robben Island has been a symbol of oppression and punishment.



Robben Island, which is 12 kilometres in circumference, was a convenient place for sailors to hunt for penguins, seals and tortoises on their way around the Cape. After 1652, when the Dutch colonialists established a permanent base in the Cape, they used it as a source of food, and of lime and slate for their buildings. Jan van Riebeeck found the Island a convenient place to put anyone who threatened the colonial order, including his Khoikhoi interpreter Autshumato and later Autshumato’s niece Krotoa. In the centuries that followed, slaves from various parts of Africa and Asia were dumped here, as well as political and religious Muslim leaders who opposed Dutch colonialism in East Africa. The British continued this tradition in the 1800’s by putting their political prisoners on the Island, including various Xhosa chiefs who resisted colonial expansion. From 1846 to 1931 Robben Island accommodated medical facilities, including a hospital for mentally ill people, lepers and the chronically sick. During the 1800’s patients lived in appalling conditions, and there are terrible stories of rape and ill treatment. The law at that time stipulated that lepers were not permitted to live in normal society, so hundreds of them were shipped to the Island, where they stayed in virtual isolation for up to 50 years. In the early 1900’s care improved, and by the 1930’s lepers and mentally ill patients were integrated into mainland hospitals. In 1948 the National Party Government came to power, their harsh apartheid policies worsening existing racial discrimination. They attempted to suppress opposition by banning the African National Congress and the Pan-Africanist Congress in 1960. South African Prison Services took over the Island on 1 April 1961 mainly for non-political prisoners, but as the apartheid clampdown intensified it became a high-security prison for the political activists. In June 1964, after the famous Rivonia Trail, senior ANC members, including Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Ahmed Kathrada, were sentenced to life imprisonment on the Island. During the 1960’s and 70’s the maximum-security prison on Robben Island was known as the ‘hell-hole’ of apartheid and became notorious for its brutal and spartan conditions. The idea was to crush government opponents and the ideas they stood for. But the freedom fighters remained resolute: ‘Improve your education and be prepared to govern,” Nelson Mandela told his fellow prisoners. They gave lectures on a variety of subjects, from ANC strategy to anthropology, and many prisoners went on to earn degrees. Meanwhile, the unified call for the release of Nelson Mandela and the other prisoners on Robben Island could be heard throughout the world. By February 1990 the ANC and the PAC had been un-banned, and Mandela and the Rivonia trailists were free. Four years later the ANC came to power in South Africa’s first democratic elections and Mandela became president. On 11 February 1995 – the fifth anniversary of Mandela’s release from prison – more than 1 000 ex-prisoners, as well as the media, set sail aboard the SAS Outeniqua for an historic reunion on the Island. On this day ex-political prisoners returned to Robben Island for the first time as free people, and a symbolic rock-breaking ceremony was held in the lime quarry where they had worked while incarcerated. ‘Never again shall South Africa imprison its citizens simply because they disagree with the government of the day,’ said Nelson Mandela in his address. Robben Island was opened to the public on 1 January 1997 and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in December 1999. Professor André Odendaal, of the Mayibuye Centre, and a team of workers were appointed to create an on-site museum, which would deal with education, tourism and conservation. The core focus, though, would be the Island’s recent political history and its important message of freedom, human rights and democracy. Greater St Lucia Wetland The ongoing fluvial, marine and Aeolian processes in the site have produced a variety of landforms, including coral reefs, long sandy beaches, costal dunes, lake systems, swamps, and extensive reed and papyrus wetlands. The interplay of the park’s environmental heterogeneity with major floods and coastal storms and a transitional geographic location between subtropical and tropical Africa has resulted in exceptional species diversity and ongoing speciation. The mosaic of landforms and habitat types creates breathtaking scenic vistas. The site contains critical habitats for a range of species from Africa’s marine, wetland and savannah environments.



The St Lucia site consists of thirteen contiguous protected areas with a total size of 234 566 hectares. The site is the largest estuarine system in Africa and includes the southernmost extension of coral reefs on the continent. The site contains a combination of on-going fluvial, marine and Aeolian processes that have resulted in a variety of landforms and ecosystems. Features include wide submarine canyons, sandy beaches, forested dune cordon and a mosaic of wetlands, grasslands, forests, lakes and savannah. The variety of morphology as well as major flood and storm events contributed to ongoing evolutionary processes in the area. Natural phenomena include: shifts from low to hyper-saline states in the Park’s lakes; large numbers of nesting turtles on the beaches; the migration of whales, dolphins and whale-sharks off-shore; and huge numbers of waterfowl including large breeding colonies of pelicans, herons and terns. The Park’s location between sub-tropical and tropical Africa as well as its coastal setting has resulted in exceptional biodiversity including some 521 bird species. In December 1999 The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Drakensberg uKhahlamba Park

On 29 November 2000, the spectacular mountain region of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park joined an extended family of 630 World Heritage Sites. The World Heritage inscription for this mountain area to be known as the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park endorses this place of special environmental importance as being recognised by the world community to be of outstanding universal value in terms of UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention. The park is unique, as it has met the World Heritage criteria for both cultural and natural World Heritage properties.

It therefore joins the list of ‘mixed Heritage Sites’ as one of only twenty-three so inscribed worldwide. It is the only mixed site in South Africa and the country’s fourth World Heritage Site after the Sterkfontein Cradle of Humankind and Robben Island – both cultural World Heritage Sites – and the St Lucia Wetland Park, which is a natural World Heritage Site. Those who have visited the mountain ranges of the world agree that the Drakensberg is unique. Its vegetation, grasslands, ruggedness and size all combine to make this a very special place. In the years come the rock art of the Drakensberg will become ever increasingly more significant as people the world over come to appreciate the significance of a stone-age history depicted so graphically on the cave walls. World Heritage Site status will bring increased tourism to the region and tribute must be paid to all the people of KwaZulu-Natal whose passion for wildlife and beautiful and unique places has been instrumental in bringing this site to the South African stable. Mapungubwe One thousand years ago, Mapungubwe in Limpopo province was the centre of the largest kingdom in the subcontinent, where a highly sophisticated people traded gold and ivory with China, India and Egypt. UNESCO has declared this Iron Age site, discovered in 1932 but hidden from public attention until only recently, a World Heritage Site. Mapungubwe is set hard against the northern border of South Africa, joining Zimbabwe and Botswana. It is an open, expansive savannah landscape at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers. Mapungubwe developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned in the 14th century. What survives are the almost untouched remains of the palace sites and also the entire settlement area dependent upon them, as well as two earlier capital sites, the whole presenting an unrivalled picture of the development of social and political structures over some 400 years. Cape Floral Region About 10 million years ago the early Benguela Current brought increasing amounts of cold polar water to the south-western coast of Africa, which was covered at the time in palm forests. Rainfall patterns changed with the cooler air, and a winter rain system developed. The forests died, and in their place



the Cape Floral Kingdom, including Fynbos, evolved. It is the smallest and richest of the world’s six plant kingdoms. Plants of the Fynbos tend to hoard water and nutriments during winter, and grow most vigorously during the warm summers. However, the powerful southeast summer winds severely agitate plants, disturbing their normal photosynthesis and growing processes. It takes some time for the plants to recover, and until they do, all growth stops. The Cape Floral Kingdom was declared a natural World Heritage Site in 2004. A serial site – in the Western Cape Province – made up of eight protected areas, covering 553 000 ha. The Cape Floral Region is one of the richest areas for plants in the world. It represents less than 0.5% of the area of Africa but is home to nearly 20% of the continent’s flora. Vredefort Dome

Vredefort Dome, approximately 120km south west of Johannesburg, is a representative part of a larger meteorite impact structure, or astrobleme. Dating back 2,023 million years, it is the oldest astrobleme found on earth so far. With a radius of 190km, it is also the largest and the most deeply eroded. Vredefort Dome bears witness to the world’s greatest known single energy release event, which caused devastating global change, including, according to some scientists, major evolutionary changes. It provides critical evidence of the earth’s geological history and is crucial to our understanding of the evolution of the planet.

Despite their importance to the planet’s history, geological activity on the earth’s surface has led to the disappearance of evidence from most impact sites and Vredefort is the only example on earth to provide a full geological profile of a astrobleme below the crater floor. The Vredefort Dome contains high quality and accessible geological (outcrop) sites, which demonstrate a range of geological evidence of a complex meteorite impact structure. The rural and natural landscapes of the serial property help portray the magnitude of the ring structures resulting from the impact. The serial nomination is considered to be a representative sample of a complex meteorite impact structure. A comprehensive comparative analysis with other complex meteorite impact structures demonstrated that it is the only example on earth providing a full geological profile of an astrobleme below the crater floor, thereby enabling research into the genesis and development of an astrobleme immediately post impact. The impactor that formed the meteorite impact structure at the Vredefort Dome was either a large body such as an asteroid with a diameter of about 12km travelling at a relative velocity of 20 km/sec, or a smaller one, such as the head of a comet, approaching at a much higher speed. The impact event created the greatest single energy release event known for the surface of the earth. The meteorite impact structure was estimated to have been created in about 4 hours. Richtersveld Cultual and Botanical Landscape

The 160,000 ha. Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Lanscape of dramatic mountainous desert in the north-west part of South Africa constitutes a cultural landscape communally owned and managed. This property sustains the semi-nomadic pastoral livelihood of the Nama people, reflecting seasonal patterns that may have persisted for as much as two millennia in Southern Africa. It is the only area where the Nama still construct portable houses, haru oms. The property includes seasonal migrations and grazing grounds, stockposts (bases used by the herders as they move with their herds of sheep and cattle on a seasonal basis) and Nama rush mat houses, small hemispherical portable structures, consisting of a wooden frame of intersecting wooden hoops, covered over with fine mats of braided local rushes. The pastoralists inhabiting this property collect medicinal and other plants and have a strong oral tradition associated with different places and attributes of the landscape.



NATURAL HERITAGE Biosphere reserves The National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Amendment Act, 2004 protects South Africa’s biosphere reserves, which are generally formed around existing core conservation areas. Biosphere reserves include outstanding natural beauty and biological diversity, exist in partnership with a range of interested landowners, and can incorporate development, as long as it is sustainable, while still protecting terrestrial or coastal ecosystems. South Africa’s four biospheres are the:

• Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, which was registered with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) in 1998.

• Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve, which was listed in 2000. It covers 376 900 ha that include a number of threatened vegetation types and important bird-breeding sites.

• Waterberg Biosphere Reserve in Limpopo, which was listed in 2001. It covers 1,4 million ha that include the Marakele National Park and the Nylsvlei Ramsar Site.

• Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Reserve, which was also listed in 2001, and covers more than 3,3 million ha that span the boundary between Limpopo and Mpumalanga. The core areas comprise 13 declared protected areas, with a major portion of the Kruger National Park as the largest core area.

Biological diversity South Africa enjoys the third-highest level of biodiversity in the world. The country’s rich natural heritage is vast and staggering in its proportions. Although the country covers only 2% of the world’s land area, nearly 10% of the world’s plants and 7% of its reptiles, birds and mammals are found here. The country’s natural heritage is best described according to a systematic classification of regions, or biomes. A biome is a broad ecological unit representing a major life zone, which extends over a large area, and contains relatively uniform plant and animal life closely connected with environmental conditions, especially climate. The White Paper states that South Africa is one of six countries in the world with an entire plant kingdom within its national confines. Known as the Cape Floral Kingdom, this area has the highest recorded species diversity for any similar-sized temperate or tropical region in the world. There are 7 major terrestrial biomes, or habitat types, in South Africa, which can, in turn, be divided into 70 veld types. The degree to which each of these biomes is threatened varies, depending on the fertility of the soil, the economic value derived from use of the area, human population pressures and the extent to which the biome is conserved in protected areas. Savanna biome This biome is an area of mixed grassland and trees, and is generally known as bushveld. About 8,5% of the biome is protected. The Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park (GSLWP) and other reserves are located in the savanna biome. Nama-Karoo biome This biome includes the Namaland area of Namibia, and the Karoo area of South Africa. Because of low rainfall, rivers are non-perennial. Cold and frost in winter and high temperatures in summer demand special adaptations from plants. The vegetation of this biome is mainly low shrubland and grass, with trees limited to watercourses. Only 1% of the Nama-Karoo biome falls within officially protected areas, of which the Karoo and Augrabies national parks are the largest.



Grassland biome This biome is a summer-rainfall area with heavy thunderstorms and hail in summer, and frost in winter. The grassland biome has the third-largest number of indigenous plant species in the country. The area is internationally recognised as an area of high species indemnity as far as birds are concerned. Only 1,1% of the grassland biome is officially protected. The wilderness areas of the KwaZulu- Natal Drakensberg are the most significant. Succulent Karoo biome One of the natural wonders of South Africa is the annual blossoming of the Namaqualand wild flowers (mainly of the family Asteraceae), which transforms the semi-desert of the Northern Cape into a fairyland. After rain, the drab landscape is suddenly covered from horizon to horizon with a multicoloured carpet (from August to October, depending on the rainfall). The Richtersveld, Tankwa Karoo and Namaqua national parks have improved the conservation status of this biome considerably. Fynbos biome The fynbos biome is one of the six accepted floral kingdoms of the world. This region covers only 0,04% of the land surface of the globe. The fynbos biome is famous for the protea, for which South Africa is renowned. The biome also contains flowering plants, now regarded as garden plants, such as freesia, tritonia, sparaxis and many others. Protected areas cover 13,6% of the fynbos biome and include the Table Mountain and Agulhas national parks. Forest biome South Africa’s only significant forests are those of Knysna and Tsitsikamma in the Western and Eastern Cape, respectively. Other reasonably large forest patches that are officially protected are in the high-rainfall areas of the eastern escarpment, and on the eastern seaboard. Thicket biome Subtropical thicket ranges from closed shrubland to low forest, dominated by evergreen succulent trees, shrubs and vines. It is often impenetrable and has little herbaceous cover. Roughly 20% of the species in the thicket biome are endemic to it.

Six main biomes of South Africa





Flagship Species

The Big Five Elephant Black Rhino White Rhino Lion Leopard Buffalo

The Big Six African Fish Eagle Ground Hornbill Kori Bustard Lappet-faced Vulture Martial Eagle Saddlebilled Stork

Other species Cheetah Hippo Giraffe Bottlenose Dolphin

The Big Two Southern Right Whale Great White Shark

Topography The Land Location: Southern Africa, at the southern tip of the continent of Africa. Geographic coordinates: Latitude: 29 S Longitude: 24 E. Area: Land: 1,219.912 km2. This area includes the extraterritorial holdings of Prince Edward & Marion Islands in the Indian Ocean. Land boundaries: Total: 4,750 km Border countries

Botswana 1,840 km Lesotho 909 km Mozambique 491 km Namibia 855 km Swaziland 430 km Zimbabwe 225 km South Africa completely surrounds Lesotho and almost completely surrounds Swaziland

Coastline: 798 km Maritime claims:

Contiguous zone: 24 nm (nautical miles) Continental shelf: 200 m depth (to the depth of exploitation) Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (nautical miles) Territorial sea: 12 nm (nautical miles)

Terrain Vast interior plateau rimmed by rugged hills and narrow coastal plain



Elevation extremes

Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m above sea level Highest point: Njesuthi 3,408 m above sea level Highest Peak: Champagne Castle 2348m

Topography SA's interior Highlands are a continuation of the African plateau, which stretches north to the

Sahara. Average elevation is about 1,200 m. This plateau rises in the south and east (approximately to 3,300 m), to the Drakensberg

Mountains. The Great Escarpment descends to the coastal lowlands. These lowlands vary from 80 - 240 km wide. The regularity of the coastline permits few natural harbours. Lakes and Dams SA has no significant natural lakes. Inland there are some pans and wetlands. Along the coast are a few lagoons and estuarine lakes:

Lake St Lucia in KwaZuluNatal. Several artificial lakes - created chiefly for agricultural irrigation. Over 519 dams Major Rivers Breede Komati Limpopo Molopo Olifants Orange - SA's largest river. Tugela Umzimvubu Vaal - major tributary of the Orange River. SA has no commercially navigable rivers. Land use Arable land: 13% Permanent crops: 1% Permanent pastures: 67% Forests and woodland: 7% Other: 15% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 1.3 million ha Natural hazards: Prolonged droughts and floods. Geographic Regions SA's landscape is dominated by a high interior plateau that is surrounded by a narrow strip of coastal lowlands. The perimeter of this plateau rises abruptly to form a series of mountain ranges before dropping to sea level. These mountains are known as the Great Escarpment and vary 2,000-3,300m in elevation. SA has a fairly regular coastline but few natural harbours. The inland plateau, encircling mountain ranges and coastal lowlands, exhibit a wide variety of topographical features and natural resources. Regions of SA:

• The Highveld • The Bushveld • The Cape Middleveld • The Great Escarpment • The Drakensberg • The Cape Ranges • The Great Karoo



• The Little Karoo • The Lowveld

General Climate and Temperatures Climate Mostly semiarid. Chiefly sunny days, cool nights - overall a warm, temperate climate. In the southwest, rain is experienced all year round. The rest of the country experiences summer rains (Nov-Mar), and sunny, dry, winters (Apr-Oct). Spring and autumn are neither distinct nor prolonged seasons. Subtropical along the northeast coast. Mediterranean conditions in the far southwest. The Benguela cools the west coast, and the east coast warmed by the Agulhas current. Average rainfall 484 mm. Average temperatures in ºC

Summer Winter Cape Town 20 13 Durban 24 17 Johannesburg 19 11 Pretoria 22 13

Midsummer: December-January Midwinter: June-July

Generally the climate is sunny all year round. Cape Town has a Mediterranean climate, so winters can become chilly and wet. Kruger National Park area always stays much drier. Summers are hot everywhere, and very humid along the Kwazulu-Natal Eastern Cape coasts.



Average Maximum Temperatures (Celsius)

Month Kruger Park Durban Cape Town

January 31 27 27 February 31 28 27 March 30 27 26 April 29 26 23 May 27 24 20 June 25 23 19 July 25 22 17 August 26 22 18 September 29 23 19 October 29 24 22 November 30 25 24 December 30 26 26

PERIODISATION The early inhabitants There seems to be general agreement among scholars that humankind had its earliest origins in Africa. South Africa is rich in fossil evidence of the evolutionary history of the human family, going back several million years. The discovery of the skull of a Taung child in 1924; recent discoveries of hominid fossils at Sterkfontein caves, recently declared a world heritage site; and the groundbreaking work done at Blombos Cave in the southern Cape, have all put South Africa at the forefront of palaeontological research into the origins of humanity. Modern humans have lived in the region for over 100 000 years. The small, mobile bands of Stone-Age hunter-gatherers, who created a wealth of rock art, were the ancestors of the Khoikhoi and San of historical times. The Khoikhoi and San (the ‘Hottentots’ and ‘Bushmen’ of early European terminology), although collectively known as the Khoisan, are often thought of as distinct peoples The former were those who, some 2 000 years ago, adopted a pastoralist lifestyle herding sheep and, later, cattle. Whereas the hunter-gatherers adapted to local environments and were scattered across the subcontinent, the herders sought out the pasturelands between modern-day Namibia and the Eastern Cape, which, generally, are near the coast. At around the same time, Bantu-speaking agropastoralists began arriving in southern Africa, bringing with them an iron-age culture and domesticated crops. After establishing themselves in the well-watered eastern coastal region of southern Africa, these farmers spread out across the interior plateau, or ‘highveld’, where they adopted a more extensive cattle-farming culture. Metallurgical skills developed in the mining and processing of iron, copper, tin and gold, promoted regional trade and craft specialisation. At several archaeological sites, such as Mapungubwe and Thulamela in the Limpopo Valley, there is evidence of sophisticated political and material cultures, based in part on contact with the East African trading economy. These cultures, which were part of a broader African civilisation, predate European encroachment by several centuries. The farmers did not, however, extend their settlement into the western desert or the winter rainfall region in the southwest. These regions remained the preserve of the Khoisan until Europeans put down roots at the Cape of Good Hope. This meant that the farmers were little affected by the white presence for the first The early colonial period



In 1652, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) set up a station in Table Bay (Cape Town) to provision passing ships. Trade with the Khoikhoi for slaughter stock soon degenerated into raiding and warfare. Beginning in 1657, European settlers were allotted farms by the colonial authorities in the arable regions around Cape Town, where wine and wheat became the major products. In response to the colonists’ demand for labour, the VOC imported slaves from East Africa, Madagascar, and its possessions from the East Indies. By the early 1700s, the colonists had begun to spread into the hinterland beyond the nearest mountain ranges. These relatively independent and mobile farmers (trekboers), who lived as pastoralists and hunters, were largely free from supervision by the Dutch authorities. Diseases such as smallpox, which was introduced by the Europeans in 1713, decimated the Khoisan, contributing to the decline of their cultures. Unions across the colour line took place and a new multiracial social order evolved, based on the supremacy of European colonists. The slave population steadily increased since more labour was needed. By the mid-1700s, there were more slaves in the Cape than there were ‘free burghers’ (European colonists). The Asian slaves were concentrated in the towns, where they formed an artisan class. They brought with them the Islam religion, which gained adherents and significantly shaped the working-class culture of the Western Cape. Slaves of African descent were found more often on the farms of outlying districts. In the late 1700s, the Khoisan offered far more determined resistance to colonial encroachment across the length of the colonial frontier. From the 1770s, colonists also came into contact and conflict with Bantu-speaking chiefdoms some 700 km east of Cape Town. A century of intermittent warfare ensued during which the colonists gained ascendancy, first over the Khoisan and then over the Xhosa-speaking chiefdoms to the east. It was only in the late 1800s that the subjugation of these settled African societies became feasible. For some time, their relatively sophisticated social structure and economic systems fended off decisive disruption by incoming colonists, who lacked the necessary military superiority. A spate of state-building was launched beyond the frontiers of European settlement. Perhaps because of population pressures, combined with the actions of slave traders in Portuguese territory on the east coast, the old order was upset and the Zulu kingdom emerged as a highly centralised state. In the 1820s, the innovative leader Shaka established sway over a considerable area of south-east Africa and brought many chiefdoms under his dominion. As splinter groups conquered and absorbed communities in their path, the disruption was felt as far north as central Africa. Substantial states, such as Moshoeshoe’s Lesotho and other Sotho-Tswana chiefdoms, were established, partly for reasons of defense. The mfecane or difaqane, as this period of disruption and state formation became known, remains the subject of much speculative debate. But the temporary disruption of life on the Highveld served to facilitate Boer expansion northwards from the 1830s, and provided a myth of the ‘empty land’, which whites employed to justify their domination over the subcontinent in the 20th century. The British colonial era In 1795, the British occupied the Cape as a strategic base against the French, controlling the sea route to the East. After a brief reversion to the Dutch in the course of the Napoleonic wars, it was retaken in 1806 and kept by Britain in the post-war settlement of territorial claims. The closed and regulated economic system of the Dutch period was swept away as the Cape Colony was integrated into the dynamic international trading empire of industrialising Britain. A crucial new element was evangelicalism, brought to the Cape by Protestant missionaries. The evangelicals believed in the liberating effect of ‘free’ labour and in the ‘civilising mission’ of British imperialism. The most important representative of the mission movement in South Africa was Dr John Philip, who arrived as superintendent of the London Missionary Society in 1819. His campaign on behalf of the oppressed Khoisan coincided with a high point in official sympathy for philanthropic concerns.



One result was Ordinance 50 of 1828, which guaranteed equal civil rights for ‘people of colour’ within the colony and freed them from legal discrimination. At the same time, a powerful antislavery movement in Britain promoted a series of ameliorative measures, imposed on the colonies in the 1820s, and the proclamation of emancipation, which came into force in 1834. The slaves were subject to a four-year period of ‘apprenticeship’ with their former owners, on the grounds that they must be prepared for freedom, which came on 1 December 1838. Cape slave-owners rallied to oppose emancipation. The compensation money, which the British treasury paid out to sweeten the pill, injected unprecedented liquidity into the stagnant local economy. This brought a spurt of company formation, such as banks and insurance companies, as well as a surge of investment in land and wool sheep in the drier regions of the colony, in the late 1830s. For the ex-slaves, as for the Khoisan servants, the reality of freedom was very different from the promise. As a wage-based economy developed, they remained a dispossessed and exploited element in the population, with little opportunity to escape their servile lot. In 1820, several thousand British settlers, who were swept up by a scheme to relieve Britain of its unemployed, were placed in the eastern Cape frontier zone as a buffer against the Xhosa chiefdoms. The vision of a dense settlement of small farmers was, however, ill-conceived and many of the settlers became artisans and traders. The more successful became an entrepreneurial class of merchants, large-scale sheep farmers and speculators with an insatiable demand for land. Some became fierce warmongers who pressed for the military dispossession of the chiefdoms. They coveted Xhosa land and welcomed the prospect of war involving large-scale military expenditure by the imperial authorities. The Xhosa engaged in raiding as a means of asserting their prior claims to the land. Racial paranoia became integral to white frontier politics. The result was that frontier warfare became endemic through much of the 19th century, during which Xhosa war leaders such as Chief Maqoma became heroic figures to their people. Meanwhile, large numbers of the original colonists, the Boers, were greatly extending white occupation beyond the Cape’s borders to the north, in the movement that became known as the Great Trek, in the mid-1830s. Alienated by British liberalism, and with their economic enterprise usurped by British settlers, several thousand Boers from the interior districts, accompanied by a number of Khoisan servants, began a series of migrations northwards. They moved to the Highveld and Natal, skirting the great concentrations of black farmers on the way by taking advantage of the areas disrupted during the mfecane. The Voortrekkers (as they were later called) coalesced in two land-locked republics, the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. There, the principles of racially exclusive citizenship were absolute, despite the trekkers’ reliance on black labour. With limited coercive power, the Boer communities had to establish relations and develop alliances with some black chiefdoms, neutralizing those who obstructed their intrusion or who posed a threat to their security. Only after the mineral discoveries of the late 1800s did the balance of power swing decisively towards the colonists. The Boer republics then took on the trappings of real statehood and imposed their authority within the territorial borders that they had notionally claimed for themselves. The Colony of Natal, situated to the south of the mighty Zulu State, developed along very different lines from the original colony of settlement, the Cape. The size of the black population left no room for the assimilationist vision of race domination embraced in the Cape. Natal developed a system of political and legal dualism, whereby chiefly rule was entrenched and customary law was codified. Although exemptions from customary law could be granted to the educated products of the missions, in practice they were rare. Natal’s system is widely regarded as having provided a model for the segregationism of the 20th century. Natal’s economy was boosted by the development of sugar plantations in the subtropical coastal lowlands.



It was in South Africa that Mohandas Gandhi refined, from the mid-1890s, the techniques of passive resistance, which he later effectively practised in India. Although Indians gradually moved into the Transvaal and elsewhere, they remain concentrated in Natal. The mineral revolution Alluvial diamonds were discovered on the Vaal River in the late 1860s. The subsequent discovery of dry deposits at what became the city of Kimberley drew tens of thousands of people, black and white, to the first great industrial hub in Africa, and the largest diamond deposit in the world. In 1871, the British, who ousted several rival claimants, annexed the diamond fields, which fell in sparsely populated territory to the west of the main corridors of northward migration. The Colony of Griqualand West thus created was incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1880. By 1888, the consolidation of diamond claims had led to the creation of the huge De Beers monopoly under the control of Cecil Rhodes. He used his power and wealth to become prime minister of the Cape Colony (1890 to 1896) and, through his chartered British South Africa Company, conqueror and ruler of modern-day Zambia and Zimbabwe. The mineral discoveries had a major impact on the subcontinent as a whole. A railway network linking the interior to the coastal ports revolutionised transportation and energized agriculture. Coastal cities such as Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban experienced an economic boom as port facilities were upgraded. The discovery of the Witwatersrand goldfields in 1886 was a turning point in the history of South Africa. It presaged the emergence of the modern South African industrial state. Once the extent of the reefs had been established, and deep-level mining had proved to be a viable investment, it was only a matter of time before Britain and its local representatives again found a pretext for war against the Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The demand for franchise rights for English-speaking immigrants on the goldfields (uitlanders) provided a lever for applying pressure on the government of President Paul Kruger. Egged on by the deep-level mining magnates, to whom the Boer government seemed obstructive and inefficient, and by the expectation of an uitlander uprising, The mineral discoveries had a radical impact on every sphere of society. Labour was required on a massive scale and could only be provided by Africans, who had to be drawn away from the land. Many Africans did respond with alacrity to the opportunities presented by wage labour, traveling long distances to earn money to supplement rural enterprise in the homestead economy. Conquest, land dispossession, taxation and pass laws were designed to force black men off the land and channel them into labour markets, especially to meet the needs of the mines. Gradually, the alternatives available to them were closed, and the decline of the homestead economy made wage labour increasingly essential for survival. The integration of Africans into the emerging urban and industrial society of South Africa should have followed these developments, but short-term, recurrent labour migrancy suited employers and the authorities, which sought to entrench the system. The closed compounds pioneered on the diamond fields, as a means of migrant labour control, were replicated at the gold mines. The preservation of communal areas from which migrants could be drawn had the effect of lowering wages, by denying Africans rights within the urban areas and keeping their families and dependants on subsistence plots in the reserves. The Anglo-Boer/South African War (October 1899 – May 1902) and its aftermath The war that followed the mineral revolution was mainly a white man’s war. In its first phase, the Boer forces took the initiative, besieging the frontier towns of Mafeking (Mafikeng) and Kimberley in the northern Cape, and Ladysmith in northern Natal. Some colonial Boers rebelled, however, in sympathy with the republics. But, after a large expeditionary force under lords Roberts and Kitchener arrived, the British advance was rapid. Kruger fled the Transvaal shortly before Pretoria fell in June 1900.



The formal conquest of the two Boer republics was followed by a prolonged guerrilla campaign. Small, mobile groups of Boers denied the imperial forces their victory, by disrupting rail links and supply lines. Commandos swept deep into colonial territory, rousing rebellion wherever they went. The British were at a disadvantage, owing to their lack of familiarity with the terrain and the Boers’ superior skills as horsemen and sharpshooters. The British responded with a scorched-earth policy. This included farm burnings, looting and the setting-up of concentration camps for noncombatants, in which some 26 000 Boer women and children died from disease. The incarceration of black (including coloured) people in the path of the war in racially segregated camps has been absent in conventional accounts of the war and has only recently been acknowledged. They too suffered appalling conditions and some 14 000 (perhaps many more) are estimated to have died. At the same time, many black farmers were in a position to meet the demand for produce created by the military, or to avail themselves of employment opportunities at good wages. Some 10 000 black servants accompanied the Boer commandos, and the British used Africans as labourers, scouts, dispatch riders, drivers and guards. The war also taught many Africans that the forces of dispossession could be rolled back if the circumstances were right. It gave black communities the opportunity to recolonise land lost in conquest, which enabled them to withhold their labour after the war. Most supported the British in the belief that Britain was committed to extending civil and political rights to black people. In this they were to be disappointed, as in the Treaty of Vereeniging that ended the war, the British agreed to leave the issue of rights for Africans to be decided by a future self-governing (white) authority. All in all, the Anglo-Boer/South African War was a radicalising experience for Africans. Britain’s reconstruction regime set about creating a white-ruled dominion by uniting the former Boer republics (both by then British colonies) with Natal and the Cape. The most important priority was to re-establish white control over the land and force the Africans back to wage labour. The labour-recruiting system was improved, both internally and externally. Recruiting agreements were reached with the Portuguese authorities in Mozambique, from where much mine labour came. When, by 1904, African sources still proved inadequate to get the mines working at pre-war levels, over 60 000 indentured Chinese were brought in. This precipitated a vociferous outcry from proponents of white supremacy in South Africa and liberals in Britain. The impact of the Anglo-Boer/South African War as a seminal influence on the development of Afrikaner nationalist politics became apparent in subsequent years. The Boer leaders – most notably Louis Botha, Jan Smuts and JBM Hertzog – played a dominant role in the country’s politics for the next half century. After initial plans for anglicisation of the defeated Afrikaners through the education system and numerical swamping through British immigration were abandoned as impractical, the British looked to the Afrikaners as collaborators in securing imperial political and economic interests. During 1907 and 1908, the two former Boer republics were granted self-government but, crucially, with a whites-only franchise. Despite promises to the contrary, black interests were sacrificed in the interest of white nation-building across the white language divide. The National Convention drew up a constitution and the four colonies became an independent dominion called the Union of South Africa on 31 May 1910. Segregation Segregation and apartheid assumed their shape, in part, as a white response to Africans’ increasing participation in the country’s economic life and their assertion of political rights. Despite the Government’s efforts to shore up traditionalism and retribalise them, black people became more fully integrated into the urban and industrial society of 20th-century South Africa than happened elsewhere on the continent. An educated élite of clerics, teachers, business people, journalists and professionals grew to be a major force in black politics. Mission Christianity and its associated educational institutions exerted a profound influence on African political life, and separatist churches were early vehicles for African political assertion. The experiences of studying abroad, and in particular, interaction with black people struggling for their rights elsewhere in Africa, the United States of America and the Caribbean, played an important part. A vigorous black press, associated in its early years with such pioneer editors as JT Jabavu, Pixley Seme, Dr Abdullah Abdurahman, Sol Plaatje and John Dube, served the black reading public.



Steps towards the formation of a national political organisation of coloureds began around the turn of the century, with the formation of the African Political Organisation in 1902 by Dr Abdurahman, mainly in the Cape Province. The African National Congress (ANC), founded in 1912, became, however, the most important black organisation drawing together traditional authorities and the educated African élite in common causes. In its early years, the ANC was concerned mainly with constitutional protest. Worker militancy emerged in the wake of the First World War and continued through the 1920s. It included strikes and an anti-pass campaign given impetus by women, particularly in the Free State, resisting extension of the pass laws to them. The Communist Party, formed in 1921 and since then a force for both non-racialism and worker organisation, was to prove far longer-lasting. In other sections of the black population too, the turn of the century saw organised opposition emerging. Gandhi’s leadership of protest against discriminatory laws gave impetus to the formation of provincial Indian congresses, including the Natal Indian Congress formed by Gandhi in 1894. The government regularised the job colour bar, reserving skilled work for whites and denying African workers the right to organise. Legislation, which was consolidated in the Natives (Urban Areas) Act, 1923, entrenched urban segregation and controlled African mobility by means of pass laws. The pass laws were intended to enmesh Africans in a web of coercion designed to force them into labour and keep them there under conditions and at wage levels that suited white employers, and to deny them any bargaining power. Afrikaner nationalism grew as a factor in the years after union. It was given impetus in 1914, both by the formation of the National Party (NP), in a breakaway from the ruling South African Party, and by a rebellion of Afrikaners who could not reconcile themselves with the decision to join the First World War against Germany. In part, the NP spoke for Afrikaners impoverished by the Anglo-Boer/South African War and dislodged from the land by the development of capitalist farming. In 1934, the main white parties fused to combat the local effects of a worldwide depression. This was followed by a new Afrikaner nationalist breakaway under Dr DF Malan. In 1936, white supremacy was further entrenched by the United Party with the removal of the Africans of the Cape Province who qualified, from the common voters’ roll. Meanwhile, Malan’s breakaway NP was greatly augmented by an Afrikaner cultural revival spearheaded by the secret white male Afrikaner Broederbond and other cultural organisations during the year of the Voortrekker centenary celebrations (1938), as well as by anti-war sentiment from 1939. Apartheid After the Second World War in 1948, the NP, with its ideology of apartheid that brought an even more rigorous and authoritarian approach than the segregationist policies of previous governments, won the general election. It did so against the background of a revival of mass militancy during the 1940s, after a period of relative quiescence in the 1930s when black groups attempted to foster unity among themselves. The change was marked by the formation of the ANC Youth League in 1943, fostering the leadership of figures such as Anton Lembede, AP Mda, Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu, who were to inspire the struggle for decades to come. In the 1940s, squatter movements in peri-urban areas brought mass politics back to the urban centres. The 1946 Mineworkers’ Strike was a turning point in the emergence of a politics of mass mobilisation. As was the case with the First World War, the experience of the Second World War and post-war economic difficulties enhanced discontent. For those who supported the NP, its primary appeal lay in its determination to maintain white domination in the face of rising mass resistance; uplift poor Afrikaners; challenge the pre-eminence of English-speaking whites in public life, the professions and business; and abolish the remaining imperial ties. In 1961, the NP Government under Prime Minister HF Verwoerd declared South Africa a republic, after winning a whites-only referendum on the issue. A new currency, the Rand, and a new flag, anthem and coat of arms were formally introduced. South Africa, having become a republic, had to



apply for continued membership of the Commonwealth. In the face of demands for an end to apartheid, South Africa withdrew its application and a figurehead president replaced the British queen (represented locally by the governor-general) as head of state. In most respects, apartheid was a continuation, in more systematic and brutal form, of the segregationist policies of previous governments. In the mid-1950s, government took the drastic step of overriding an entrenched clause in the 1910 Constitution of the Union so as to be able to remove coloured voters from the common voters’ roll. It also enforced residential segregation, expropriating homes where necessary and policing massive forced removals into coloured ‘group areas’. Until the 1940s, South Africa’s racial policies had not been entirely out of step with those to be found in the colonial world. But by the 1950s, which saw decolonisation and a global backlash against racism gather pace, the country was dramatically opposed to world opinion on questions of human rights. The architects of apartheid, among whom Dr Verwoerd was pre-eminent, responded by elaborating a theory of multinationalism. Their policy, which they termed ‘separate development’, divided the African population into artificial ethnic ‘nations’, each with its own ‘homeland’ and the prospect of ‘independence’, supposedly in keeping with trends elsewhere on the continent. This divide-and-rule strategy was designed to disguise the racial basis of official policy-making by the substitution of the language of ethnicity. This was accompanied by much ethnographic engineering as efforts were made to resurrect tribal structures. In the process, the government sought to create a significant collaborating class. Forced removals from ‘white’ areas affected some 3,5 million people and vast rural slums were created in the homelands, which were used as dumping grounds. The pass laws and influx control were extended and harshly enforced, and labour bureau were set up to channel labour to where it was needed. Hundreds of thousands of people were arrested or prosecuted under the pass laws each year, reaching over half a million a year from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s. Industrial decentralization to growth points on the borders of (but not inside) the homelands was promoted as a means of keeping blacks out of ‘white’ South Africa. The end of apartheid The Defiance Campaign of 1952 carried mass mobilisation to new heights under the banner of non-violent resistance to the pass laws. These actions were influenced in part by the philosophy of Mohandas Gandhi. A critical step in the emergence of non-racialism was the formation of the Congress Alliance, including the ANC; South African Indian Congress; the Coloured People’s Congress; a small white congress organisation (the Congress of Democrats); and the South African Congress of Trade Unions. The alliance gave formal expression to an emerging unity across racial and class lines that was manifested in the Defiance Campaign and other mass protests, including against Bantu education, of this period, which also saw women’s resistance take a more organised character with the formation of the Federation of South African Women. In 1955, the Freedom Charter was drawn up at the Congress of the People in Soweto. The charter enunciated the principles of the struggle, binding the movement to a culture of human rights and non-racialism. Over the next few decades, the Freedom Charter was elevated to an important symbol of the freedom struggle. The Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), founded by Robert Sobukwe and based on the philosophies of ‘Africanism’ and anti-communism, broke away from the Congress Alliance in 1959. The state’s initial response, harsh as it was, was not yet as draconian as it was to become. Its attempt to prosecute more than 150 anti-apartheid leaders for treason, in a trial that began in 1956, ended in acquittals in 1961. But by that time, mass organised opposition had been banned. Matters came to a head at Sharpeville in March 1960, when 69 anti-pass demonstrators were killed when police fired on a demonstration called by the PAC. A state of emergency was imposed and detention without trial was introduced. The black political organisations were banned and their leaders went into exile or were arrested. In this climate, the ANC and PAC abandoned their long-standing commitment to non-violent resistance



and turned to armed struggle, combined with underground organisation and mobilisation as well as mobilisation of international solidarity. Top leaders, including members of the newly formed military wing Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) (Spear of the Nation), were arrested in 1963. In the ‘Rivonia Trial’, eight ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela, were convicted of sabotage (instead of treason, the original charge) and sentenced to life imprisonment. The year 1976 marked the beginning of a sustained anti-apartheid revolt. In June, school pupils of Soweto rose up against apartheid education, followed by youth uprisings all around the country. Despite the harsh repression that followed, students continued to organise, with the formation in 1979 of organisations for school students (Congress of South African Students) and college and university students (Azanian Students Organisation). By the 1980s, the different forms of struggle – armed struggle, mass mobilisation and international solidarity – were beginning to integrate and coalesce. From the mid-1980s, regional and national states of emergency were enforced. Developments in neighbouring states, where mass resistance to white minority and colonial rule led to Portuguese decolonisation in the mid-1970s and the abdication of Zimbabwe’s minority regime in 1980, left South Africa exposed as the last bastion of white supremacy. Under growing pressure and increasingly isolated internationally, the government embarked on a dual strategy, introducing limited reform coupled with intensifying repression and militarisation of society, with the objective of containing the pressures and increasing its support base while crushing organised resistance. An early example of reform was the recognition of black trade unions to try to stabilise labour relations. In 1983, the Constitution was reformed to allow the coloured and Indian minorities limited participation in separate and subordinate houses of Parliament. By the late 1980s, popular resistance was taking the form of mass defiance campaigns, while struggles over more localised issues saw broad sections of communities mobilised in united action. Popular support for released political prisoners and for the armed struggle was being openly expressed. In response to the rising tide of resistance, the international community strengthened its support for the anti-apartheid cause. A range of sanctions and boycotts was instituted, both unilaterally by countries across the world and through the United Nations (UN). FW de Klerk, who replaced PW Botha as state president in 1989, announced at the opening of Parliament in February 1990 the unbanning of the liberation movements and release of political prisoners, notably Mandela. A number of factors led to this step. International financial, trade, sport and cultural sanctions were clearly biting. Above all, even if South Africa were nowhere near collapse, either militarily or economically, several years of emergency rule and ruthless repression had clearly neither destroyed the structures of organised resistance, nor helped establish legitimacy for the apartheid regime or its collaborators. Instead, popular resistance, including mass and armed action, was intensifying. To outside observers, and also in the eyes of growing numbers of white South Africans, apartheid stood exposed as morally bankrupt, indefensible and impervious to reforms. The collapse of global communism, the negotiated withdrawal of Cuban forces from Angola, and the culmination of the South-West African People’s Organisation’s liberation struggle in the negotiated independence of Namibia – formerly South-West Africa, administered by South Africa as a League of Nations mandate since 1919 – did much to change the mindset of whites. No longer could whites demonise the ANC and PAC as fronts for international communism. Apartheid increasingly seemed more like a straitjacket than a safeguard. In 1982, disenchanted hardliners split from the NP to form the Conservative Party, leaving the NP open to more flexible and modernising influences. After this split, factions within the Afrikaner élite openly started to pronounce in favour of a more inclusive society, causing more friction with the NP government, which became increasingly militaristic and authoritarian. A number of business, student and academic Afrikaners held meetings publicly and privately with the ANC in exile. Secret talks were held between the imprisoned Mandela and government ministers about a new dispensation for South Africa, with blacks



forming a major part of it. Inside the country, mass action became the order of the day. Petty apartheid laws and symbols were openly challenged and removed. Together with a sliding economy and increasing international pressure, these developments made historic changes inevitable. The First Decade of Freedom After a long negotiation process, sustained despite much opportunistic violence from the right wing and its surrogates, and in some instances sanctioned by elements of the state, South Africa’s first democratic election was held in April 1994 under an interim Constitution. The interim Constitution divided South Africa into nine new provinces in place of the previous four provinces and 10 ‘homelands’, and provided for the Government of National Unity to be constituted by all parties with at least 20 seats in the National Assembly. The ANC emerged from the election with a 62% majority. The main opposition came from the NP, which gained 20% of the vote nationally, and a majority in the Western Cape. The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) received 10% of the vote, mainly in its KwaZulu-Natal base. The NP and the IFP formed part of the Government of National Unity until 1996, when the NP withdrew. The ANC-led government embarked on a programme to promote the reconstruction and development of the country and its institutions. Converting democratic ideals into practice required, among other things, initiating a radical overhaul of the machinery of government at every level, working towards service delivery, openness, and a culture of human rights. It has required a more integrated approach to planning and implementation to ensure that the many different aspects of transformation and socio-economic upliftment cohere with maximum impact. A significant milestone in the democratisation of South Africa was the exemplary Constitution making process, which in 1996 delivered a document that has evoked worldwide admiration. So too have been the elections subsequent to 1994 – all conducted peacefully, with high levels of participation compared with the norm in most democracies, and accepted by all as free and fair in their conduct and results. Since 2001, participatory democracy and interactive governance have been strengthened through the practice of imbizo, in which members of the executive, in all three spheres of government, including The Presidency, regularly engage directly with the public around implementation of programmes of reconstruction and development. The second democratic national election in 1999 saw the ANC majority increase to just short of two thirds and the election of Mr. Thabo Mbeki as president, as successor to Mr. Mandela. It saw a sharp decline of the NP (then the New National Party [NNP]) and its replacement by the Democratic Party, led by Mr. Tony Leon, as the official opposition in Parliament. These two parties formed the Democratic Alliance, which the NNP left in 2001. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), under the leadership of Archbishop Desmond Tutu, helped inculcate a commitment to accountability and transparency in South Africa’s public life, at the same time helping to heal wounds inflicted by the inhumanities of the apartheid era. During 2003, Parliament accepted the Government’s response to the final report of the TRC. Out of 22 000 individuals or surviving families appearing before the commission, 19 000 were identified as needing urgent reparation assistance – virtually all, where the necessary information was available, received interim reparations. As final reparations, government is providing a once-off grant of R30 000 to individuals or survivors who appeared before, and were designated by, the TRC, over and above the programmes for material assistance. There will also be systematic programmes to project the symbolism of the struggle and the ideal of freedom. These include the Freedom Park Monument and other symbols and monuments, and such matters as records of history, remaking of cultural and art forms, and changing geographical and place names. The integration of South Africa into the global political, economic and social system has been a priority for democratic South Africa. As a country isolated during the apartheid period, an African country, a developing country, and a country whose liberation was achieved with the support of the international community, it has been of critical importance to build political and economic links with the countries



and regions of the world, and to work with others for an international environment more favourable to development across the world, and in Africa and South Africa in particular. By participating in UN and AU initiatives to resolve conflict and promote peace and security on the continent – in among other countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Sudan – South Africa has been contributing to the achievement of conditions conducive to the entrenchment of stability, democracy and faster development. Democratic South Africa has sought to play an active role in international and multilateral organisations. During the First Decade of Freedom, it acted at various times as chair of the Southern African Development Community, NAM, AU and the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. It has played host to several international conferences, including the UN Conference on Trade and Development in 1996, the 2000 World AIDS Congress, World Conference Against Racism in 2001, World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, and the World Parks Congress in 2003. South Africa is playing an increasing role in multilateral institutions – for example the Minister of Finance has been a member of the International Monetary Fund’s Development Committee since 2002, and the National Commissioner of the South African Police Service was elected president of Interpol in 2004. In 2006, South Africa assumed the chair of the G77 (and China) and was elected to serve a two-year period as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. South Africa has also proved itself as a venue for the world’s major sporting events, and is preparing to host the 2010 Fifa World Cup. Into the Second Decade of Freedom When South Africa celebrated 10 years of freedom in 2004, there were celebrations across the world in countries whose peoples had helped bring freedom to South Africa through their solidarity, and who today are partners in reconstruction and development. As government took stock of the First Decade of Freedom, in Towards a Ten Year Review, it was able to document great progress by South Africans in pursuit of their goals, as well as the challenges that face the nation as it traverses the second decade of its freedom towards 2014. Some of these challenges are shared with the rest of the world, especially developing countries. Globalisation, the digital divide, poverty, HIV and AIDS, and creating conditions conducive to sustainable development are some of the critical issues for which the nation is seeking solutions in partnership with others. Other challenges are specific to South Africa. Among them are the further strengthening of social partnerships for the development of South African society, the eradication of poverty, improving the performance of the State, addressing the consequences of the social transition that has followed the end of apartheid, including the persistence of two economies in one country, improving the regional environment and implementing Nepad. In its third democratic elections, in April 2004, the country gave an increased mandate to the Government’s programme for reconstruction and development and for the entrenchment of the rights inscribed in the Constitution. It mandated government specifically to create the conditions for halving unemployment and poverty by 2014. Local government elections in 2006, following a long period of civic protests as communities objected against a mixed record of service delivery, saw increased participation compared with the previous local elections as well as increased support for the ruling party based on a manifesto for a concerted effort, in partnership with communities, to make local government work better.



REFERENCES INTERNET www.mbendi.co.za www.bigwotours.co.za www.calle.com www.krugersdorp.org www.ukdiving.co.uk www.wildnetafrica.com unesco.com allwords.com

animaldiversityummz.umich.edu encarta.msn.com go2africa.com gov.za iafrica.com safarinow.com sa-venues.com SouthAfrica.info 1UpTravel.com 39.citytron.com

BOOKS Compton’s Interactive Encyclopaedia Discovering South Africa by TV Bulpin Doman 1925 Durban Publicity Association En Route, Jonathan Bull Publishers Europe and South Africa by AN Boyce Gauteng Tourism Government Commercial and Information System (GCIS) Kruger National Park Globetrotter 2000 Leslau Charlotte and Wolf ‘African Folk Tales’ 1963 Mammals of Southern Africa by Smithers National Maritime Museum Royal Observatory Greenwich SATOUR South Africa: A Modern History by TRH Davenport South African Overview by L. Olivier South Africa Yearbook 2006/07 Touring in South Africa TOURSAA


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