-
Technology Guide
Hardware
1
[ LEARNING OBJECTIVES ] [ TECHNOLOGY GUIDE OUTLINE ] [ WEB
RESOURCES ]
1. Identify the major hardware components of a computer
system.
2. Discuss strategic issues that link hardware design to
business strategy.
3. Describe the hierarchy of computers according to power and
their respective roles.
4. Differentiate the various types of input and output
technologies and their uses.
5. Describe the design and functioning of the central processing
unit.
6. Discuss the relationships between microprocessor component
designs and performance.
7. Describe the main types of primary and secondary storage.
8. Distinguish between primary and secondary storage along the
dimensions of speed, cost, and capacity.
TG 1.1 IntroductionTG 1.2 Strategic Hardware
Issues
TG 1.3 Computer HierarchyTG 1.4 Input and Output
Technologies
TG 1.5 The Central Processing Unit
• Student PowerPoints for note taking
• E-book
• Author video lecture for each chapter section
• Practice quizzes
• Flash Cards for vocabulary review
• Additional “IT’s About Business” cases
• Video interviews with managers
• Lab Manuals for Microsoft Offi ce 2010 and 2013
3GTG01.indd 4383GTG01.indd 438 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
439
As you begin this Technology Guide, you might be wondering, why
do I have to know anything about hardware? There are several
reasons why you will benefi t from understanding the basics of
hardware. First, regardless of your major (and future functional
area in an organization), you will be using different types of
hardware throughout your career. Second, you will have input
concerning the hardware you will use. In this capacity you will be
required to answer many questions, such as “Is my hardware
performing adequately for my needs? If not, what types of problems
am I experiencing?” Third, you will also have input into decisions
when your functional area or organization upgrades or replaces its
hardware. MIS employees will act as advisors, but you will provide
important input into such decisions. Finally, in some
organizations, the budget for hardware is allocated to functional
areas or departments. In such cases, you might be making hardware
decisions (at least locally) yourself.
This Technology Guide will help you better understand the
hardware decisions your orga-nization must make as well as your
personal computing decisions. Many of the design prin-ciples
presented here apply to systems of all sizes, from an
enterprisewide system to your home computer system. In addition,
the dynamics of innovation and cost that you will read about can
affect personal as well as corporate hardware decisions.
Introduction to HardwareRecall from Chapter 1 that the term
hardware refers to the physical equipment used for the input,
processing, output, and storage activities of a computer system.
Decisions about hard-ware focus on three interrelated factors:
appropriateness for the task, speed, and cost. The incredibly rapid
rate of innovation in the computer industry complicates hardware
decisions because computer technologies become obsolete more
quickly than other organizational technologies.
The overall trends in hardware are that it becomes smaller,
faster, cheaper, and more pow-erful over time. In fact, these
trends are so rapid that they make it diffi cult to know when to
purchase (or upgrade) hardware. This diffi culty lies in the fact
that companies that delay hard-ware purchases will, more than
likely, be able to buy more powerful hardware for the same
TG 1.1
What’s In Me?ITForT h i s T e c h G u i d e W i l l H e l p P r
e p a r e Y o u T o …
ACCT
ACCOUNTING
FIN
FINANCE
MKT
MARKETING
POM
PRODUCTIONOPERATIONS
MANAGEMENT
HRM
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
MIS
MIS
3GTG01.indd 4393GTG01.indd 439 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
440 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
amount of money in the future. It is important to note that
buying more powerful hardware for the same amount of money in the
future is a trade-off. An organization that delays purchas-ing
computer hardware gives up the benefi ts of whatever it could buy
today until the future purchase date arrives.
Hardware consists of the following:
• Central processing unit (CPU). Manipulates the data and
controls the tasks performed by the other components.
• Primary storage. Temporarily stores data and program
instructions during processing.• Secondary storage. Stores data and
programs for future use.• Input technologies. Accept data and
instructions and convert them to a form that the
computer can understand.• Output technologies. Present data and
information in a form people can understand.• Communication
technologies. Provide for the fl ow of data from external
computer
networks (e.g., the Internet and intranets) to the CPU, and from
the CPU to computer networks.
Strategic Hardware IssuesFor most businesspeople the most
important issues are what the hardware enables, how it is
advancing, and how rapidly it is advancing. In many industries,
exploiting computer hardware is a key to achieving competitive
advantage. Successful hardware exploitation comes from thoughtful
consideration of the following questions:
• How do organizations keep up with the rapid price reductions
and performance advance-ments in hardware? For example, how often
should an organization upgrade its computers and storage systems?
Will upgrades increase personal and organizational productivity?
How can organizations measure such increases?
• How should organizations determine the need for the new
hardware infrastructures, such as server farms, virtualization,
grid computing, and utility computing? (We discuss these
technologies in Technology Guide 3.)
• Portable computers and advanced communications technologies
have enabled employees to work from home or from anywhere. Will
these new work styles benefi t employees and the organization? How
do organizations manage such new work styles?
Computer HierarchyThe traditional standard for comparing classes
of computers is their processing power. This sec-tion presents each
class of computers, from the most powerful to the least powerful.
It describes both the computers and their roles in modern
organizations.
SupercomputersThe term supercomputer does not refer to a specifi
c technology. Rather, it indicates the fast-est computers available
at any given time. At the time of this writing (mid-2013), the
fastest supercomputers had speeds exceeding 1 petafl op (1 petafl
op is 1,000 trillion fl oating point operations per second). A fl
oating point operation is an arithmetic operation that involves
decimals.
Because supercomputers are costly as well as very fast, they are
generally used by large organizations to execute computationally
demanding tasks involving very large data sets. In contrast to
mainframes, which specialize in transaction processing and
business
TG 1.2
TG 1.3
3GTG01.indd 4403GTG01.indd 440 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
441SECTION TG 1.3 Computer Hierarchy
applications, supercomputers typically run military and
scientifi c applications. Although they cost millions of dollars,
they are also being used for commercial applications where huge
amounts of data must be analyzed. For example, large banks use
supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various
investment strategies, and healthcare organiza-tions use them to
analyze giant databases of patient data to determine optimal
treatments for various diseases.
Mainframe ComputersAlthough mainframe computers are increasingly
viewed as just another type of server, albeit at the high end of
the performance and reliability scales, they remain a distinct
class of sys-tems differentiated by hardware and software features.
Mainframes remain popular in large enterprises for extensive
computing applications that are accessed by thousands of users at
one time. Examples of mainframe applications are airline
reservation systems, corporate payroll programs, Web site
transaction processing systems (e.g., Amazon and eBay), and student
grade calculation and reporting.
Today’s mainframes perform at terafl op (trillions of fl oating
point operations per second) speeds and can handle millions of
transactions per day. In addition, mainframes provide a secure,
robust environment in which to run strategic, mission-critical
applications.
Midrange ComputersLarger midrange computers, called
minicomputers, are relatively small, inexpensive, and compact
computers that perform the same functions as mainframe computers,
but to a more limited extent. In fact, the lines between
minicomputers and mainframes have blurred in both price and
performance. Minicomputers are a type of server—that is, a computer
that supports computer networks and enables users to share fi les,
software, peripheral devices, and other resources. Mainframes are a
type of server as well because they provide support for entire
enterprise networks.
MicrocomputersMicrocomputers—also called micros, personal
computers, or PCs—are the smallest and least expensive category of
general-purpose computers. It is important to point out that people
fre-quently defi ne a PC as a computer that utilizes the Microsoft
Windows operating system. In fact, a variety of PCs are available,
and many of them do not use Windows. One well-known example is
Apple Macs, which use the Mac OS X operating system (discussed in
Technology Guide 2). The major categories of microcomputers are
desktops, thin clients, notebooks and laptops, netbooks, and
tablets.
Desktop PCs The desktop personal computer is the familiar
microcomputer system that has become a standard tool for business
and the home. A desktop generally includes a central processing
unit (CPU)—which you will learn about later—and a separate but
con-nected monitor and keyboard. Modern desktop computers have
gigabytes of primary storage, a rewriteable CD-ROM drive and a DVD
drive, and up to several terabytes of secondary storage. Today,
desktops are being replaced with portable devices such as laptops,
netbooks, and tablets.
Thin-Client Systems Before you address thin-client systems,
recall that servers are com-puters that provide a variety of
services for clients, including running networks, processing Web
sites, processing e-mail, and many other functions. Clients are
typically computers on which users perform their tasks, such as
word processing, spreadsheets, and others.
Thin-client systems are desktop computer systems that do not
offer the full functionality of a PC. Compared to PCs, or fat
clients, thin clients are less complex, particularly because they
do not have locally installed software. When thin clients need to
run an application, they access it from a server over a network
instead of from a local disk drive.
For example, a thin client would not have Microsoft Offi ce
installed on it. Thus, thin cli-ents are easier and less expensive
to operate and support than PCs. The benefi ts of thin clients
include fast application deployment, centralized management, lower
cost of ownership, and
3GTG01.indd 4413GTG01.indd 441 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
442 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
easier installation, management, maintenance, and support. The
main disadvantage of thin clients is that if the network fails,
then users can do very little on their computers. In contrast, if
users have fat clients and the network fails, they can still
perform some functions because they have software, such as
Microsoft Offi ce, installed on their computers.
Laptop and Notebook Computers Laptop computers (or notebook
computers) are small, easily transportable, lightweight
microcomputers that fi t comfortably into a briefcase (Figure TG
1.1). Notebooks and laptops are designed to be as convenient and
easy to trans-port as possible. Just as important, they also
provide users with access to processing power and data outside an
offi ce environment. However, they cost more than desktops for
similar functionality.
Netbooks A netbook is a very small, lightweight, low-cost,
energy-effi cient, portable com-puter. Netbooks are generally
optimized for Internet-based services such as Web browsing and
e-mail.
Tablet Computers A tablet computer (or tablet) is a complete
computer contained entirely in a fl at touch screen that users
operate via a stylus, digital pen, or fi ngertip instead of a
keyboard or mouse. Examples of tablets are the Apple iPad 3
(www.apple.com/ipad), the HP Slate 2 (www.hp.com), the Toshiba
Thrive (www.toshiba.com), and the Motorola Xoom 2
(www.motorola.com).
Wearable ComputersWearable computers are miniature computers
that people wear under, with, or on top of their clothing. Key
features of wearable computers are that there is constant
interaction between the computer and the users and that the users
can multitask, meaning they do not have to stop what they are doing
to utilize the device. Examples of wearable comput-ers are the iPod
Nano (www.apple.com/ipod-nano) with a wristwatch attachment, the
Sony SmartWatch (www.sony.com/SmartWatch), the Apple iWatch
(planned for release in mid-to-late 2013), Google Glass, and Vuzix
(www.vuzix.com) M100Smart Glasses (a Google Glass competitor). For
a closer look at Google Glass (www.google.com/glass/start), see
IT’s About Business 3.3.
Laptop computer
Motorola Xoom tablet
Netbook
Apple iPad tablet
© D
rago
nian
/iSto
ckph
oto
© S
åndo
r K
elem
en/iS
tock
phot
o©
Ole
ksiy
Mak
ymen
ko/A
lam
y
© P
hoto
Edi
t/Ala
my
FIGURE TG 1.1 Laptop, notebook, and tablet computers.
3GTG01.indd 4423GTG01.indd 442 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
443SECTION TG 1.4 Input and Output Technologies
Google Glass is an excellent example of a device that provides
augmented reality. Aug-mented reality is a live, direct or
indirect, view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements
are augmented, or enhanced, by computer-generated sensory input
such as sound, video, graphics, or GPS data. That is, augmented
reality enhances the user’s perception of reality. Note that in
contrast, virtual reality replaces the real world with a simulated
world.
As an example of augmented reality with Google Glass, let’s say
that you are looking for a destination in an unfamiliar city. You
ask Google Glass for directions, and the device will overlay your
vision with a graphic display of a street map, with the route to
your destination highlighted.
IT’s Personal: Purchasing a Computer
One day you will purchase a computer for yourself or your job.
When that day comes, it will be important for you to know what to
look for. Buying a computer can be very confusing if you just read
the box. This Technology Guide has explained the major hardware
components of a computer. There are more things you need to
consider, however, when you purchase a computer: what you plan to
do with it, where you plan to use it, and how long you need
ser-vice from it. Let’s look at each question more closely.
• What do you plan to do with your computer? Consider that when
you buy a vehicle, your plans for using the vehicle determine the
type of vehicle you will purchase. The same rules apply to
purchasing a computer. You need to consider what you currently do
with a computer and what you may do before you replace the one
under consideration. Although many people simply buy as much as
they can afford, they may overpay because they do not consider what
they need the computer for.
• Where do you plan to use your computer? If you only plan to
use it at home at your desk, then a desktop model will be fi ne. In
general, you can get more computer for your money in a desktop
model as opposed to a laptop (i.e., you pay extra for mobility).
However, if you think you may want to take the computer with you,
then you will need some type of a lap-top or tablet computer. When
portability is a requirement, you will want to reconsider what you
plan to use the computer for because as computers become more
portable (smaller), their functionality changes, and you want to
make sure the com-puter will meet your needs.
• How long do you need service from this computer? Today, we
anticipate that most of the devices we purchase will become
outdated and need to be replaced in a few years. Therefore, the
length of service is really more about warranty and the
availability of repair services. In some cases, you should base
your purchase decision on these issues rather than speed because
they can extend the life of your computer.
Input and Output TechnologiesInput technologies allow people and
other technologies to enter data into a computer. The two main
types of input devices are human data-entry devices and source-data
automation devices. As their name implies, human data-entry devices
require a certain amount of human effort to input data. Examples
are keyboard, mouse, pointing stick, trackball, joystick, touch
screen, stylus, and voice recognition.
In contrast, source-data automation devices input data with
minimal human intervention. These technologies speed up data
collection, reduce errors, and gather data at the source of a
transaction or other event. Bar code readers are an example of
source-data automation. Table TG 1.1 describes the various input
devices.
The output generated by a computer can be transmitted to the
user via several output devices and media. These devices include
monitors, printers, plotters, and voice. Table TG 1.2 describes the
various output devices.
Multimedia technology is the computer-based integration of text,
sound, still images, ani-mation, and digitized motion video. It
usually consists of a collection of various input and
TG 1.4
3GTG01.indd 4433GTG01.indd 443 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
444 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
Table TG 1.1Input Devices
Input Device Description
Human Data-Entry Devices
Keyboards Most common input device (for text and numerical
data).
Mouse Handheld device used to point the cursor at a point on
screen, such as an icon; the user clicks a button on the mouse,
instructing the computer to take some action.
Optical mouse The mouse is not connected to computer by a cable;
rather, it uses camera chip to take images of surface it passes
over, comparing successive images to determine its position.
Trackball User rotates a ball built into top of device to move
the cursor (rather than moving an entire device such as a
mouse).
Pointing stick Small button-like device; the cursor moves in the
direction of the pressure the user places on the stick. Located
between the keys near the center of the keyboard.
Touchpad User moves the cursor by sliding a fi nger across a
sensitized pad and then can tap the pad when the cursor is in (also
called a trackpad) the desired position to instruct the computer to
take action (also called glide-and-tap pad).
Graphics tablet A device that can be used in place of, or in
conjunction with, a mouse or trackball; it has a fl at surface for
drawing and a pen or stylus that is programmed to work with the
tablet.
Joystick The joystick moves the cursor to the desired place on
the screen; commonly used in video games and in workstations that
display dynamic graphics.
Touch screen Users instruct computer to take some action by
touching a particular part of the screen; commonly used in
information kiosks such as ATM machines. Touch screens now have
gesture controls for browsing through photographs, moving objects
around on a screen, fl icking to turn the page of a book, and
playing video games. For example, see the Apple iPhone.
Stylus Pen-style device that allows user either to touch parts
of a predetermined menu of options or to handwrite information into
the computer (as with some PDAs); works with touch-sensitive
screens.
Digital pen Mobile device that digitally captures everything you
write; built-in screen confi rms that what you write has been
saved; also captures sketches, fi gures, and so on with on-board fl
ash memory.
Web camera (Webcam) A real-time video camera whose images can be
accessed via the Web or instant messaging.
Voice-recognition Microphone converts analog voice sounds into
digital input for a computer; critical technology for physically
challenged people who cannot use other input devices.
output technologies. Multimedia merges the capabilities of
computers with televisions, CD players, DVD players, video and
audio recording equipment, and music and gaming tech-nologies.
High-quality multimedia processing requires powerful
microprocessors and extensive memory capacity, including both
primary and secondary storage.
3GTG01.indd 4443GTG01.indd 444 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
445SECTION TG 1.4 Input and Output Technologies
Table TG 1.1 (Continued)Input Device Description
Gesture-Based Input
Gesture recognition refers to technologies that enable computers
to interpret human gestures. These technologies would be the fi rst
step in designing computers that can understand human body
language. This process creates a richer interaction between
machines and humans than has been possible via keyboards, graphical
user interfaces, and the mouse. Gesture recognition enables humans
to interact naturally with a computer without any intervening
mechanical devices. With gesture-based technologies, the user can
move the cursor by pointing a fi nger at a computer screen. These
technologies could make conventional input devices (the mouse,
keyboards, and touch screens) redundant. Examples of gesture-based
input devices are the Nintendo Wii (www.nintendo.com/wii), the
Microsoft Kinect (www.xbox.com/kinect), and the Leap Motion
controller (www.leapmotion.com).
Wii A video game console produced by Nintendo. A distinguishing
feature of the Wii is its wireless controller, which can be used as
a handheld pointing device and can detect movement in three
dimensions.
Microsoft Kinect A device that enables users to control and
interact with the Xbox 360 through a natural interface using
gestures and spoken commands. Kinect eliminates the need for a game
controller.
Leap Motion Controller A motion-sensing, matchbox-sized device
placed on a physical desktop. Using two cameras, the device
“observes” an area up to a distance of about three feet. It
precisely tracks fi ngers or items such as a pen that cross into
the observed area. The Leap can perform tasks such as navigating a
Web site, using pinch-to-zoom gestures on maps, performing
high-precision drawing, and manipulating complex three-dimensional
visualizations. The smaller observation area and higher resolution
of the device differentiates it from the Microsoft Kinect, which is
more suitable for whole-body tracking in a space the size of a
living room.
Source-Data Automation Input Devices
Automated teller machine (ATM)
A device that includes source-data automation input in the form
of a magnetic stripe reader; human input via a keyboard; and output
via a monitor, printer, and cash dispenser.
Magnetic stripe reader A device that reads data from a magnetic
stripe, usually on the back of a plastic card (e.g., credit and
debit cards).
Point-of-sale terminals Computerized cash registers that also
may incorporate touch screen technology and bar code scanners to
input data such as item sold and price.
Barcode scanners Devices that scan black-and-white bar code
lines printed on merchandise labels.
Optical mark reader Scanner for detecting the presence of dark
marks on a predetermined grid, such as multiple-choice test answer
sheets.
Magnetic ink character reader A device that reads magnetic ink
printed on checks that identify the bank, checking account, and
check number.
Optical character recognition Software that converts text into
digital form for input into computer.
Sensors Devices that collect data directly from the environment
and input data directly into computer; examples are vehicle airbag
activation sensors and radio-frequency identifi cation (RFID)
tags.
Cameras Digital cameras capture images and convert them into
digital fi les.
Radio Frequency) Identifi cation (RFID)
Uses technology that uses active or passive tags (transmitters)
to wirelessly transmit product information to electronic readers.
(We discuss RFID in detail in Chapter 8.
3GTG01.indd 4453GTG01.indd 445 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
446 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
The Central Processing UnitThe central processing unit (CPU)
performs the actual computation or “number crunching” inside any
computer. The CPU is a microprocessor (e.g., Intel’s Core i3, i5,
and i7 chips with more to come) made up of millions of microscopic
transistors embedded in a circuit on a sili-con wafer or chip. For
this reason, microprocessors are commonly referred to as chips.
TG 1.5
Table TG 1.2Output Devices
Output Device Description
Monitors
Cathode ray tubes Video screens on which an electron beam
illuminates pixels on a display screen.
Liquid crystal display (LCDs) Flat displays that have liquid
crystals between two polarizers to form characters and images on a
backlit screen.
Flexible displays Thin, plastic, bendable computer screens.
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) Displays that are
brighter, thinner, lighter, cheaper, faster, and take less power to
run displays than LCDs.
Retinal scanning displays Project image directly onto a viewer’s
retina; used in medicine, air traffi c control, and controlling
industrial machines.
Heads-up displays Any transparent display that presents data
without requiring the user to look away from his or her usual
viewpoint; for example, see Microvision (www.microvision.com).
Printers
Laser Use laser beams to write information on photosensitive
drums; produce high-resolution text and graphics.
Inkjet Shoot fi ne streams of colored ink onto paper; usually
less expensive to buy than laser printers but can be more expensive
to operate; can offer resolution quality equal to laser
printers.
Thermal Produces a printed image by selectively heating coated
thermal paper; when the paper passes over the thermal print head,
the coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing
an image.
Plotters Use computer-directed pens for creating high-quality
images, blueprints, schematics, drawing of new products, and so
on.
Voice Output A speaker/headset that can output sounds of any
type; voice output is a software function that uses this
equipment.
Electronic Book Reader A wireless, portable reading device with
access to books, blogs, newspapers, and magazines. On-board storage
holds hundreds of books (e.g., Amazon Kindle, Sony Reader, Barnes
and Noble Nook).
Pocket Projector A projector in a handheld device that provides
an alternative display method to alleviate the problem of tiny
display screens in handheld devices. Pocket projectors will project
digital images onto any viewing surface (e.g., see the Pico
Projector).
3GTG01.indd 4463GTG01.indd 446 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
447SECTION TG 1.5 The Central Processing Unit
As shown in Figure TG 1.2, the microprocessor has different
parts, which perform differ-ent functions. The control unit
sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes them, and
controls the fl ow of data to and from the arithmetic-logic unit,
the registers, the caches, primary storage, secondary storage, and
various output devices. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs
the mathematic calculations and makes logical comparisons. The
regis-ters are high-speed storage areas that store very small
amounts of data and instructions for short periods.
How the CPU WorksIn the CPU, inputs enter and are stored until
they are needed. At that point, they are retrieved and processed,
and the output is stored and then delivered somewhere. Figure TG
1.3 illus-trates this process, which works as follows:
• The inputs consist of data and brief instructions about what
to do with the data. These instructions come into the CPU from
random access memory (RAM). Data might be entered by the user
through the keyboard, for example, or read from a data fi le in
another part of the computer. The inputs are stored in registers
until they are sent to the next step in the processing.
FIGURE TG 1.2 Parts of a microprocessor.
m
I I I
FIGURE TG 1.3 How the CPU works.
3GTG01.indd 4473GTG01.indd 447 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
448 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
• Data and instructions travel in the chip via electrical
pathways called buses. The size of the bus—analogous to the width
of a highway—determines how much information can fl ow at any
time.
• The control unit directs the fl ow of data and instructions
within the chip.• The ALU receives the data and instructions from
the registers and makes the desired com-
putation. These data and instructions have been translated into
binary form—that is, only 0s and 1s. A “0” or a “1” is called a
bit. The CPU can process only binary data. All types of data, such
as letters, decimal numbers, photographs, music, and so on, can be
converted to a binary representation, which can then be processed
by the CPU.
• The data in their original form and the instructions are sent
to storage registers and then are sent back to a storage place
outside the chip, such as the computer’s hard drive. Mean-while,
the transformed data go to another register and then on to other
parts of the com-puter (to the monitor for display or to storage,
for example).
Intel offers excellent demonstrations of how CPUs work: Search
the web for “Intel” with “Explore the Curriculum” to fi nd their
demos. This cycle of processing, known as a machine instruction
cycle, occurs billions of times per second.
Advances in Microprocessor DesignInnovations in chip designs are
coming at a faster and faster rate, as described by Moore’s law. In
1965, Gordon Moore, a cofounder of Intel Corporation, predicted
that microprocessor com-plexity would double approximately every 2
years. His prediction has been amazingly accurate.
The advances predicted from Moore’s law arise mainly from the
following changes:
• Producing increasingly miniaturized transistors.• Placing
multiple processors on a single chip. Chips with more than one
processor are
called multicore chips. For example, the Cell chip, produced by
a consortium of Sony, Toshiba, and IBM, contains nine processors.
Computers using the Cell chip display very rich graphics. The chip
is also used in TV sets and home theaters that can download and
show large numbers of high-defi nition programs. Intel
(www.intel.com) and AMD (www.amd.com) offer multicore chips.
• In April 2012, Intel launched its next-generation chips, which
employ a three-dimensional (3D) design. The 3D chips require less
power than Intel’s current chips while improving performance. These
chips enhance the performance of all computers. However, they are
particularly valuable in handheld devices, because they extend the
device’s battery life.
In addition to increased speeds and performance, Moore’s law has
had an impact on costs, as you can see in Table TG 1.3.
Computer MemoryThe amount and type of memory that a computer
possesses has a great deal to do with its gen-eral utility. A
computer’s memory also determines the types of programs that the
computer can run, the work it can perform, its speed, and its cost.
There are two basic categories of computer memory. The fi rst is
primary storage. It is called “primary” because it stores small
amounts of data and information that the CPU will use immediately.
The second category is secondary storage, which stores much larger
amounts of data and information (an entire software pro-gram, for
example) for extended periods.
Year Chip RAM Hard Drive Monitor Cost
1997 Pentium II 64 megabytes 4 gigabytes 17-inch $4,000
2007 Dual-core 1 gigabyte 250 gigabytes 19-inch $1,700
2013 Quad-core 16 gigabytes 2 terabytes 27-inch $1,700
Table
TG 1.3Comparison of Personal Computer Components and Cost over
Time
3GTG01.indd 4483GTG01.indd 448 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
449SECTION TG 1.5 The Central Processing Unit
Memory Capacity As you have seen, CPUs process only binary
units—0s and 1s—which are translated through computer languages
into bits. A particular combination of bits repre-sents a certain
alphanumeric character or a simple mathematical operation. Eight
bits are needed to represent any one of these characters. This
8-bit string is known as a byte. The stor-age capacity of a
computer is measured in bytes. Bits typically are used as units of
measure only for telecommunications capacity, as in how many
million bits per second can be sent through a particular
medium.
The hierarchy of terms used to describe memory capacity is as
follows:
• Kilobyte. Kilo means “one thousand,” so a kilobyte (KB) is
approximately 1,000 bytes. Actually, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.
Computer designers fi nd it convenient to work with powers of 2:
1,024 is 2 to the 10th power, and 1,024 is close enough to 1,000
that for kilobyte people use the stan-dard prefi x kilo, which
means exactly 1,000 in familiar units such as the kilogram or
kilometer.
• Megabyte. Mega means “one million,” so a megabyte (MB) is
approximately 1 million bytes. Most personal computers have
hundreds of megabytes of RAM memory.
• Gigabyte. Giga means “one billion,” so a gigabyte (GB) is
approximately 1 billion bytes.• Terabyte. A terabyte is
approximately 1 trillion bytes. The storage capacity of modern
per-
sonal computers can be several terabytes.• Petabyte. A petabyte
is approximately 1,000 terabytes.• Exabyte. An exabyte is
approximately 1,000 petabytes.• Zettabyte. A zettabyte is
approximately 1,000 exabytes.
To get a feel for these amounts, consider the following example:
If your computer has one terabyte of storage capacity on its hard
drive (a type of secondary storage), it can store approxi-mately 1
trillion bytes of data. If the average page of text contains about
2,000 bytes, then your hard drive could store approximately 10
percent of all the print collections of the Library of Congress.
That same terabyte can store 70 hours of standard-defi nition
compressed video.
Primary Storage. Primary storage, or main memory, as it is
sometimes called, stores three types of information for very brief
periods of time: (1) data to be processed by the CPU, (2)
instructions for the CPU as to how to process the data, and (3)
operating system programs that manage various aspects of the
computer’s operation. Primary storage takes place in chips mounted
on the computer’s main circuit board, called the motherboard. These
chips are located as close as physically possible to the CPU chip.
As with the CPU, all the data and instructions in primary storage
have been translated into binary code.
The four main types of primary storage are (1) register, (2)
cache memory, (3) random access memory (RAM), and (4) read-only
memory (ROM). You learn about each type of pri-mary storage
next.
Registers are part of the CPU. They have the least capacity,
storing extremely limited amounts of instructions and data only
immediately before and after processing.
Cache memory is a type of high-speed memory that enables the
computer to temporarily store blocks of data that are used more
often and that a processor can access more rapidly than main memory
(RAM). Cache memory is physically located closer to the CPU than
RAM. Blocks that are used less often remain in RAM until they are
transferred to cache; blocks used infrequently remain in secondary
storage. Cache memory is faster than RAM because the instructions
travel a shorter distance to the CPU.
Random access memory (RAM) is the part of primary storage that
holds a software program and small amounts of data for processing.
When you start most software programs (such as Microsoft Word) on
your computer, the entire program is brought from secondary storage
into RAM. As you use the program, small parts of the program’s
instructions and data are sent into the registers and then to the
CPU. Compared with the registers, RAM stores more information and
is located farther away from the CPU. However, compared with
secondary storage, RAM stores less information and is much closer
to the CPU.
RAM is temporary and, in most cases, volatile—that is, RAM chips
lose their contents if the current is lost or turned off, as from a
power surge, brownout, or electrical noise generated by lightning
or nearby machines.
3GTG01.indd 4493GTG01.indd 449 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
450 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
Most of us have lost data at one time or another due to a
computer “crash” or a power failure. What is usually lost is
whatever is in RAM, cache, or the registers at the time, because
these types of memory are volatile. Therefore, you need greater
security when you are storing certain types of critical data or
instructions. Cautious computer users frequently save data to
nonvola-tile memory (secondary storage). In addition, most modern
software applications have autosave functions. Programs stored in
secondary storage, even though they are temporarily copied into RAM
when they are being used, remain intact because only the copy is
lost, not the original.
Read-only memory (ROM) is the place—actually, a type of
chip—where certain critical instructions are safeguarded. ROM is
nonvolatile, so it retains these instructions when the power to the
computer is turned off. The read-only designation means that these
instructions can only be read by the computer and cannot be changed
by the user. An example of ROM is the instructions needed to start
or “boot” the computer after it has been shut off.
Secondary Storage. Secondary storage is designed to store very
large amounts of data for extended periods. Secondary storage has
the following characteristics:
• It is nonvolatile. • It takes more time to retrieve data from
it than from RAM.• It is cheaper than primary storage (see Figure
TG 1.4).• It can utilize a variety of media, each with its own
technology, as you see next.
One secondary storage medium, magnetic tape, is kept on a large
open reel or in a smaller cartridge or cassette. Although this is
an old technology, it remains popular because it is the cheapest
storage medium, and it can handle enormous amounts of data. As a
result, many organizations (e.g., the U.S. government Social
Security Administration) use magnetic tape for archival storage.
The downside is that it is the slowest method for retrieving data
because all the data are placed on the tape sequentially.
Sequential access means that the system might have to run through
the majority of the tape before it comes to the desired piece of
data.
Magnetic disks (or hard drives or fi xed disk drives) are the
most commonly used mass storage devices because of their low cost,
high speed, and large storage capacity. Hard disk drives read from,
and write to, stacks of rotating (at up to 15,000 rpm) magnetic
disk platters mounted in rigid enclosures and sealed against
environmental and atmospheric contamina-tion (see Figure TG 1.5).
These disks are permanently mounted in a unit that may be internal
or external to the computer.
Solid state drives (SSDs) are data storage devices that serve
the same purpose as a hard drive and store data in memory chips.
Where hard drives have moving parts, SSDs do not. SSDs use the same
interface with the computer’s CPU as hard drives and are therefore
a seam-less replacement for hard drives. SSDs offer many advantages
over hard drives. They use less power, are silent and faster, and
produce about one-third the heat of a hard drive. The major
disadvantage of SSDs is that they cost more than hard drives.
Unlike magnetic media, optical storage devices do not store data
via magnetism. Rather, a laser reads the surface of a refl ective
plastic platter. Optical disk drives are slower than magnetic hard
drives, but they are less fragile and less susceptible to damage
from contamination.
FIGURE TG 1.4 Primary memory compared to secondary storage.
3GTG01.indd 4503GTG01.indd 450 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
451SECTION TG 1.5 The Central Processing Unit
In addition, optical disks can store a great deal of
information, both on a routine basis and when combined into storage
systems. Types of optical disks include compact disk read-only
memory and digital video disk.
Compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM) storage devices feature
high capacity, low cost, and high durability. However, because a
CD-ROM is a read-only medium, it cannot be written on. CD-R can be
written to, but once this is done, what was written on it cannot be
changed later. That is, CD-R is writeable, which CD-ROM is not, but
it is not rewriteable, which CD-RW (compact disk, rewritable) is.
There are applications where not being rewriteable is a plus,
because it prevents some types of accidental data destruction.
CD-RW adds rewritability to the recordable compact disk market.
The digital video disk (DVD) is a 5-inch disk with the capacity
to store about 135 minutes of digital video. DVDs can also perform
as computer storage disks, providing storage capabili-ties of 17
gigabytes. DVD players can read current CD-ROMs, but current CD-ROM
players cannot read DVDs. The access speed of a DVD drive is faster
than that of a typical CD-ROM drive.
A dual-layer Blu-ray disc can store 50 gigabytes, almost 3 times
the capacity of a dual-layer DVD. Development of Blu-ray technology
is ongoing, with 3-layered and 4-layered Blu-ray discs
available.
Flash memory devices (or memory cards) are nonvolatile
electronic storage devices that contain no moving parts and use 30
times less battery power than hard drives. Flash devices are also
smaller and more durable than hard drives. The trade-offs are that
fl ash devices store less data than hard drives. Flash devices are
used with digital cameras, handheld and laptop computers,
telephones, music players, and video game consoles.
One popular fl ash memory device is the thumb drive (also called
memory stick, jump drive, or fl ash drive). These devices fi t into
Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports on personal computers and other
devices, and they can store many gigabytes. Thumb drives have
replaced magnetic fl oppy disks for portable storage.
Homiel / iStockphoto © Krzysztof Krzyscin/iStockphoto
FIGURE TG 1.5 Traditional hard drives are less expensive, but
solid state drives are faster and are more reliable.
3GTG01.indd 4513GTG01.indd 451 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
452 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
[ Summary ]1. Identify the major hardware components of a
computer system.
Modern computer systems have six major components: the central
processing unit (CPU), primary storage, secondary storage, input
technologies, output technologies, and communications
technologies.
2. Discuss the strategic issues that link hardware design to
business strategy.Strategic issues linking hardware design to
business strategy include: How do organizations keep up with the
rapid price/performance advancements in hardware? How often should
an organization upgrade its computers and storage systems? How can
organizations measure benefi ts gained from price/performance
improvements in hardware?
3. Describe the hierarchy of computers according to power and
their respective roles.Supercomputers are the most powerful
computers, designed to handle the maximum com-putational demands of
science and the military. Mainframes, although not as powerful as
supercomputers, are powerful enough for large organizations to use
for centralized data processing and large databases. Minicomputers
are smaller and less-powerful versions of mainframes that are often
devoted to managing specifi c subsystems. Desktop personal
com-puters (PCs) are the common, well-known personal and business
computers. Laptop or notebook computers are small, easily
transportable PCs. Tablet computers (or tablets) are complete
computers contained entirely in a fl at touch screen that uses a
stylus, digital pen, or fi ngertip as an input device instead of a
keyboard or mouse.
4. Differentiate the various types of input and output
technologies and their uses.Principal human data-entry input
technologies include the keyboard, mouse, optical mouse, trackball,
touchpad, joystick, touch screen, stylus, and voice-recognition
sys-tems. Principal source-data automation input devices are ATMs,
POS terminals, barcode
What’s In ITFor Me?
For All Business MajorsThe design of computer hardware has
profound impacts for businesspeople. Personal and organizational
success can depend on an understanding of hardware design and a
commitment to knowing where it is going and what opportunities and
challenges hardware innovations will bring. Because these
innovations are occurring so rapidly, hardware decisions at both
the individual level and at the organizational level are diffi
cult.
At the individual level, most people who have a home or offi ce
computer system and want to upgrade it, or people who are
contemplating their fi rst computer pur-chase, are faced with the
decision of when to buy as much as what to buy and at what cost. At
the organizational level, these same issues plague IS
professionals. However, they are more complex and more costly. Most
organizations have many different com-puter systems in place at the
same time. Innovations may come to different classes of computers
at different times or rates. Therefore, managers must decide when
old hardware legacy systems still have a productive role in the
organization and when they should be replaced. A legacy system is
an old computer system or application that con-tinues to be used,
typically because it still functions for the users’ needs, even
though newer technology is available.
3GTG01.indd 4523GTG01.indd 452 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
453Chapter Glossary
scanners, optical mark readers, magnetic ink character readers,
optical character readers, sensors, cameras, radio frequency
identifi cation, and retinal scanning displays. Common output
technologies include various types of monitors, impact and
nonimpact printers, plotters, and voice output.
5. Describe the design and functioning of the central processing
unit.The CPU is made up of the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), which
performs the calculations; the registers, which store minute
amounts of data and instructions immediately before and after
processing; and the control unit, which controls the fl ow of
information on the micro-processor chip. After processing, the data
in their original form and the instructions are sent back to a
storage place outside the chip.
6. Discuss the relationships between microprocessor component
designs and performance.Microprocessor designs aim to increase
processing speed by minimizing the physical dis-tance that the data
(as electrical impulses) must travel, increasing the number of
transistors on the chip, increasing the number of CPUs on the chip,
and using three-dimensional chip architecture.
7. Describe the main types of primary and secondary
storage.There are four types of primary storage: registers, cache
memory, random access mem-ory (RAM), and read-only memory (ROM).
Secondary storage includes magnetic media (tapes; hard drives; and
thumb, or fl ash, drives) and optical media (CD-ROM, DVD, and
Blu-ray disks).
8. Distinguish between primary and secondary storage along the
dimen-sions of speed, cost, and capacity.Primary storage has much
less capacity than secondary storage, and it is faster and more
expensive per byte stored. It is also located much closer to the
CPU. Sequential-access secondary storage media such as magnetic
tape are much slower and less expensive than hard drives and
optical media.
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) Portion of the CPU that performs the
mathematic calculations and makes logical comparisons.augmented
reality A live, direct or indirect, view of a physi-cal, real-world
environment whose elements are enhanced by computer-generated
sensory input such as sound, video, graphics, or GPS data.binary
form The form in which data and instructions can be read by the
CPU—only 0s and 1s.bit Short for binary digit (0s and 1s), the only
data that a CPU can process.byte An 8-bit string of data, needed to
represent any one alphanumeric character or simple mathematical
operation.cache memory A type of high-speed memory that enables the
computer to temporarily store blocks of data that are used more
often and that a processor can access more rapidly than main memory
(RAM).central processing unit (CPU) Hardware that performs the
actual computation or “number crunching” inside any computer.
control unit Portion of the CPU that controls the fl ow of
information.fat clients Desktop computer systems that offer full
functionality.fl ash memory devices Nonvolatile electronic storage
devices that are compact, are portable, require little power, and
con-tain no moving parts.gesture recognition an input method that
interprets human gestures, in an attempt for computers to begin to
understand human body language.laptop computers (notebook
computers) Small, easily trans-portable, lightweight
microcomputers.magnetic disks (or hard drives or fi xed disk
drives) A form of secondary storage on a magnetized disk divided
into tracks and sectors that provide addresses for various pieces
of data.magnetic tape A secondary storage medium on a large open
reel or in a smaller cartridge or cassette.
[ Chapter Glossary ]
3GTG01.indd 4533GTG01.indd 453 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
454 TECHNOLOGY GUIDE 1 Hardware
mainframes Relatively large computers used in large enter-prises
for extensive computing applications that are accessed by thousands
of users.microcomputers The smallest and least expensive category
of general-purpose computers; also called micros, personal
com-puters, or PCs.microprocessor The CPU, made up of millions of
transistors embedded in a circuit on a silicon wafer or
chip.minicomputers Relatively small, inexpensive, and compact
midrange computers that perform the same functions as main-frame
computers, but to a more limited extent.Moore’s law Prediction by
Gordon Moore, an Intel cofounder, that microprocessor complexity
would double approximately every 2 years.multimedia technology
Computer-based integration of text, sound, still images, animation,
and digitized full-motion video.netbook A very small, lightweight,
low-cost, energy-effi cient, portable computer, typically optimized
for Internet-based ser-vices such as Web browsing and
e-mailing.notebook computer (see computer)optical storage devices A
form of secondary storage in which a laser reads the surface of a
refl ective plastic platter.primary storage (also called main
memory) High-speed stor-age located directly on the motherboard
that stores data to be processed by the CPU, instructions telling
the CPU how to process the data, and operating systems
programs.random access memory (RAM) The part of primary storage
that holds a software program and small amounts of data when they
are brought from secondary storage.
read-only memory (ROM) Type of primary storage where certain
critical instructions are safeguarded; the storage is nonvolatile
and retains the instructions when the power to the computer is
turned off.registers High-speed storage areas in the CPU that store
very small amounts of data and instructions for short
periods.secondary storage Technology that can store very large
amounts of data for extended periods.sequential access Data access
in which the computer sys-tem must run through data in sequence to
locate a particular piece.server Smaller midrange computers that
support networks, enabling users to share fi les, software, and
other network devices.solid state drives (SSDs) Data storage
devices that serve the same purpose as a hard drive and store data
in memory chips.supercomputer Computers with the most processing
power available; used primarily in scientifi c and military work
for computationally demanding tasks on very large data sets.tablet
computer (or tablet) A complete computer con-tained entirely in a
fl at touch screen that uses a stylus, digital pen, or fi ngertip
as an input device instead of a keyboard or mouse.thin-client
systems Desktop computer systems that do not offer the full
functionality of a PC.thumb drive Storage device that fi ts into
the USB port of a personal computer and is used for portable
storage.wearable computer A miniature computer worn by a person
allowing the user to multitask.
1. What factors affect the speed of a microprocessor?2. If you
were the CIO of a fi rm, what factors would you
consider when selecting secondary storage media for your
company’s records (fi les)?
3. Given that Moore’s law has proved itself over the past two
decades, speculate on what chip capabilities will be in 10 years.
What might your desktop PC be able to do?
4. If you were the CIO of a fi rm, how would you explain the
workings, benefi ts, and limitations of using thin clients as
opposed to fat clients?
5. Where might you fi nd embedded computers at home, at school,
and/or at work?
[ Discussion Questions ]
1. Access the Web sites of the major chip manufacturers—for
example, Intel (www.intel.com), Motorola (www.motorola.com), and
Advanced Micro Devices (www.amd.com)—and obtain the latest
information regarding new and planned chips. Compare performance
and costs across these vendors. Be sure to take a close look at the
various multicore chips.
2. Access “The Journey Inside” on Intel’s Web site at
http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/education/k12/the-journey-inside.html.
Prepare a presentation of each step in the machine instruction
cycle.
[ Problem-Solving Activities ]
3GTG01.indd 4543GTG01.indd 454 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM
-
455Internship Activity
[ Internship Activity ]Retail IndustryIt seems that everyone
wants a tablet these days. PCs are on the decline and smart phones
and tablets are gaining market share every quarter…in the consumer
market. The business market has been slightly slower to move to
these mobile devices. For businesses, hardware is not a toy; it is
a tool that must serve a purpose to justify the expense!
In the retail industry, tablets allow the sales force to carry
product and customer information with them on a call and have much
quicker access to information. For Dave Herring of Northwestern
Financial, it seems that moving to a tablet would be an easy
decision. However, there are many options of lightweight devices
(even laptops) that are viable options to tablets.
Please visit the Book Companion Site to receive the full set of
instructions and learn how you can help Dave research the options
and help him with some decision-making guidance on laptops,
tablets, and other mobile devices.
3GTG01.indd 4553GTG01.indd 455 05/09/13 10:33 AM05/09/13 10:33
AM