Technological Innovation and Intellectual Capital BUA5FTS – WEEK 1
Mar 26, 2015
Bontis on Intellectual capital
Intellectual capital has been considered by many, defined by some, understood by a select few and formally valued by practically no one.
(Bontis, 1998: 622)
Technological innovation is defined as:
‘A unique chronological process involving science,technology, economics, entrepreneurship, andmanagement is the medium that translates scientificknowledge into physical realities that are changingsociety. This process of technological innovation is the heart of the basic understanding which the competentmanager, the effective technologists, the sound governmentofficial, and the educated member of society should have inthe world of tomorrow’
James Bright
Introduction
The dominance of intellectual capital in wealth creation in all industries is highly evident today and some of the technologies are: Superconductivity Virtual Reality Robots Artificial Intelligence High-tech Medicine Biotechnology/Genetic Engineering Telecommunications
Intellectual capital concept First use of the term Intellectual capital in 1969
(Hudson 1993) Not yet agreed on its definition, its decomposition and
methods for valuation. The intangible assets of skill, knowledge and
information (Wall et al. 2004). "packaged useful knowledge" (Steward 1997:10) "knowledge, applied experience, organizational
technology, customer relationships and professional skills" (Edvinsson and Malone 1997)
Intellectual Capital
Intellectual Capital is defined as:
'Intellectual material that has been
formalized, captured, and leveraged to
produce a higher-valued asset.'
(Professor David Klein and Laurence Prusak of IBM )
Intellectual Capital
Relational capital/customer capital: Who you know and who knows and values you.
Intellectual capital
Human capital
Structural capital
Relational capital
Ideageneration
Ideageneration R&DR&D Final
ProductFinal
ProductPrototypePrototype
Cash FlowsCash Flows
ValueValue
Intellectual Capital and Firm Value
Valuation of Intellectual Property
Company Market Value Added Microsoft $253 billionIntel $78 billionMerck $62 billionPfizer $131 billionCisco Systems $45 billionBristol-Myers Squibb $119 billionLogitech $2 billion
Company Market Value Added Microsoft $253 billionIntel $78 billionMerck $62 billionPfizer $131 billionCisco Systems $45 billionBristol-Myers Squibb $119 billionLogitech $2 billion
Source: Yahoo Finance, December 2009MVA = market value of equity - equity capital suppliedTable 2.1 Creators of Wealth - 2009
Measuring Intellectual CapitalA model was developed by Skandia AFS:
Market Value
Financial
Capital
IntellectualCapital
HumanCapital
StructuralCapital
CustomerCapital
Organisational Capital
InnovationCapital
ProcessCapital
Economic Benefit
The primary objective of the firm is to maximise shareholders’ wealth
It is typically accountable to a dispersed group of stakeholders – lenders, customers, investors, governments, employees, community members, suppliers, citizens
The value of an intellectual asset is measured by the benefit it generates to the stakeholders and firm
‘Benefit’ would normally refer to monetary gain or economic value to the shareholders and firm
Definition of economic value is the present value of the expected earnings from using the asset
Economic Benefit Strong competition Associated rapid diffusion of innovations
reduce the returns to innovation an appropriate framework of intellectual property rights
is important to ensure that innovators receive an adequate return on their investment while at the same time encouraging the rapid diffusion of these innovations (OECD 2000).
Lehman (1996) suggests that economic growth and competitiveness will be determined by the ability to create, own, preserve and protect intellectual property.
Intellectual Capital Financial
Management Framework Involves the process of analysing the
financial issues facing a technology start-up In terms of economic trade-offs or financial
implications in relation to decisions about business investment, operations or financing
The process entails understanding the business environment by evaluating and then developing a proper financial strategy for the venture
Intellectual Capital Financial Management Framework Incorporates the optimal business structure for
the venture as well as utilising the appropriate tools for evaluating the financial problem or issue
Free Cash Flows
Value of Equity Value of the Firm
EBIT/EBT
Discount RateCAPM WACC
Traditional DCF
- Growth- TV
Start-up Project
Static Analysis
Dynamic Analysis
Option-based NPV Model
Real Options Valuation
Abandon(Put Option)
Defer(Call Option)
Expand(Call Option)
NPVInvestmentDecision
Financing:Venture kDebtIPOsOther
Source: Oh (2002)
Technology Start-ups Valuation Framework
Alternative Forms of Business Organization for Technology Startups
Sole proprietorshipAdvantages:
Ease of formation Subject to few regulations No corporate income taxes
Disadvantages: Limited life Unlimited liability Difficult to raise capital
Alternative Forms of Business Organization for Technology Startups PartnershipA partnership has roughly the sameadvantages and disadvantages as a soleproprietorship.
Alternative Forms of Business Organization for Technology Startups CorporationAdvantages:
Unlimited life Easy transfer of ownership Limited liability Ease of raising capital
Disadvantages: Double taxation Cost of set-up and report filing
Goals of the Corporation The primary goal is owner wealth (value)
maximization, which translates to maximizing firm’s value.
The factors that affect value of the firm are:
(i) Projected cash flows to owners
(ii) Timing of the cash flow stream
(iii) Riskiness of the cash flows
(i) Cash Flow
Long-term source of funds for the firm Internally generated Net income Retained earnings and depreciation provisions Free cash flows No historical data in most cases and this makes
it difficult to forecast cash flow patterns (i.e. economic fundamentals and comparable firms analysis)
(ii) Timing of Cash Flows
Implications for the owner wealth A dollar received today is worth more than a dollar received
sometime in the future (time value of money) Opportunity cost Discounting and compounding
(iii) Riskiness of Cash Flows
Factors that affect the level and riskiness of cash flows:
Decisions made by financial managers Investment decisions Financing decisions (the relative use of debt
financing) Dividend policy decisions The external environment
New Technology Venture Finance Focuses on how firms, both start-ups and large
firms, manage the financial process of new product/technology development from conception to ultimate commercialisation
requires managers to understand the balance sheet; valuation; financial tools; financial markets, and related issues and their impact on the financial
performance of the firm.
Early-stage Technology Valuation
Business Entity and its Value: Generally, comprised of the same basic
elements being monetary assets, tangible assets and intangible assets
More intangible assets Their aggregate value represents the value of the
business enterprise The financing of these assets could come from
two basic sources, namely equity and debt
Early-stage Technology Valuation Balance Sheet
Debit Credit
BusinessEnterprise
MonetaryAssets
TangibleAssets
IntangibleAssets
Equity
Debts
Asset = Liability + Equity
= =
Monetary +
Tangible Assets
Monetary +
Tangible Assets
IntangibleAssetsInternal
R&DProcessesCulture
KnowledgeExternal
CustomersSupply Chain
Others
IntangibleAssetsInternal
R&DProcessesCulture
KnowledgeExternal
CustomersSupply Chain
Others
EquityEquity
DebtsDebts
BookValue
+Stock Price Premium
BookValue
+Stock Price Premium
==
+
Balance Sheet
Total Assets Total Capital
+
Firm’s Market Value
Firm’s Market Value
Financial StatementsFinancial Statements
They are important because they portray the They are important because they portray the underlying financial performance and position underlying financial performance and position of the project. They are also a tool used for of the project. They are also a tool used for monitoring investment and business activitymonitoring investment and business activity
IAS 38 ‘Intangibles Assets’ standard -IAS 38 ‘Intangibles Assets’ standard -specifies and requires certain disclosure specifies and requires certain disclosure criteria to be met by intangible assetscriteria to be met by intangible assets
Financial StatementsFinancial Statements
Contentious issues:
It specifies that internally generated intangible assets such as goodwill, brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer base and the likes should not be treated as assets;
IAS 38 does not allow an assignment of infinite useful life to an intangible asset; and
Many acquired intangible assets will not be allowed to be re-valued upwards because of the absence of an active market for such assets.
Balance SheetBalance Sheet
The The balance sheet (statement of financial balance sheet (statement of financial position) attempts to show the financial position) attempts to show the financial position of a project at a point in time anposition of a project at a point in time and d shows all the resources controlled by the shows all the resources controlled by the enterprise and all the obligations due by the enterprise and all the obligations due by the project. project.
The balance sheet equation:The balance sheet equation:
Assets = Liabilities + EquityAssets = Liabilities + Equity
Income StatementStatement of financial performance:
Sales
COGS
Other expenses
EBITDA
Depreciation and amortisation
EBIT
Interest expense
Taxes
Net income
Cash Flow StatementOperating activitiesNet incomeAdd – Sources of cashIncrease A/PIncrease in accrualsDepreciationLess – Uses of cashIncrease in A/RIncrease in inventory= Net cash provided by operations
minus Long-term investing activitiesInvestment in fixed assets
plus Financing activitiesIncrease in notes payableIncrease in long-term debtNet cash from financing
= Net change in cashAdd cash at the beginning of the year= Cash at the end of the year
Financial Reporting for IC
The economic rationale by the proponents for recognition of intellectual capital in financial reporting focuses on the balance sheet treatment of competitive advantages of the firm, proposals include: broadening of intangible asset recognition criteria (i.e.
capitalization of R&D, marketing and human resource expenditures)
measurement of contractual positions at fair value new definition of ‘revenue accounting’ to capture the critical
events of the value creation cycle of new economy firms
Technology Valuation
Implications of Technological Development for Business:
• Globalisation: resource allocation, manufacturing, MNCs and comparative advantage/competitive advantage e.g. India in software development
• Time compression: shortened product life & life cycle of a project e.g. Moore’s law (i.e. from initiation to completion), decreasing payback periods
• Technology integration: for development and commercialisation, e.g. IT + Biotech (see core technologies)
• Costs: better economies of scale and efficiency
Technology Valuation
• When technology is not mature, more time is needed in the early stages of the project
• If only incremental technology innovation, or when technology is mature, the early stages may be short and activities are likely to be confined to the execution and implementation of the project
• The project life cycle
Project Life Cycle
Early-stage technology is defined as technology that has not been commercialised or proven beyond laboratory experiments and this broad category includes: Untested ideas Bench-top technology Prototype technology
Project Life Cycle
All technology projects evolve over a number of stages, generally from conception to research and development (R&D) to commercialisation. The exact specification of the stages will depend very much on the nature of the project and the industry in which the technology is applied.
Time
Cos
t
Conceptual Definition Production Operation Divestment
A typical five-phase project life cycle sequence:
Project Life Cycle
In the pharmaceutical industry the stages are:Preliminary research (before filing a patent);Preclinical studies (done prior to an initial new drug application - IND), andClinical trials – Phases 1, 2 and 3.
In the aerospace industry the stages are:Concept definition;Concept Development;Implementation, andLaunch and operations.
Other IP Valuation Purposes Other than for determining how much money is required
for a technology start-up, there are other reasons why intellectual property is valued: Transaction support sale Bankruptcy Licensing Strategic alliances Infringement damages Intercompany transactions Collateral based financing Accounting requirements Regulatory requirements
Financial Strategy Framework
The three financial management decision
areas common to all business are:I. Investment decisions;
II. Financing decisions, and
III. Dividend payout decisions (in the case of technology ventures: exit options)
Financial Strategy Framework
I. Investment decisions The efficient allocation of resources to develop
the new technology for commercialisation They are the source of future cash flows, growth,
support for the venture’s continued viability and are based on detailed plans (capital budgets) for committing new funds to predominantly three areas of activity: Major spending programs such as R&D and marketing Working capital Physical assets
Financial Strategy Framework
II. Financing decisions
Form of financing: Debt, equity or convertible securities (Is this a good option? Why?)
Optimal capital structure consideration May varies over different stages
Owner facing trade-off decision Other potential financiers of the venture, such as
venture capital companies Profit allocation decision
Financing the entrepreneur firm Four factors:
Uncertainty Asymmetric information The nature of its assets Market conditions
Financial Strategy Framework
III. Dividend payout decisions (exit options) For a venture, the relevant decision in this
context would be the exit options available to the entrepreneurs and equity funding parties.
Opportunity
Business Strategy
R&DOperationsGrowthFinancingMarketingValue Creation
FinancialStrategy
RiskReturnReal options
Sources
DebtEquityStrategic AllianceHybrids
Figure 2.5 Financial Strategy
Critical Variables in Fund Raising
Gompers et al. (2002) identified four broad categories of
factors that influence the source of funds are identified as: Uncertainty: the dispersion of potential outcomes relating to
information, competition, marketing etc.; Asymmetric information: moral hazards and adverse
selection problems; Market conditions: supply of capital, cost of capital, capital
structure, and Monitoring and evaluation: relationship between investors
and entrepreneurs
Critical Variables in Fund RaisingThe following factors determine the nature and type of the
financing for the venture:
Accomplishments and performance
Investor’s perceived risk
Industry and technology
Venture upside potential and anticipated exit timing
Venture anticipated growth rate
Venture age and stage of development
Required rate of return (IRR)
Capital required and prior valuation of venture
Founders’ goals regarding growth, control, liquidity and harvesting
Relative bargaining position
Investor’s required terms and covenants
Project Life Cycle & Funding
Funds
Required
Planning Development Implementation
Aeroscape
Industry: Concept Development > Development > Building > Launch
Pharmaceutical
Industry: Basic Research >Phase I & II > Phase III > LT Phase IV > Pre-clinical
Technology Valuation
The project life cycle can be used to defined 3
key financial concepts:
1. Funding requirements (timing of funding)
2. Risk-return trade-off (cash flow lag)
3. Financial strategies (debt or equity?)
New Venture/Entrepreneurial Finance State of play in technology finance:
Most financial techniques or methodologies are suitable for mature technology contexts, where there is low level of uncertainty.
Maturity of Technology
Stage of Market Development
Early Late
Low
High
Difficult to apply
Most useful
FOCUS: Technological Entrepreneurial Finance
Study the issues relating
1. Technology valuation
2. Valuation of IP/intangibles
3. Project financing
4. Financing strategy
1. Technology Valuation
Highly idiosyncratic and depends on maturity of technologies
Lower maturity results in higher uncertainty about cash-flows/marketability
2. Valuation of IP/Intangibles
Assessing the value of IP Market valuation of IP Valuation of R&D Value of a knowledge intensive firm
3. Project Financing
Sources of finance Matching sources to projects at different
stages of maturity
4. Financing Strategy
Differences b/w start-ups & large firms Business plan Market signalling Relevant financial information How information is factored into the value of
a knowledge intensive firm