Teaching Writing

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to Write

2. Developing Writing Competence: Writing Sub-skills

3. Approaches to Writing 3.1 The Text-based Approach 3.2. The Communicative Approach 3.3. Purpose and Motivation

4. Feedback on Writing 4.1. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes

Teaching Writing

�Writing to learn Writing is widely used in the English classes as a

means of engaging the SS with other language skills.

The SS note down new vocabulary, copy out grammar rules, write out answers to reading or listening comprehension questions and do written tests.

In these activities, writing is mainly a means of getting the SS to practise a particular language point or as a convenient method of testing it.


Learning to write Other activities have as a main objective writing

itself. These practise written forms are either at the level of the word or sentence or at the level of content and organization.

The SS have to express themselves using their own words. They have to state a purpose for writing and often to specify a readership.

Examples of such activities: narrating a story, writing a letter or a report.


Writing in Romanian and writing in English

SS progress in language complexity much faster in English than in Romanian.

SS understand easily that some of the structural differences observed between speech and writing in Romanian are similar in English and consequently attempt the same kind of language adjustments when they write in English.


There are, however, some features of written language that may cause major problems to SS as they may differ from those of Romanian.

These operate above the level of the sentence: layout and physical organization on the page, text organization determined by the social function the text fulfills and relationships between clauses and clause complexes.

SS may benefit from an explicit understanding of how these work.


Writing refers to several sub-skills: putting words on paper, making sentences and linking them in paragraphs, writing a poem, developing an essay, and many others.

Nunan (1989) notes that writing involves:

1. mastering the mechanics of letter formation;�2. mastering and obeying conventions of spelling and punctuation;3. using the grammatical system to convey one’s intended meaning;

1, 2 and 3 are sentence-level skills; they receive regular attention from teachers


4. organising content at the level of the paragraph and the complete text to reflect new/given information and topic/comment structures;5. polishing and revising one’s initial efforts;�6. selecting an appropriate style for one’s audience.

4, 5 and 6 text and discourse-level skills and usually do not receive much attention


Writing is difficult as it involves the development and coordination of cognitive and conceptual sub-skills, including:

Knowledge of the language system;

Knowledge of the genre: this includes knowledge of the content and context;

Knowledge of the writing process.

SS also need knowledge of the effective way of preparing for a writing task: planning, drafting, reviewing, editing etc.


two main ways of approaching writing: focusing on the product and focusing on the writer

major approaches on the teaching of writing.

The focus on the product gave birth to the traditional textbased approach - based on the notion that SS need to produce accurate pieces of writing.

The teachers using this perspective often present model texts, usually given in textbooks, for the SS to imitate or adapt.

3. Approaches to Writing

They believe their role is to cultivate conformity to models and accuracy rather than fluency.

They see mistakes as something they have to correct and eliminate.

In this approach, the SS write variations first on sentences and paragraphs, then on very controlled compositions, and finally, at an advanced level, they work on free composition.


The focus on the process gave birth to the more recent process approach.

the whole purpose of creative writing is to say something worth paying attention to.

This approach lays stress on the activities that move the SS from the generation of ideas and collection of data to the production and ‘publication’ of the text.

It emphasises the writing process over the product, with recognition of the process and the encouragement of exploration of topics through writing.


It is now recognised that SS not only need help throughout the writing process, but that creative writing in the classroom is a shared activity.

This kind of thinking has resulted in much more attention being paid to the pre-writing stage.

Scrivener (1994) proposes at least nine stages of preparation before the final draft of a piece of creative writing is produced:


1. Introduction of topic; group discussion; clarification of main writing task; consideration of audience for the final text; consideration of specific requirements – style, information, layout, etc.; consideration of likely difficulties and problems;2. Initial individual or group brainstorming*;3. Selection and rejection of ideas;4. Sorting and ordering of ideas – note-making;5. Focus on useful language models;6. Small group or class construct of a preliminary skeleton or example text;7. Individual or group preparation of draft text;8. Discussion with others and with teacher;9. Individual or group preparation of final draft.


also called the controlled-to-free approach, as depending on the degree of freedom the SS are allowed;

the writing activities used are characterized as controlled, guided and free.

Raimes (1989) proposes five types of controlled writing: controlled composition, question and answer, guided composition, parallel writing and sentence combining.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

1. Controlled composition Controlled writing activities provide both content

and form. The SS are not asked to create anything. The T gives them a passage and asks them to alter it. These alterations are normally grammatical.

For example, ask them to re-write a passage about a single child so that it becomes a passage about several children, to re-write a direct speech text in reported speech or to re-write a present tense passage in the past simple.

Other activities include copying, gap filling, re-ordering words, substitution (e.g., "If he stayed/left/spoke they would disagree with him"), correct the facts (e.g., re-write the sentences so that they match a picture) and dictation.


These activities can be made more meaningful and interesting, remaining still very controlled, if the SS are given a chance to think what they are writing.

For instance, copying is completely mechanical when they are asked to copy a string of words: a sentence that they do not understand. In this case, their attention is focused only on spelling. However, copying may become more meaningful if the SS can contribute something to the text. Part(s) of the sentence can be left out for the SS to write themselves. The teacher may write the sentence outline on the board, (e.g., they – home – afternoon), say the whole sentence and ask the SS to write what they heard.

You can also show or draw a picture to replace part(s) of the sentence. Alternatively, Ts may write the sentence on the board and ask SSvto write a similar true sentence about themselves.


Gap-filling, can become more involving and challenging if the SS are given the opportunity to choose between alternatives given in brackets.

Dictation is also a mechanical activity, restricted to practising spelling.

An alternative to traditional dictation is the dictocomp (a combination of dictation and composition), which develops both listening and writing skills and focuses on meaning.


2. Questions and answers A question and answer procedure continues the

T’s control over what is produced but allows the SS a little more freedom. The text emerges from the answers produced by the SS to questions asked by the T. The questions may be based on a set of notes or a picture. A picture sequence can be used to make the task a little more interesting.

As confidence and skill grow, you can ask the SS to create a story directly from a sequence of pictures, without the question - answer stage.


3. Guided writing

In guided writing, the Ts retain a certain amount of control over the form and content of the SS’ writing. The SS are given information that they must include in their writing.

Sometimes the Ts also give the first and last sentences. The information may come in the form of a picture.


4. Parallel writing Such activities are typically used with pre-

intermediate and intermediate SS.

In this type of writing activities, content is free but form is given. Ts first give the SS a piece of writing to see and then they use it as a basis for their own work. The original piece, sets a model and guides them in expressing themselves.

It generally addresses the paragraph level.


5. Sentence combining Sentence combining tasks are rather more

mechanical than parallel writing tasks. They provide the SS with the materials and ask them to manipulate them.

Ts give sets of simple sentences and ask the SS to combine them in grammatically acceptable ways to produce complex sentences. This helps them to develop their style.


Free writing

It means giving the SS free choices in expressing their own views and thoughts. However, free writing tasks can be assigned only after the study of the respective genre models.


Activities:

write narratives based on a picture or series of pictures. describe an occasion when they felt disappointed or afraid,

surprised or relieved. describe someone they know very well or write descriptions

of people and places, based on photographs or some information about them.

write an answer to a (given) letter of complaint, write application letters, etc.

describe the process represented in a flowchart or any kind of diagram,.

write reports of books they read, reviews of books or instruction sheets for something they know how to do well (e.g., prepare some kind of food) or essays on various topics.


Essay format. Whatever kind of writing activities SS practise in the classroom, at some stage, you will probably require them to produce an essay, and this will have to conform to an acceptable format.

A sample format is given below:

Introduction Body Conclusion


emphasises task-oriented activities that involve the exchange of information, with focus on fluency.

Although the approach practises a good deal of modelling and controlled practice, a lot of attention is paid to motivation and to self-expression.

3.2. The Communicative Approach

Ideas of written communicative activities:

Relaying instructions One S or one group of SS elaborate

instructions for the performance of a task. They have to tell another S or group to perform the task by giving them written instructions.


Writing reports, advertisements, brochures

The SS write items for a school news broadcast or a school magazine. They can join together to write a brochure about the place they live in or are studying in. They can write and design their own advertisements.

�Co-operative writing The SS may write joint stories, each S contributing a

sentence. They may start either at the first or the last sentence (these may be or may not be supplied).


The agony column The SS invent some problem, write letters to the

‘columnist’ and then have them answered by other members of the class.

Letters of complaint The SS write letters of complaint about faulty

goods they have purchased or bad service they received. The ‘company representatives’ reply to these letters.


Job applications The applications can be later on judged and a decision

taken about who is successful.

Journals These diaries are not primarily to be corrected, but rather

to be reacted to.

Projects longer pieces of work that involve the collection of

information and reporting SS may record interviews with native speakers they can

find, or they can consult libraries (including electronic ones) for source material.


The CA has led us to pay more attention to the purpose of language and to the content of the message the SS intend to get across.

It is sometimes difficult for both Ts and SS to think of writing as a motivating, purposeful activity, especially if the goal of the activity is grammatical accuracy.

two questions: to whom they are writing, for what purpose.

3.3. Purpose and Motivation

When the SS have a better idea of whom their readers are and of how they can get prepared to negotiate meaning, their writing is more purposeful.

The incorporation of an element of real communication, such as ‘publication’, is motivating for most SS.

Encouraging SS to help each other in preparing their written tasks may also provide motivation and increase their confidence.

3.3. Purpose and Motivation

Many teachers feel a terrible temptation to take the SS ’ work, indicate all the places that need fixing and return it to the SS.

Undoubtedly, the papers would be better if the SS handed them in the second time.

The question is whether the SS care enough about their papers to want to put them into acceptable form and whether teachers know how to encourage them to do that.

4. Feedback on Writing

C. Tribble (1996) identifies four basic roles that Ts may assume when giving feedback:

1. audience (we read the text and say how we find it and if the author’s point is clearly formulated).

2. evaluators (give feedback on the present strengths and weaknesses of a text).

3. examiner (give a grade).

4. assistant (tell the SS if you find their text effective in relation to its purpose, pass advice on language, genre, structure and subject matter).


feedback is usually limited to grading, commenting (superficially) and correcting errors.

strategies to give constructive comments on drafts.

if feedback is done effectively, by the time the

text is finished, most of the problems have been solved.

writing involves content, organisation, style, syntax, mechanics, grammar and spelling.


Feedback on content, unlike feedback on grammar, can determine the improvement of writing.

If feedback is limited to pointing out and/or correcting errors, SS will concentrate on producing error-free writing, neglecting the interest or even the meaning of the content.

The equation teaching writing = error elimination is counter-productive and may result in a waste of time and discouragement.


Feedback in the form of comments by the teacher, is extremely helpful.

The most important contribution Ts can make is that of being a careful reader, willing to respond to what SS write in terms of clarity, coherence and effectiveness of content.


Correction can be seen as an opportunity to make positive responses to a student’s work.

This is extremely difficult to do if Ts’ concern is to mark every error in red pen.

ultimately a grade will have to be given to the piece of writing, but if it is based entirely on grammatical accuracy, then the whole point of the writing will have been lost.

This is not to say that mistakes in syntax or punctuation should be ignored.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes

read a piece of writing twice: once for the content and the second time for the

language.

During the first reading, try to ignore grammatical errors and concentrate entirely on the content.

Assign a mental grade to the content, then reread to assess syntax, punctuation, spelling and the way in which the text hangs together.

The final grade should reflect content, shape and grammatical accuracy.


The problem of correction of mistakes is one of potential conflict between two of the roles of the teachers: language instructors versus assistants.

If we accept that language should be corrected, then the problem arises: should all language mistakes be noted?

The approach should vary according to context and the Ss’ individual needs.


One approach is to ignore the language mistakes that do not hinder reading.

Ts may correct only those mistakes that are very basic and those which affect meaning, leading to misunderstanding or confusion, such as sentence derailments or faulty subordination.

Another strategy is to point out both strengths and weaknesses.

Thus, SS will have the chance to perceive a correct model in their own use of language and will be likely to continue taking risks if they see that their good qualities are noted and encouraged.


Use of correction symbols (less time-consuming)

"V" for vocabulary "WO" for word order "WW" for wrong word "/" for missing word "SP“ for spelling "P" for punctuation "GR" for grammar "VF" for verb form "VT" for verb tense “?” for unclear meaning or handwriting.


Rewriting

whether you should insist on the SS’ rewriting their tasks, incorporating your suggestions.

Your SS do not like doing it, but, on the other hand, frequent opportunities for writing and rewriting are an important tool for improving language, content and structure.


Peer correction Even if SS cannot discern all the strengths and

weaknesses of an assignment, they will detect at least some of them.

The problem is whether your SS feel comfortable correcting or being corrected by their classmates and whether they accept criticism (positive or negative) form each other.

Their comfort will depend on the general classroom climate.


Self-correction (critical reading) V. Zamel (1991) suggests four self-correction

techniques that the SS can use to correct their own work in class with a critical eye.

1. The pupils read their papers aloud to other SS. Reading aloud will help them spot some of the mistakes.

2. A classmate reads the paper aloud. The new reader may pause when coming across a mistake or when a sentence is problematic.


3. The SS take their text, cover up everything on the page except the first sentence, put their pencil point to one word at a time and say the sentence aloud, word by word. They try to pick out the core (subject + verb) of the sentence.

4. The SS read the whole text backwards, sentence by sentence, starting with the last one. This is a way of focusing attention on sentence-level accuracy and preventing the eye from leaping ahead for the content.


There is certainly no perfect approach to giving feedback on writing.

Yet it is essential that your SS understand how Ts want the feedback system to work.

The question of class climate, personal relationships, trust and willingness to accept criticism and help from one another remains.

constructive feedback


Teaching Writing

Documents

writing competence

writing process

language skills

sentencelevel skills

english ss progress

level of content

discourselevel skills

text organization