Social Studies Research and Practice www.socstrp.org Volume 10 Number 1 41 Spring 2015 Teaching Newcomers Inclusively: Social Studies in a New Gateway State Jeremy Hilburn University of North Carolina Wilmington Xue Lan Rong Hillary Parkhouse Alison Turner University of North Carolina Chapel Hill We explored social studies teachers’ dispositions towards working with immigrant students in an Atlantic new gateway state. We surveyed 99 middle and high school social studies teachers using the additive versus subtractive models as a theoretical framework. Although teachers’ professional backgrounds and school contexts were connected to teaching inclusively, their academic expectations of immigrant students, their beliefs on assimilation (regarding schools’ and teachers’ roles in maintaining heritage cultures and languages), and their opinions on the effective implementation of school policies concerning immigrant students’ learning were significant contributors to teaching inclusiveness. Key words: inclusiveness, social studies education, immigrant students, additive versus subtractive approaches, teachers’ beliefs and attitudes, culturally relevant pedagogy, new gateway state Introduction In this study, the authors attempted to identify social studies teachers’ dispositions toward teaching immigrant students in central North Carolina, an area with a rapidly rising immigrant population. North Carolina has a unique context in terms of immigrant students. Since 1990, patterns of immigrant settlement in the United States have expanded beyond the six traditional gateway states—those states that have historically been the preferred settlement locales for newcomers including New York California, Florida, Illinois, New Jersey, and Texas—to include new gateway states, such as Georgia and North Carolina (Rong & Preissle, 2009). In 1990, the Latino population in North Carolina was 77,000; it increased to over 855,000 by 2010 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2010). The Asian population also increased dramatically, from 53,000 in 1990 to over 210,000 in 2010 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012). Although these states may still receive fewer immigrants than traditional gateways, the percentage of growth is remarkable. In 2000, for instance, the number of heritage-language speakers above age four in Wake County, one of North Carolina’s largest school districts, was only 5.7%. By 2010, that number had increased to over 20% (Wake County School District, 2011). Teaching Immigrants in New Gateway States Educators in the new gateway states are facing many obstacles in the education system. According to Xue Lan Rong (2012), in addition to the scant resources for social and health programs for newcomers and for their families and communities, the new gateway states’ educational organizations and personnel have had very little preparation for working with immi- grants. To illustrate, teacher education programs in North Carolina have only recently added English as a Second Language (ESL) coursework; the only certification requirement for teaching ESL is successful completion of the PRAXIS II English to Speakers of Other Languages exam
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Social Studies Research and Practice
www.socstrp.org
Volume 10 Number 1 41 Spring 2015
Teaching Newcomers Inclusively: Social Studies in a New Gateway State
Jeremy Hilburn
University of North Carolina Wilmington
Xue Lan Rong
Hillary Parkhouse
Alison Turner
University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
We explored social studies teachers’ dispositions towards working with immigrant students in an
Atlantic new gateway state. We surveyed 99 middle and high school social studies teachers
using the additive versus subtractive models as a theoretical framework. Although teachers’
professional backgrounds and school contexts were connected to teaching inclusively, their
academic expectations of immigrant students, their beliefs on assimilation (regarding schools’
and teachers’ roles in maintaining heritage cultures and languages), and their opinions on the
effective implementation of school policies concerning immigrant students’ learning were
significant contributors to teaching inclusiveness.
Key words: inclusiveness, social studies education, immigrant students, additive versus
subtractive approaches, teachers’ beliefs and attitudes, culturally relevant
pedagogy, new gateway state
Introduction
In this study, the authors attempted to identify social studies teachers’ dispositions toward
teaching immigrant students in central North Carolina, an area with a rapidly rising immigrant
population. North Carolina has a unique context in terms of immigrant students. Since 1990,
patterns of immigrant settlement in the United States have expanded beyond the six traditional
gateway states—those states that have historically been the preferred settlement locales for
newcomers including New York California, Florida, Illinois, New Jersey, and Texas—to include
new gateway states, such as Georgia and North Carolina (Rong & Preissle, 2009). In 1990, the
Latino population in North Carolina was 77,000; it increased to over 855,000 by 2010 (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 2010). The Asian population also increased dramatically, from 53,000 in
1990 to over 210,000 in 2010 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012). Although these states may still
receive fewer immigrants than traditional gateways, the percentage of growth is remarkable. In
2000, for instance, the number of heritage-language speakers above age four in Wake County,
one of North Carolina’s largest school districts, was only 5.7%. By 2010, that number had
increased to over 20% (Wake County School District, 2011).
Teaching Immigrants in New Gateway States
Educators in the new gateway states are facing many obstacles in the education system.
According to Xue Lan Rong (2012), in addition to the scant resources for social and health
programs for newcomers and for their families and communities, the new gateway states’
educational organizations and personnel have had very little preparation for working with immi-
grants. To illustrate, teacher education programs in North Carolina have only recently added
English as a Second Language (ESL) coursework; the only certification requirement for teaching
ESL is successful completion of the PRAXIS II English to Speakers of Other Languages exam
Social Studies Research and Practice
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Volume 10 Number 1 42 Spring 2015
(North Carolina Test Requirements, 2013). Inadequate education policies and limited funding
prevent schools from restructuring the curriculum and implementing programs to address the
realities of immigrant students’ needs (Fix & Passel, 2003; Terrazas & Fix, 2008). During the
past decade, national education reform focusing on standardized testing has failed largely to
address the special needs of immigrant students. These high-stakes testing policies have created
environments that were not designed with immigrant students in mind (Parker, 2008) and have
led newcomers to be overrepresented in special education and underrepresented in gifted and
opinions regarding the implementation of classroom integration, school language, and testing
policies relevant to immigrant students. It also incorporates teachers’ opinions regarding how
supportive the school policies for immigrant students are and whether the school involves
parents of immigrant students in its policy implementation.
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Volume 10 Number 1 48 Spring 2015
Figure 1. Inquiry Model
Domain 1
Socio-
demographic
Characteristics
Teacher
1. Years of
Experience
2. Gender
3. Significant time
spent overseas
(more than 6
months)
4. Race/ethnicity
School
1. % immigrants in
student population
2. Variety of
heritage countries
represented in
student population
Inclusive Social Studies Instructional Strategies
and Classroom Environment
Teach immigrants in mainstream classes
Include multicultural perspectives
Enjoy teaching immigrant students
Value immigrant students’ life experience
Believe social studies teachers should be a resource
for immigrant students
Share immigrant experiences in class discussions
(DependentVariables)
Domain 2
Academic
Expectation of
Immigrant
Students
1. Higher potential
to go to college
2. Greater
motivation to learn
Social Studies
3. Higher grades
Domain 3
Beliefs and
Attitudes
Regarding
Assimilation
1. Immigrant
students feel
patriotism
toward the U.S.
2. Assimilation
does not
necessarily need
to be rapid
3. Immigrants
have pride in
heritage
countries
4. Schools
should support
heritage
language
maintenance
5. Teachers
should support
heritage
language
maintenance
Domain 4
Opinions on
Effectiveness of
Policies for
Immigrants
1. ESL programs
2. Mainstream
classroom
3. Textbook in
heritage languages
4. Documentation
sent home in
heritage languages
5. End-of-Course
Exam waiver
6. Belief that the
school policy is
supportive toward
immigrant students
7. Belief that
school policies
involve parents of
immigrant students
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Volume 10 Number 1 49 Spring 2015
Figure 1: Inquiry model
In order to construct a valid survey instrument, we did an initial review of research
literature on teaching social studies and educating immigrant students, and wrote eight open-
ended questions for a semi-structured interview. The first author conducted a think aloud
(Ericsson & Simon, 1993) pilot test on the first draft of the survey with five former social studies
teachers and made revisions based on their feedback. The first author then conducted one-on-
one semi-structured interviews with six local high school social studies teachers, focusing on
their personal and professional experience in working with immigrant students in social studies
classrooms. After coding and thematic development, we identified the more relevant variables
that were later classified into factors. The survey was distributed and collected using online
survey software. The reliability indexes for the total instrument and for each of the five factors
were in the acceptable range: 0.7 for the whole instrument, and a range of 0.5–0.7 for the factors.
We acknowledge two limitations of this study. First, the participants were self-selected;
therefore, caution is advised in attempting to generalize the findings to a larger population.
Readers should compare the demographic, social, and professional characteristics of the
participants in this study to those in their own school and school districts when they consider
applying the results of this study. Second, the indicators for inclusiveness in teaching-related
practice were determined by participants’ self-reports, which can yield different data than other
data collection procedures (e.g., classroom observations) or instruments.
Data Analysis
The data analysis was conducted through the following four steps:
1. Pre-data analysis preparation. We took the following steps to prepare the dataset for
statistical analysis:
a. We cleaned the dataset. Since the missing answers were rare and random, we
replaced a few missing values through multiple imputations (replacing the few
missing items with a probable value based on other available information) (Adèr,
2008; Newman, 2003).
b. We totaled the scores of items for the six independent variables and merged them
into one numerical variable: inclusive teaching.
c. The teacher’s race was not included in the regression model due to the following
dilemma: If we had coded the minority teachers into separate groups (2% Native
American, 3% mixed race, 7% African American) with dummy variables, the
small size of each group would not warrant valid regression analyses in the
statistical sense. Conversely, to lump all minority teachers together (12%) may
have caused inaccuracies in the interpretation of findings.
d. We created a scatterplot to make sure that the causal relationship between
teachers’ additive perspective in their disposition and their inclusiveness in
teaching is linear
To answer Question 1, simple descriptive statistics were run.
2. Four ordinary least-square regressions were conducted separately to answer Question 2.
3. A hierarchical regression approach with four theoretically built models was applied to answer
Question
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Results
Findings for Question 1
The findings reported in Table 1 answer the following questions: Who are the social
studies teachers? What are their personal and professional characteristics? What characteristics
of their schools are related to immigrant students? Specifically, Table 1 contains information
regarding the teachers’ gender, years of teaching, substantial experience abroad, percentage of
immigrant students of their school’s student population, and variety of countries from which
their immigrant students chiefly emigrated. The vast majority of participants self-identified as
White (n= XX, %), and almost 40% were relatively inexperienced with less than five years of
teaching experience. More than half of the participants estimated that newcomers comprised less
than 10% of the student body at their respective schools.
Teachers’ responses to all items contained in the four domains and inclusive teaching
factors are found in Table 1. These factors include the following: What are teachers’ academic
expectations of immigrant students? What are their beliefs on acculturation regarding the
heritage countries, cultures, and language of immigrant students? How did they see the
effectiveness of their schools’ policies related to working with immigrant students and their
parents? How do they view their own teaching in terms of inclusiveness in working with
immigrant students? Due to space limitations, the text will not repeat numbers and percentages
reported in Table 1, but clearly formatted and straightforward descriptive statistics will be
presented for readers to peruse.
Table 1
Teachers’ Response Frequencies and Percentages, Organized by Domain
DOMAIN 1 – SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Teacher Characteristics
Years of
experience 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 >25
38
(38.3%)
17
(17.1%)
15
(15.1%)
12
(12.1%)
5
(5%)
10
(10.1%)
Gender Female Male Missing
48
(48.4%)
50
(50.5%)
1
Lived overseas
<6 months Yes No Missing
16
(16.1%)
81
(81.8%)
2
Race/Ethnicity African-
American
American
Indian
Asian
American
Latina/o White Other
7 2 0 0 87 3
Student Characteristics
Estimated % of
IS in the
School
1-5% 6-10% 11-20% 21-40% 41-60% >61%
18 38 26 10 4 3
Heritage
countries of
ISa
Mexico Honduras El Sal. Guat. China
93 36 35 31 27
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DOMAIN 2 – ACADEMIC PERCEPTION OF IS
Potential to go
to collegeb
Much
more
Somewhat
more
About
the same
Somewhat
less
Less I am
not
able to
rate
3
(3%)
5
(5.1%)
43
(43.4%)
37
(37.7%)
5
(5.1%)
6
(6.1%)
Motivation to
learn social
studiesb
3
(3%)
29
(29.3%)
50
(50.5%)
13
(13.1%)
3
(3%)
1
Grades
expected from
IS
Much
higher
Somewhat
higher
About
the same
Somewhat
lower
Much
lower
Missing
3 9 56 28 1 2
(3.1%) (9.3%) (57.8%) (28.9%) (1%)
DOMAIN 3 – BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES REGARDING ASSIMILATION
IS should be
rapidly
assimilated
Strongly
agree
Agree Neither Disagree Strongly
disagree
Unable
to rate
7 11 42 37 2
(7.1%) (11%) (42.4%) (37.4%) (2%)
IS should have
pride in
heritage
countries
17
(17.2%)
52
(50.5%)
22
(22.2%)
6
(6.1%)
1
(1%)
1
(1%)
Role schools
should play in
maintenance of
L1
Teach
English
only;
advocate
English
only
outside of
school
Teach
English
only;
make no
comment
regarding
L1
Teach
English
only;
advocate
value of
L1
Teach
English
and
maintain
L1
5 19 54 21
(5.1%) (19.2%) (54.5%) (21.2%)
Personal
recommenda-
tion to families
regarding L1
maintenance
Make no
comment
about L1
English
only
Learn English and
maintain L1
14 2 83
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14.1 2.0 83.8
DOMAIN 4 – OPINIONS ON EFFECTIVENESS OF POLICIES FOR IS
ESL Programs Very
effective
Effective Neither Ineffective Very
ineffective
Missing
27 47 13 8 1 3
(28.1%) (48.9%) (13.6%) (8.3%) (1.0%)
Mainstream
classroom
11 58 18 9 0 3
(11.4%) (60.4%) (18.8%) (9.4%)
Textbook in
L1
5 30 45 10 3 6
(5.4%) (32.3%) (48.4%) (10.7%) (3.2%)
Documentation
sent home in
L1
23
(24%)
57
(59.4%)
12
(12.5%)
3
(3.1%)
1
(1%)
3
End-of-Course
Exam Waiver
22
(23.4%)
35
(37.2%)
28
(29.8%)
4
(4.3%)
5
(5.3%)
5
Belief that
school policies
are supportive
of IS
Supportive Somewhat
Supportive
Unable to
rate
Not very
supportive
Not
supportive
Missing
24 49 13 12 0 1
(24.5%) (50%) (13.2%) (12.2%)
Belief that
school policies
involve parents
of IS
Strongly
agree
Agree Neither Disagree Strongly
disagree
Missing
19 42 24 12 1 1
(19.4%) (42.9%) (24.5%) (12.2%) (1%)
DEPENDENT VARIABLES – SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
AND CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
IS should be
taught in a
separate class
Yes No
12 87
(12.1%) (87.8%)
I include
multicultural
perspectives
A great
deal
Some Not much None
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Findings for Question 2
The results from four ordinal least-square regressions in Tables 2 through5 reveal that all
models fit the data well. Items in each of the four domains explain inclusive Teaching, ranging
from explaining 14% of the variability of the dependent variable (by characteristics of teachers
and schools) to explaining 30% of the variability (by teachers’ beliefs and attitudes regarding
assimilation). Some individual items are singled out by the four separated regression models as
significant contributors: more years of teaching experience and whether or not the school
enrolled immigrant students from multiple countries predicted more inclusive teaching (see
Table 2). Teachers who have higher expectations for immigrant students’ grades are more likely
to report practicing inclusive teaching (see Table 3). The beliefs that immigrant students should
have pride in their heritage country and schools should play roles in heritage language
maintenance are two powerful predictors for inclusive teaching (see Table 4). Finally, teachers
are more likely to report practicing inclusive teaching if they have positive opinions on the
62 34 2 0
(63.3%) (34.7%) (2.0%)
I enjoy
teaching IS Much
more
Somewhat
more
About
the same
Somewhat
less
Much less Missing
6 27 63 1 1 1
(6.1%) (27.6%) (64.3%) (1%) (1%)
I believe life
experiences of
IS provide
learning
opportunities
for their
classmates
Strongly
agree
Agree Neither
agree nor
disagree
Disagree Strongly
disagree
Missing
61 32 4 1 0 1
(62.2%) (32.7%) (4.1%) (1%)
I believe SS
teachers
should be a
resource for IS
Strongly
agree
Agree Neither Disagree Strongly
disagree
Missing
30 44 22 2 0 1
(30.6%) (44.9%) (22.5%) (2%)
Perception of
how often IS
share their
experiences
Often Sometimes Rarely Never Not given
the
opportunity
to share
10 44 40 5 0
(10.1%) (44.4%) (40.4%) (5.1%)
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Volume 10 Number 1 54 Spring 2015
effectiveness of placing students in mainstream social studies classes and of two-year waivers for
end-of-course standardized tests (see Table 5).
Table 2
Socio-demographic Predictors of Social Studies Teachers’ Inclusiveness (Domain 1)
Note. IV = Independent Variable. β = Standardized Coefficient.
a In the school’s student population, based on the teacher’s estimations
* p ≤ .10. **p ≤ .05. ***p ≤ .001.
Table 3
Teachers’ Academic Expectation of Immigrant Students, as Predictors of Inclusiveness
(Domain 2)
IV β Potential to go to College
a .145
Motivation to Learn Social Studies -.007
Earn Higher Grades .231**
R2 .10 (p ≤ .02)
Note. IV = Independent Variable. β = Standardized Coefficient. a teachers’ perceptions of their immigrant students, as compared to non-immigrant students
* p ≤ .10. **p ≤ .05. ***p ≤ .001.
Table 4
Teachers’ Beliefs and Attitudes Towards Immigrant Students, as Predictors of Inclusiveness
(Domain 3)
IV β Rapid Assimilation not Necessary .049
IS Show Pride in Heritage Country .370***
Teachers Should Maintain L1 -.067
Schools Should Maintain L1 .392***
R2 .293 (p ≤ .000)
IV β
Teacher Characteristics
Years of Experience .213**
Gender .001
Lived Overseas .062
School Characteristics
High Percentage of Immigrantsa
.139
Many Heritage Countries Representeda
.296**
R2 .142 (p ≤ .027)
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Note. IV = Independent Variable. β = Standardized Coefficient. IS = Immigrant Students. L1 =
First Language, or Heritage Language.
* p ≤ .10. **p ≤ .05. ***p ≤ .001.
Table 5
Teachers’ Opinions on Effectiveness of Policies for Immigrants, as Predictors of Inclusiveness
(Domain 4)
IV β ESL Programs .009
Mainstream Classroom .266**
Textbook in L1 .027
Documentation Sent Home in L1 .098
End-of-Course Exam Waiver .262**
Belief that School Policies are Supportive .087
Belief that School Policies Involve Parents of IS .154
R2 .227 (p ≤ .003)
Note. IV = Independent Variable. β = Standardized Coefficient. IS = Immigrant Students. L1 =
First Language, or Heritage Language.
* p ≤ .10. **p ≤ .05. ***p ≤ .001.
Findings for Question 3 A hierarchical regression method was employed to identify, among other variables, those
that may significantly contribute to social studies teachers’ inclusiveness in teaching immigrant
students. Hierarchical regressions were performed with a four-stage model, with each stage
adding one domain from the previous stage. The order for the entry of the variables by domains
was theoretically determined.
Stage 1: Domain 1 (Characteristics of Teachers and Schools)
Stage 2: Domains 1 and 2 (add Teachers’ Academic Expectation of Immigrant Students)
Stage 3: Domains 1, 2 and 3 (add Teachers’ Beliefs and Attitudes Regarding
Assimilation)
Stage 4: Domains 1, 2, 3 and 4 (add Teachers’ Opinions on School’s Implementation of
Immigrant Student-Related Policies).
Due to space limitations, we will only report the significant results (see Table 6). All
models fit the data well, and the R square value increased with each factor added to the
regression model. While Model 1 explains 14% of the variability of teachers’ inclusive teaching
by dependent variables, Model 4 explains more than 41% of the variability of the teachers'
inclusive teaching by dependent variables. Findings from Model 4 reveal that, while all 21
variables are held constantly, 4 variables have shown statistical significance: teachers are more
likely to report teaching inclusively if their students are from many countries (rather than from a
few countries) and if they believe schools should play a role in maintaining immigrant students’
heritage languages. Teachers who have more years of teaching experience and who believe that
their schools effectively implement mainstream classroom policies tend to practice inclusive
teaching, based on self-reports.
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Table 6
Hierarchical Regression Models Predicting Social Studies Teachers’ Inclusiveness in Teaching
Immigrant Students
CV Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
R2 .142 .193 .377 .421
p< (.03) (.02) (.00) (.00)
Teacher Characteristics (β)
Years of Experience .198* .213** .174* .181* .175*
Gender .001 -.001 -.044 -.049 -.062
Lived Overseasa
.062 .063 .047 .046 .078
School Characteristics
High Percentage of Immigrantsb .139 .136 .066 .096
Many Heritage Countries
Representedb
.296** .254* .197** .178**
Academic Expectations of IS
Potential to go to Collegec .094 .022 .034
Motivation to Learn Social
Studies
-.025 -.113 -1.05
Earn Higher Grades .188 .145 .149
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward IS
Rapid Assimilation not Necessary .109 .083
IS Show Pride in Heritage
Country
.274** .181
Teachers Should Maintain L1 -.109 .110
Schools Should Maintain L1 .295** .263**
Opinions on Effectiveness of
Policies for IS
ESL Programs -.005
Mainstream Classroom .192*
Textbook in L1 -.043
Documentation Sent Home in L1 .092
End-of-Course Exam Waiver .067
Belief that School Policies are
Supportive
.057
Belief that School Policies
Involve Parents of IS
.013
Note. CV = Control Variable. β = Standardized Coefficient. a for more than 6 months
b In the school’s student population, based on the teacher’s estimations
c teachers’ perceptions of their immigrant students, as compared to non-immigrant students
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* p ≤ .10. **p ≤ .05. Models fit at ≤ .05 level.
Discussion
This study is important for several reasons. Returning to the study’s framework from
Ladson-Billing’s culturally responsive pedagogy (1994, 1995, 1999), the study of teachers’
perceptions is important because a teacher’s self-reflection is a crucial part of his or her
professional improvement as a culturally responsive teacher. By carefully examining their
attitudes and beliefs about themselves, students, and their institutions, teachers can achieve self-
realization in terms of who they are, what has shaped their beliefs, and how to recognize and
confront biases that have influenced their value system and practice (Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
Inspired by culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy, Paris (2012) advanced it with culturally
sustaining pedagogy, which questioned if culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy goes far
enough in embodying some of the best research and practice in the cultural resource pedagogy
tradition. Our study substantiates culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy in teaching
immigrant students in social studies education with additive versus subtractive perspectives. In
this sense, contributions to the field are made. Specifically, the following four areas are
identified as contributions to the literature.
First, the existing research literature on inclusive social studies teaching often focuses on