Introduction First, the chapter will begin with the definition and elements of literature-based instruction (LBI) as well as a theoretical basis for literature-based L2 instruction (LBLI). The remainder of the chapter provides a review of literature concerning the ESL/EFL learning contexts for young learners ranging from primary to secondary students, followed by the section on the research studies dealing with adult ESL/EFL learning settings. The chapter also presents a rationale for employing children’s or adolescent literature for adult ESL learners. First, cognitive theory and research in discourse comprehension are discussed. The topics addressed pertain to issues of representation and models of knowledge which have been established as important aspects of cognitive theories of comprehension. In addition, the treatment of text and reader variables in text comprehension research is examined. Third, the cognitive study of expertise is discussed with the goal of identifying some principles from research on science expertise which may inform the study of expertise in literary communication. A discussion of the use of verbal protocols as data is included along with a discussion of semantically-based models of discourse analysis. Finally, psychological approaches to the study of reasoning are reviewed and reasoning studies in knowledge-rich domains are discussed from the standpoint of their application to investigating literary reasoning. Skills Based Approaches to the Teaching of Literature Teaching literature Introduction Chapter 1: Using literature in the language classroom: the issues 1. Scope and definition: What is literature? 2. What is distinctive about the language of literature?
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Introduction
First, the chapter will begin with the definition and elements of literature-based instruction (LBI) as
well as a theoretical basis for literature-based L2 instruction (LBLI). The remainder of the chapter
provides a review of literature concerning the ESL/EFL learning contexts for young learners ranging
from primary to secondary students, followed by the section on the research studies dealing with adult
ESL/EFL learning settings. The chapter also presents a rationale for employing children’s or
adolescent literature for adult ESL learners.
First, cognitive theory and research in discourse comprehension are discussed. The topics addressed
pertain to issues of representation and models of knowledge which have been established as important
aspects of cognitive theories of comprehension. In addition, the treatment of text and reader variables
in text comprehension research is examined. Third, the cognitive study of expertise is discussed with
the goal of identifying some principles from research on science expertise which may inform the study
of expertise in literary communication. A discussion of the use of verbal protocols as data is included
along with a discussion of semantically-based models of discourse analysis. Finally, psychological
approaches to the study of reasoning are reviewed and reasoning studies in knowledge-rich domains
are discussed from the standpoint of their application to investigating literary reasoning.
Skills Based Approaches to the Teaching of Literature
Teaching literature
Introduction
Chapter 1: Using literature in the language classroom: the issues
1. Scope and definition: What is literature?
2. What is distinctive about the language of literature?
3. The reader, the text, and the context
4. Literary competence and the language classroom
5. Goals for teaching literature: what does it mean to teach literature?
6. The significance of literary texts in language teaching
7. Relevance of literature to TEOL programmes
8. Understanding students’ individual differences: who are my students?
9. Why use literature in the language classroom?
Chapter 2: approaches to suing literature with the language learner
1. An overview
2. Promoting student engagement and self-efficacy
3. The aesthetic style of teaching the classics
4. problems with the traditional method of teaching the classics
5. A language-based approach to using literature
6. Stylistics in the classroom
7. Project-based literary instruction
8. Reader response theory
9. Stylistic approach: an alternative approach to the teaching literature
10. Literature as content: how far to go?
11. Literature for personal enrichment: involving students
12. The role of metalanguage
Chapter 4: reading literature cross-culturally
1. Being a student
2. A consideration of cultural aspects in texts
3. Strategies for overcoming cultural problems
Chapter 5: enrichment of experience though genuine literature
1. Realizable presentation of life in literature
2. Truth to human experience
3. Literature as an interpretation of life
4. Summary
Chapter 6: An overview of literature instruction history and politics
1. The political responsibility of the teaching of literatures
2. Literacy and literature: making or consuming culture?
3. The politics of teaching literature: the pedagogical effects
4. the history of teaching the classics
5. Afterword: teaching literature for the future
6. A few more words about democracy and reader response
1. Introduction: innovation, instruction, and literary studies
Part 1: literary license: alternative readings and writings
1. Piloting new channels in writing about literature
2. Epistolary pedagogy and electronic mail
3. On teaching literature students to interpret
4. Generative criticism in the seminar room: applying lateral thinking to the study of litearary
theory
5. Exploration and discovery in the undergraduate survey of literature: the poster presentation
6. Permeable boundaries: arts within the arts
Part 2: visual literacy and visualizing literature
1. Figuring literary theory and refiguring teaching: graphics in the undergraduate literary theory
course
2. From short fiction to dramatic event: mental imagery, the perceptual basis of learning in the
aesthetic reading experience
3. The look of a book: using technology to visualize narrative structure
4. Sculpting the text
5. Alchemy to chemistry: integrating science and humanities
6. Theme days: literature across the curriculum
Chapter 7: cyberlit: hypertext; hypermedia, and multimedia
1. Project-based literary instruction: the women of the romantic period hypertext
2. Hypermedia design in the English classroom
3. Hypertextual and networked communication in undergraduate literature classes: strategies
for interactive critical pedagogy
4. Linear modeling: giving technology’s power to students
5. Shakespeare online: reflections on teaching and learning
6. Videos and the virtual classroom: a teleweb for teaching modern American poetry
Introduction
Chapter 2: the teacher’s literary equipment
1. Actual teachers’ literary familiarities and preferences
2. What we ought to do about it: the necessity of:
a. Really knowing how to read
b. Variety and depth of first-hand experience
c. Much genuine experience of excellent literature
d. Knowledge of major classification of literature
e. Realization of literary periods and essential influences
f. Consequent command of valid criteria of excellence
g. A sense of the relation of excellent manner, of style, to literature
3. Summary
Chapter 3: beginning with children’s actual experiences and interests
1. Three fundamental educational principles
a. We must begin where children actually are
b. We must secure together significant and valuable materials of study
c. We must help pupils to realize the immediate worth of our subject
d. On knowing real children
e. Children’s actual choices of books
f. The bases of these interests in original nature
Chapter ix: the uses of composition in teaching literature
1. Good and simple book notes and examination in literature
2. Children’s own attempts at literature
3. Summary
Chapter x: educational dramatization and dramatic reading
1. Informal dramatic reading in the elementary school
2. Prepared dramatizations of the pupils’ own sense of a narrative
3. The values of these sorts of dramatization
4. Summary
Literary genres
Chapter 1: Shorties
1. Types of short narrative forms
2. Teaching techniques
3. Short story
4. Story telling
5. Characteristics of the short story
6. Why should short stories be used in ELT?
7. Teaching short stories: methods and approaches to teach short stories
Pre-reading activities
While reading activities
Post-reading activities
Chapter 2: novels
1. Classroom canon
2. Types of novels
3. Reading approaches
4. Exploiting techniques
Chapter 3: poetry
1. Definition and status
2. Teaching options
3. Types of poetry
4. Poetic devices
Chapter 4: plays
1. Long and short types
2. Analyzing drama
3. Learning by playing
Chapter 5: modern media
1. Forms and functions
2. Literature and music
3. Literature and film
4. Literature and internet
Chapter iv: types of excellent literature within children’s interests
1. Genuine literature for children
2. Books with values as subject-matter
3. The problem of school-library lists
Chapter 6: assessment
1. Standards
2. Test formats
3. Course assessments
4. Suggested answers for the tasks
5. Assessing literature in context
a. Asking questions of context
b. Forty years on: the evolution of English studies
c. Canon vs. critical literacy
d. ‘What is at the heart of English studies?’
e. Setting set texts
f. The end of texts?
Chapter 8: Planning and organizing literature instruction:
1. How do I decide what to teach?
2. Using drama to foster interpretation: how can I help students to read better?
3. Using narratives in the classroom for both teaching and learning literature: what’s the use of
story?
4. Leading classroom discussions of literature: how do I get students to talk about literature?
5. Writing about literature: how do I get students to write about literature?
6. Teaching text- and task-specific strategies: how does the shape of a text change the Shape of my
teaching?
7. Teaching the classics: do I have to teach the canon; and if so, how do I do it?
8. Multiple Perspectives To Engage Students With Literature/ What Are Different Ways Of Seeing?
9. Teaching media literacy/ what else is text and how do I teach it?
10. Assessing and evaluating students’ learning/ how do I know what students have learned?
11. Text selection, censorship, creating an ethical classroom environment, and teacher
professionalism: how do I stay in control, out of trouble, and continue to develop as a teacher?
12. Structuring whole class reading activities
13. Chapter 1: student voice, discussion and lecture
a. questioning
b. creating an environment for effective class discussion
14. Chapter 2: preparing through pre-reading
a. Poster project
b. Music project
c. Shorter works project
d. Drama-as-power project
e. Role-play project
f. Visual arts gallery project
g. Resources for all pre-reading projects
15. Chapter3: during-reading activities
a. Making text kinesthetic
b. Creating graphic novels
c. Reader’s theater
d. Character bookmarks
e. Found poetry
16. Chapter 4: after-reading activities
a. Character biography
b. Character questionnaire
c. Character book bag
d. Character postcard
e. Mapping it out
f. Text timeline
g. Making memories
h. Movie magic
i. Theme sketches
j. I saw it
k. Rapping up the text
l. After-reading projects
17. Chapter 5: writing activities
a. Journal writing
b. Reader-response logs
c. Creative writing
d. Freewriting
e. Literature letters
f. Character diaries
18. Chapter 6: vocabulary activities
a. Anglo-Saxon vocabulary
b. Invading words
c. Words in action
d. Wont sort
e. Graphic organizers
19. Poetry in context
a. Ozymandias: Shelly and smith
b. Conversation with Coleridge
c. False context: T.S. Eliot
d. When is a sonnet not a sonnet? Form as context
20. Shakespearean contexts
a. Teaching Shakespeare:
21. Contexts and the novel
a. Meaning and context: handsome in Jane Austen
b. Ways of seeing—teaching a new novel
c. Englishness in the contemporary novel: lodge, barns and smith
d. Film and image as context:
22. Non-fiction prose in context
a. Essays and blogs: Woolf, carter and beard
b. Travel writing in a literary context: Brooke’s letters from America
23. Conflict and calamity as context in literature
a. War poetry, close reading and context: Blunden, Sasson, and Faulks
b. Memorializing the Great War: war memorials and war poetry
c. Unusual contexts: Aldington and levi
Part 1: teaching literature in context and context in literature
1. Writer and readers: context and creativity
-writers on writing
-contextual and inter-textual study
-‘the community of literature’
-‘the intention of the text’
-ways of seeing
2. The case for close reading
Is English out of touch?
The habit of close reading
Close reading in the post-theory era
3. ‘context’ in context
Contexts vs. sources
Background and foreground
Putting the claims of context into context
‘Enlarging the frame of attention’
4. Moving on: from ‘English literature’ to ‘English studies’
‘Read the prospectus’: what universities want?
Preparing students: poetry and translation
‘Stretch and challenge: from S level to A
Preparing students: comparing texts and taking risk
Part 2: teaching to the text: contextual close reading
5. World and time: close reading and context
Primary and secondary contexts
Titles as contexts composed upon Westminster bridge
Conclusion: understanding the insights of others
Resources
Professional associations, websites, journals, books
Notes
Index
Conclusion
Introduction: “this old stuff ain’t so bad”
--the “green” teacher
Putting these strategies into action
Part 1: teaching the classics to all students
Part 2: working with selected classic texts
Chapter 7: putting the strategies into action
Instructional plan to teaching Romeo and Juliet to all students
Chapter 3: selecting and evaluating materials
1. Selecting texts
2. Evaluating learning materials which make use of literary texts
Chapter 5: material design and lesson planning: novels and short stories
1. Writing your own story
2. Distinctive features of a short story
3. Anticipating student problems when using a short story
4. Planning a lesson for use with a short story
5. Further tasks and activities for use with a short story
6. Designing your own materials for use with a short story
7. Using novels in the language classroom
Chapter 6: materials design and lesson planning: poetry
1. Putting a poem back together again
2. What is distinctive about poetry?
3. Why use poetry with the language learner?
4. Exploiting unusual language features
5. Helping students with figurative meanings
6. Using poetry to develop oral skills
7. Using a poem with students at higher levels
8. Anticipating student problems
9. Furthert tasks and activities
Chapter 7: materials design and lesson planning: plays
1. What is distinctive about plays?
2. The language of a play
3. The performance of a play
4. Why use plays in the language learning classroom?
5. Using play extracts to think about language in conversation
6. Using play extracts to improve students’ oral skills
7. Using play extracts with lower levels
8. Anticipating student problems
9. Further activities for play extracts
10. Using a whole play with students
Chapter 8: reflecting on the literature lesson
1. Thinking about observation
2. General observation of the literature lesson
3. Micro-tasks for reflecting on specific areas of teaching
4. Observing a student
5. other ways of monitoring your teaching
Chapter 9: literature and self-access
1. What is a literature self-access centre?
2. Why have a literature self-access centre?
3. A simulation: first meeting for planning and setting up a literature self-access centre
4. Second meeting for setting up a literature self-access centre
5. Setting up a literature self-access center: a case study
6. Worksheets to guide students in their reading
7. Answer key
8. Trainer’s note
9. Appendix: evenline by james joyce
Chapter vii. Class help in the understanding of literature
1. Literature as requiring real study
2. The book clubs
3. Turning the class back on itself
4. The curse of irrelevant details and information
5. What study is of most worth
6. Summary
Chapter viii. Background and approaches
1. Distinguishing between true and false introduction
2. Reading aloud with comment
3. Providing essential backgrounds
4. Summary
5. LITERARY UNDERSTANDING AS A COGNITIVE PROCESS
6. The relationship between an author's intentions and a reader's understanding of a literary
text has long been the subject of debate within literary studies. The argument began with the
position that understanding an author's intentions was an essential component for
understanding the literary text and the only means by which an interpretation could be
validated. This position lost ground in the middle of the twentieth century to the interpretive
view of the literary text as an independent aesthetic object which could be successfully
understood in terms of its own structure and coherence. From this perspective, textual
interpretation was thought to be derived solely from an examination of text properties.
Literary studies focused exclusively on the properties of the text with the goal of
interpretation. Additional information pertaining to the author or to the historical period and
cultural mores was considered irrelevant for literary reading. Within this theoretical
framework, the influence of the author in the interpretive process was greatly diminished.
7. In the 1960s the European structuralist movement undertook to replace the interpretive
paradigm altogether by making the study of literature a science which would be explanatory
rather than interpretive (Culler, 1981). This shift was explicitly signaled by Barthes
(1966/1977) with the now famous pronouncement "the author is dead" (p. 142). The interest
was no longer in the meaning of a literary work but rather on the devices which enabled it to
be realized within a social context. Thus, within literary studies the emphasis shifted to the
social construction of meaning in the production and reception of literary text.
8. As a result of this shift, both the instability of the text and the role of the reader in literary
communication became important topics within critical theories about literature (Culler, 1981;
Eco, 1979; Fish, 1980; Rosenblatt, 1978). Without the author's intentions serving as the main
constraint on interpretation, the text became indeterminate and new theories were developed
to address the issue. A number of reader response theories which privilege the contribution of
the reader, maintained that it was the interpretive community that controlled the interpretation
(Fish, 1980). Others identified prevailing literary conventions which have developed over time
as the principal determinants of a given interpretation (Culler, 1981). Generally, literary
debates on the relationship between the literary reader, the author, and the text have tended to
privilege one aspect over another a priori. At the extremes of the reader-author continuum,
readers were either enjoying unlimited possible readings or alternately they were reading in
accord with the author's intentions.
9. Not all theorists, however, subscribed to this either-or position. Rather, they addressed the
relation between the author, the reader, and the text and focused on the interactive aspects of
that relationship (Currie, 1990; Eco, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1938; 1978; 1985). Reading was
conceptualized a complex transaction in which the importance of the reader was undeniable,
but at the same time the reading response was always in relation to a text and guided by
textua1 dues (Rosenblatt, 1978; 1985). The interconnected factors which guided a reader's
response to a literary work included the structure of the narrative, the reader's understanding
of the purpose for that structure, the reader's expectations of how the story would develop, and
those text features which the readers found salient. The way in which these components
contributed to the reader's response depended on the reader's assumptions about the author's
intentions (Currie, 1990).
10. The renewed discussion of the role of author in literary reading does not focus on
recovering the original intentions of the empirical author but rather on how readers construe
the intentionality underlying the production of the text. This view is expressed by Eco (1992)
who maintains that the aim of the text is to produce the model reader who reads it more or less
as it was designed to be read and that it is the intention of the text that constrains readers'
interpretations. At the same time, the intention of the text can only be realized if it is inferred
by the reader. More specifically, it has been suggested that when confronted with unfamiliar
or problematic situations which make understanding difficult, readers have to resort to
guessing about the assumptions and aims of the author in order to understand what is going on
(Livingston, 1992).
11. While the intentions of the empirical author may be irrelevant for a reader's interpretation,
in discussing the nature of meaning and the limits and possibilities of interpretation, the notion
of unlimited semiosis does not lead to the conclusion that interpretation has no criteria (Eco,
1992). While the reader enjoys the latitude of generating multiple interpretations, Eco argues
that textual coherence controls the reading process and an acceptable interpretation is one
which is supported by internal textual evidence. Taken together these components constitute a
communicative system which' includes the intention of the author, the intention of the reader
and the intention of the text as well as the relations among them. ( Barbara Graves, 1996, p. 3)
12. The interplay among these components presents an interesting problem to investigate from
an empirical perspective. In contrast to North American literary studies, the empirical study of
literature is becoming an established discipline within the European literary tradition. In
Germany Schmidt (1980, 1983) has set the agenda for theory-based, empirical research to
study the complex processes of literary activities and to develop a model of literary
processing. Unlike the interpretive approach with its focus on the literary text, Schmidt's goal
is to apply the construct of systems theory to characterize literature as a self-organizing,
autonomous system which is distinct from other social systems. While there are many debates
among sociological literary theorists as to whether the literary situation meets the full range of
criteria which identify systems (Barsch, 1991; Bordieu, 1991; Schmidt, 1991) the underlying
consensus is that literature involves much more than the study of literary texts. Rather, the
literary situation includes the entire practice related to production, distribution, reception and
post-processing (Schmidt, 1980; 1991). At the same time it is assumed that the literary
situation involving texts, authors and readers can be best examined empirically by adapting
methodologies developed in the social sciences, particularly from cognitive psychology
(Meutsch, 1989; Steen, 1992; Zwaan, 1993).
13. From a psychological perspective, literary reading, like other forms of reading, constitutes
a communicative process between readers and writers mediated by written text, and to
communicate successfully it relies on establishing an appropriate context for the reading. The
challenge for understanding the process of literary reading is that each literary text presents
novel problems. Readers vary widely with respect to their general world knowledge and their
specific literary knowledge, and this knowledge is important in establishing a context. The
context may be derived from multiple sources which include understanding the words, the
events of the narrative, the plans and goals of the characters, as well as thematic information. (
Barbara Graves, 1996, p. 4) At the same time the context also incorporates the communicative
context which includes a model of the author, the reader and the text. Previous research has
shown how construction of an author model while reading influences the strategic behaviors