Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty ...Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty and hope Tony Brown Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 50, Number 3, November 2010

Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty and hope

Tony BrownFaculty of Arts and Social Sciences

University of Technology, Sydney

Adult education’s continuing purpose has been questioned by writers for over twenty years and today the re‑organisation and closure of some University departments brings this issue to the fore. This paper takes up the theme of really useful knowledge in a changing world from the standpoint of teaching adult education history to graduate students. Many enter their new field of practice unaware of the specific social contexts of the foundations of adult education in different places, or the genealogy of its current manifestations. Examining these different contexts, traditions, practices and practitioners can enable students to better locate themselves, connect with different traditions, understand the past and position themselves for their future. Secondly, the paper considers the idea of locating oneself in a rapidly changing political economy that has emerged from the global economic crisis and recession, the effects of which are expected to continue into the next decade.

498 Tony Brown

Arecurringandcommoncriticismwithinadulteducationisthatithaslostitsway,forgottenitsoriginalpurposesormission,orbecomecompromisedbyitsuncriticalservicetobusinessanditsembraceofthemarket.MichaelWeltonwrotein1987thatapaucityofscholarlyanalysis,aseparationfromactivistinvolvementandadulteducation’srespectabilitywereattherootof‘ouruneaseandprofessionalrestlessness’.Soonafter,JackMezirow(1991)challengedAmericanadulteducation’s‘fadedvisions’andMichaelCollins(1991)lamentedthecrisisassociatedwithanobsessionwithtechniqueandvocationalism.PhyllisCunningham’s1993callto‘getreal’andherlatercontentionthatadulteducationwasbecomingmorecomplicitouswithprivatebusinessandindustry(1996)wasechoedacrosstheAtlanticbyJaneThompson’sOpen Letternaminghowmanagerialismandcorporatisationhadpermeatedadulteducation(1993).Post-modernadulteducatorsjoinedin,suggestingthattherewasasenseofcrisisoverthemeaningofadulteducation,astherewerenolongerany‘overarchingnarratives’thatmakeanysense(Edwards&Usher1996).

Asthenewcenturydawned,MatthiasFingerandJoseAsun(2001)arguedthatadulteducationwasat‘acrossroads’.Thesameyearapaper,reportingonconversationswithlong-timeAmericanadulteducators,notedthatreactionstotheevolutionofadulteducationfrom1926tothenewcentury‘variedfromexcitementaboutthepossibilitiestofrustrationoverthe“abandonment”ofearlierideals’.Theauthorsnotedthebeliefthat‘thetrue“spirit”ofadulteducationasameanstofosterdemocracyandthedevelopmentofanenlightenedsociety’wasrapidlylosinggroundtothe‘hightecharenaofHRDtrainingandcompulsorylearning’(Hensley,Maher,Passmore&James2001).Nearlyadecadelater,MikeNewman’s(2007)reminderoftheimportanceofteachingchoiceanddefianceinatimeofwarreflectedanongoingquestioningaboutthepurposeandfutureofadulteducation.

Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty and hope 499

Thesewriterslamentaconditioninstarkcontrasttothefeistybeliefsofadulteducation’spossibilitiesexpressedbyeducatorsamongthe18thand19thcenturyCorrespondingSocieties,ChartistsandPlebsLeague,ofThomasHodgkinandotherswhocontrastedtheideaof‘reallyusefulknowledge’totheprevailingideaof‘usefulknowledge’;oftheoptimismofAmericanssuchasEduardLindemanandMylesHorton,andlaterofPauloFreire’s‘pedagogyofhope’inSouthAmerica,amongothers.

Todaytimeshavechangedagainandnewconditionsconfrontadulteducationasfinancialcrisis,war,growinginequalityandenvironmentalconcernschallengedominanteconomicandideologicalconventionsofthepastthirtyyears.Overaveryshortperiodin2008,thesenseofdramaticupheavalwasrepresentedbytermsrangingfromnewtimes,moderntimes,interestingtimes(KalantzisandCope2008),disturbingtimes,challengingtimes,troublingtimes(CJSAE2009)andmomentoustimes(IJLE2009).Bytheendoftheyear,asstockmarketsthrewupunprecedentedcollapses,thepoliticalclimate,atleastintheUSA,shiftedtooneofhope.Itservestoremindusthatchangecananddoesoccurquicklyanddramatically,thathistoryisdynamicandthathavinganappreciationandtheoryofhistoryisinvaluable.

Thispapertakesupthethemeof‘reallyusefulknowledge’inachangingworldfromthestandpointofteachingadulteducationhistorytograduatestudents.Historyinthiscontexttakesontwomeanings,firstly,thehistoryofideasandpracticeswithinthe‘field’ofadulteducation,andsecondly,thehistoryofthesurroundingworldanditsimpactonthepracticeandevolutionofthatfield.

Atatimewhenmanyoftheeconomiccertaintiesofthepastthirtyyearshavebeenexposedasfragile,andwhentheconsequencesofeconomiccrisisimpactontheworkofmanyadulteducatorsintheircontactswithadultlearnersinbothformalandnon-formalsites,thequestionofwhatknowledgewillhelpthemlocatethemselvesintheirworkaseducatorsbecomesveryimportant.

500 Tony Brown

Examiningtraditionsandhistories,differentcontexts,practicesandpractitionersbecomesthereforeacriticalpracticeforadulteducationteachersindevelopingcriticallyawareeducators,sothattheyinturncanworkwithlearnerstobeawarethateducationrequireschoicesandchoicerequiresinformedlearners.Itcanenablestudentstolocatethemselvesbetterintheirpractice,connectwithdifferenttraditions,understandthepastandpositionthemselvesfortheirfuture.Thepaperconsiderstherapidlychangingpoliticaleconomythatemergedasaresultoftheglobaleconomiccrisis,andtheimpactoftheseeventsonthedailylifeofthosewhommanyadulteducatorsworkcloselywithasacriticalpointinourhistory.Bycallingintoquestionanumberoforthodoxiesandcertaintiesoftheneo-liberalworldviewthathavecometopermeateeducationandadulteducation,thepaperaskswhatmightreallyusefulknowledgelookliketodayandwhatimplicationsdoesthathaveforteachingandlearning.

Adult education—a continuing purpose?

UniversityadulteducationinEnglish-speakingcountriesisundergoingconsiderablechangeasdepartmentsclose,aremergedintolargerfacultiesor‘re-engineered’.IntheUnitedStatesseventy-fourinstitutionshadadult,continuingandcommunityeducationdepartmentsbuttighteningbudgetsandshiftingprioritiesresultedinthenumberofinstitutionsofferingadulteducationdegreesdecreasingby29percentbetween1992and2002(citedinGlowacki-DudkaandHelvie-Mason2004:8).IntheUnitedKingdom,astudyofMastersdegreesinadulteducationrevealedthattwenty-sixuniversitieswereofferingpostgraduatequalificationsinvariousadultandcontinuingeducationfields(Field,Dockrell&Gray2005).

Similarly,inAustraliathenumberofuniversitiesofferingadulteducationqualificationshascontracted.Someclosuresandamalgamationsareforcedbyhighereducationadministrationsatleastpartiallyinspiredbythehopeofreapingthebenefitsof


economiesofscale.However,someoccurwiththeacquiescenceoragreementofadulteducatorswhohopethatthesearchfornewfieldsinprofessionallearning,communication,culturalstudies,healthorworkplacelearningcanofferfreshfieldsandanescapefromadulteducation’sperennialproblemofitsmarginalisationwithintheacademy(Imel,Brockett&James2000:634).

Despitethesecontractionsstudentscontinuetoenrolingraduateprogramswhereadulteducationandlearningisakeyfocus,withmanyenteringfromdiversebackgroundsthatincludehealthsettings;publicsectoragencies;professionalbackgrounds;faith-based,non-governmentandsocialmovementorganisations;organisationaldevelopmentdepartments;IT;schoolteachingandmore.Theycomefromdisciplinebackgroundsthatrangeacrossthesocialsciencesintobusiness,technologyandthesciences.Toooftentheyareintroducedtopedagogicalconceptsthataredislocatedintimeandplacefromtheirorigins.Asaresultfewunderstandthespecificsocialcontextsofthefoundationsofadulteducationindifferentplaces,orthegenealogyofitscurrentmanifestations.Thedeclineandinsomecasesabsenceofhistoricalperspectivemeansthattheories,practicesandepistemologiesareattimesconsideredwithinsufficientregardtotheircontext.

Concernsaboutthecurrentstateofstudiesinthehistoryofeducation(Campbell&Sherington2002,Goodman&Grosvenor2009)andsociologyofeducation(Lauder,Brown&Halsey2009),whilenotdirectlyfocusedonadulteducation,arepertinenttothisdiscussion.GoodmanandGrosvenor(2009:601)pointtotheimportanceofanhistoricaldimensionbringing‘contextualunderstandingtoenrichcontemporaryresearch’inordertolinkindividualandcollectiveinterestswithcurrentchallenges.Theycharacterisethecurrentstateofhistoryofeducationscholarshipasa‘momentofinsecurity’arisingfrom‘momentsofchallenge’resultingfrombothinstitutionalchangeaswellasthedisappearanceofhistoryofeducationfrom

502 Tony Brown

teachereducation.CampbellandSherington(2002:46)alsolookatthe‘impactofneo-liberalismineconomicsandpublicpolicy’asneworientationslefthistorystudiesdetachedfromitsbaseinteacherpreparation,andcompoundedbythereductionofstaffinuniversityeducationfaculties.InarelateddiscussionLauder,BrownandHalsey(2009:569)refertoadecliningcontributionofsociologyofeducation‘asothercognatedisciplinesinthesocialsciencessuchaseconomicstakeoversomeofthekeyquestionsthatwerepreviouslythepreserve’ofsociologists.Eachlooktothepotentialinvolvedinworkingwithotherinteresteddisciplines,arguingthatthesemomentsofinsecuritycanbeseenas‘momentsofopportunity’iftheyleadtodevelopingnew,interdisciplinarywaysofworking.

Historyhoweverisnotadispassionateorobjectivestudy.WilsonandMelichar(1995:422,423),highlightingtheinfluenceofwriterssuchasE.P.ThompsonandRaymondWilliams,proposed‘the“doing”ofhistoryasacounter-hegemonicstrategyofre-memberingthepastinordertocritiquethepresent’andrefertoWilliams’argumentthat,withinanyculturalactivityincludingadulteducation,a‘selectivetradition’emergeswhichreinforcesaparticularunderstandingofthepast(seealsoWeltonforadiscussiononadulteducation’s‘dominanttradition’,1987:51–55).

Thedoingofhistoryinvolvesbeingabletolocateoneselfwithinatraditionorcommunity.TheScottishphilosopherAlasdairMacIntyrewrotethat‘toanswerthequestionofwhatIasanindividualshoulddo,onemustfirstknowofwhichstoriesIamapart,andwhatmyrolesinthosestoriesrequire’.Heposedthechallengethisway:‘Actorscanonlyanswerthequestion“whatamItodo?”oncetheycananswerthepriorquestionofwhatstoryorstoriesdoIfindmyselfapart’(MacIntyre1985:216).

InasimilarveinGanz(2009)writesoftheneedtoreflectuponourownstoriesthathelpusknowwhoweare,whyweactandwhatweaimfor.Inworkingwithaformofscaffoldingtodevelopawider


senseofidentity,heasksstudentstoidentifyfirstlyastoryofselfthatexplainswhyyouwerecalledtowhatyouhavebeencalled.Secondly,participantsareaskedtowriteastoryofus,thatiswhattheconstituency,communityororganisationhasbeencalledtoandwhatitssharedpurposes,goalsandvisionsare.Thethirdstageinvolvesdevelopingastoryofnow,whatisthechallengethiscommunitynowfaces,thechoicesitmustmake,andthehopetowhich‘we’canaspire.

Toknowwhattraditionorstoryoneisapartofrequiresfirstofallknowingwhattraditionsthereareandhowtheyareexpressedinpractice.Thisinvolvesenquiryandmoreimportantlymeansmakingchoices.

Adulteducationhasitsownhistory,andadulteducatorsmakearangeofclaimsaboutit andthespecialroleandpurposeitplays.Amongthesearethatthefirstadulteducatorswerepopulareducatorsandthatadulteducation’sdefiningpurposeistosupportdemocracyandsocialchange;othersaimtoassistadultsachieveself-actualisation,orconcentrateonpreparingadultlearnersforworkandseeitasdevelopinghumanandsocialcapital;whileotherssayadulteducationprovidesasecondchanceateducation,especiallyinthefieldsofliteracyandnumeracy,andinunderdevelopedeconomies.Howmightweunderstandtheclaimsmadeforadulteducationintheearly21stcenturyagainstearlierclaims?Isitstillaforceforsocialorradicalchange,orhasitbeenconscriptedtodeliveratoneendofthelabourprocessaflexibleandadaptableworkforce,andattheotherareflexiveprofessionalcaste?Canweevensaythereisaclearroleforadulteducation,orindeedthatthetermcontinuestohaveaparticularmeaning?

Really useful knowledge today

Thedramaticchangesusheredinbytheglobaleconomiccrisisoflate2008raisenewquestionsaboutadulteducation’spurpose.Forteachersofadulteducators,theyalsoraisequestionsofhowatheory

504 Tony Brown

orunderstandingofhistorymighthelptounderstandthesechanges,whattheymeanandwhatimpacttheymighthaveonpolitics,economics,work,everydaylifeandeducation.Heretheconceptof‘reallyusefulknowledge’canassist.If‘reallyusefulknowledge’wasatermusedinthe19thcenturytodevelopacriticalunderstandingofselfandsocietyandwhichwasofdirectrelevancetothestruggleforsocialjustice,whatmightitlookliketoday?

TheideaofreallyusefulknowledgedevelopedinnineteenthcenturyEnglandamongradicalworkingclassassociations.Itstoodindirectcontrasttotheideaofusefulknowledge,thatis,theinstrumentalknowledgeneededtogeton,versusthetypeofknowledgetoactupon,analyse,challengeandchangetheexistingconditions(Simon1960,1972;Johnson1979,1988;Newman1993,2009;Thompson2007),orasYoung(2008)describesitpowerfulknowledge,asopposedtotheknowledgeofthepowerful.Educationwasnotdirectedatpoliticsforitsownsake,butinsteaddirectedat‘producingpoliticalunderstandingthatwillultimatelyenabletransformationsinthematerialconditionsoftheworkingclasseswhichwillfreethemfromexploitation’.Essentialtothisapproachwasanunderstandingthateducationwastheprovinceofindependentorganisationsindependentfromthestate,orthechurchortherulingclass.Itwasself-instruction,connectingeducationtothepoliticalprocessandtoself-managementofworkingclassinstitutions.ForThomasHodgkin‘menhadbetterbewithouteducationthanbeeducatedbytheirrulers’(Lloyd&Thomas1998:83,103).

AronwitzandGiroux(1985:157)identifiedthreepointsofanalysisthatprovideacontinuitybetweentheideaofreallyusefulknowledgetodayandearliertimes.Firstly,itprovidedthebasisforcritiqueofdominantformsofknowledge;secondly,itstronglyvaluedthedevelopmentofcurriculaandpedagogiesthatbeginwiththeproblemsandneedsofthosegroupsthatsucheducationwasdesignedtoserve,andthirdly,itarguedforknowledgethatcontributedto


strategiesforchangingformsofdominationwhilesimultaneouslypointingtomoredemocraticformsofactivecommunity.

Todaytheideaofreallyusefulknowledgehastobere-introduced,notinsomebackward-lookingsentimentalway,butinthelightofthe‘newformsofpower’thattakeaccountofthechangesinworkingclasslifeandthelabourprocess;ongoinginequalitiesbetweenthepopulationsofthenorthandsouthandwithinthosesocieties;inequalitiesassociatedwithrace,genderandsexuality;andthegrowingchallengesofclimatechange.Whatmightreallyusefulknowledge,asopposedtousefulknowledge,lookliketoday?

Global economic crisis, hope and change

Twoeventsdominatedtheworld’sattentioninthesecondhalfof2008,bothofwhichwillhavelong-termeffects.Thefirstwastherapidplungeoftheworldfinancialsystem,whichsuckedintoitthesurroundingeconomy,andthesecond,wastheextraordinarysurgeofhopethataccompaniedtheelectionofBarackObamatotheUSPresidency.Botheventschallengeorthodoxiesthathadcometodominateconventionalthinkingaboutpolitics,theeconomyandthewiderorganisationanddevelopmentofsociety.

Theglobaleconomiccrisisbroughtintosharpreliefsomeoftheorthodoxiesthathaveunderpinnedsocialprovisionineducation,health,housing,transportandwelfare;theorganisationofwork,andonabroaderterrainglobalisation;andmostimportantlyhavebeenwidelyacceptedinmuchadulteducationwriting,managementandresearch.Theseorthodoxiesincludethat:

• themarketisthemostefficientallocatorofgoodsandservices,withanover-ridingdiscoursethatthereisnoalternative;

• theeconomicroleofthestatehasbeensupersededbylargecorporations,whichhavebecomemorepowerfulthannations;

506 Tony Brown

• governmentsshouldvacatetheeconomicfieldwhereverpossibleandonlyacttoprovideasafetynetforthemostmarginalised,orincertainareasoftheeconomysuchasdefenceandsecurity,andinlimitedwaysineducationandhealth;

• governmentspending,andparticularlygovernmentdeficits,isasourceofeconomicdrainonaneconomy;and

• globalisationisanaturaldevelopmentdrivenbytechnologicalinnovationandremovedfromandunrelatedtohumanagency.

Theglobaleconomiccrisisturnedtheseconventionalwisdomsupsidedown.Inresponsetothecrisis,governmentsembarkedonacourseofeconomicinterventionthathadnotbeenseenfordecadesandinawaythatconfirmedanunderstandingofthestateasactinginthecollectiveinterestsofcapitalasawhole.Inaddition,centralbanksacrossthemajorindustrialisedcountriesdideverythingtheypreviouslydescribedasdestructiveandlikelytowrecktheeconomybygeneratingdebtandinflation.Bylate2008muchhadchangedinresponsetotheglobalcrisisandgovernmentsproducedbankdepositguarantees,large-scalestimulusgrants,boughtbankstocksandoutlinedlarge-scaleinfrastructurespending.Inparticular,themassivebail-outsoftheworld’slargestfinancialinstitutionsbygovernmentsintheUSA,Britain,Iceland,Belgium,LuxembourgandtheNetherlands,meantthatfailingbankswereeffectivelynationalised.Thevaststimuluspackagesintroducedtostimulatedemand,andtheacceptancebypoliticalpartiesacrossthemainstreamspectrumoftheneedfordeficitbudgets,exemplifiedtherapidchangeinthepoliticaleconomy.Inthevirtualwinkofapolicy-eye,hugegovernmentdeficitswereannouncedandacceptedeconomicpolicychanged.IntheUKMartinWolf(2009)wroteintheFinancial Times:‘Anotherideologicalgodhasfailed.Theassumptionsthatruledpolicyandpoliticsoverthreedecadessuddenlylook…outdated’.


Eventhoughthespeedofthecollapseoffinancialinstitutions,followedbymanufacturingclosures,wasspectacular,thecauseshadnothappenedovernight,norwasthefallsolelytheresultofbadhousing(sub-prime)loansissuedbygreedybanks.Duringthelastquarterofthetwentiethcentury,anewsystemofcapitalaccumulationgraduallysupplantedtheold.Neo-liberalisminvolvedbuildinganintellectualagenda,aneconomicandpoliticalhegemony.Itdidn’tjustemergebutwaswonthroughintellectualeffort,posingnewsolutionstohardtoresolve‘problems’(byLudwigvonMises,FriedrichHayekandMiltonFriedman,amongothers)anddeliveredbyitspoliticalmidwivesMargaretThatcherandRonaldReagan.

WhentheDowJonesIndexfirstcrossedthe10,000-pointmarkinthe1999dot-comboom,itconfirmedformanytheclaimthattherewasanewweightlesseconomyandwewerewitnessingthe‘endofhistory’,witheconomiccyclesconsideredathingofthepast.Afeatureofthis‘neweconomy’wasthesignificantredistributionofgovernmentspendingawayfromsocialprovisionandarapidlywideningpolarisationofincome.Thelong,historictrendofthetwentiethcentury,whereinequalitywasreducingandimprovedstandardsoflivingwerespreadingacrossthepopulationsintheadvancedeconomies,slowedfromthelate1970sandreversedmorerecently.UScensusdatashowthatsince1973theincomesofthetopfivepercentofhouseholdsgrewatnearlyfourtimestherateofthemiddletwentypercentandseventimesthoseforthepooresttwentypercent(Henwood2005,Madrick2009).

Theeffectsofneo-liberal,redistributivepoliciesandkeepingwagesdownwerealreadyevidentbeforethefinancialcrash,andthestarkestindicatorofwideningincomepolarisationwasfoundinthesalaryandbenefitpackagespaidtocorporateexecutives.RemunerationforexecutivesinStandard&Poor’s500companiesintheyearbeforethecrashaveraged$US10.5million,or344timestheaverageworker’spay,whereasthreedecadesago,themultiplerangedfrom30–40.

508 Tony Brown

Privateequityandhedgefundmanagersfromthetopfiftycompaniesdidevenbetter,averagingannualpaypacketsof$US588millioneach—morethan19,000timestheaverageworker’swage(InstituteforPolicyStudies2008).

IntheUKDannyDorling(2010)studiedthesocialandhealthinequalitiesandtheconsequentwealthandhealthdisparitiesunderbothToryandNewLabourgovernmentsofthepastthirtyyears.Hisconclusionisthat‘peoplelastlivedlivesasunequalastoday,asmeasuredbywageinequality,in1854,whenCharlesDickenswaswritingHard Times’(citedinO’Hara2010).Heclaimsthat,inrichcountries,inequalityisnolongercausedbynothavingenoughresourcestoshare,butbyunrecognisedandunacknowledgedbeliefswhichactuallypropagateit.Hearguesthatfivenewtenetssupportcontinuedinjustice,that:elitismisefficient;exclusionisnecessary;prejudiceisnatural;greedisgood;anddespairisinevitable.Thesetenetsprovideanideologicalnarrativeforthosewhohavebenefittedfromtheincomeandotherinequalitiesthathavepolarisedadvancedeconomies.

Thetrendissimilaracrossthedevelopedworld,withtherichercountriesfallingintothreegroupsasmeasuredbytheGiniindex1andpovertyrates:

• thepredominantlyEnglish-speaking(Australia,Canada,UK,U.S.),arethemostunequal,havethehighestpovertyratesandgenerallyhavethemostminimalwelfarestatesandleastregulatedeconomies(averageGini:0.322;averagepovertyrate:13.8%);

• thecontinentalEuropeancountries(France,Germany,Italy,Netherlands),withlowerpovertyratesandlessincomeinequality(Gini:0.283;averagepoverty:9.1%);and

• theScandinaviancountries(Sweden,alongwithFinlandandNorway),withlowpovertyrates,themostegalitarianincomedistribution(Gini:0.272;averagepoverty6.1%),generouswelfarestatesandhigh-techeconomies.(WorldBank2008)


Effectivelychallengingthedominanceofneo-liberalismrequiresposinganotherproblem-solvingparadigm.TheBankforInternationalSettlements(BIS),theumbrellaorganisationoftheworld’snationalcentralbanks,inits2008annual,headlineditssummaryas‘theunsustainablehasrunitscourseandpolicy-makersfacethedifficulttaskofdamagecontrol’.TherealsignificanceofthereportfromtheBISisnotjustthatitisanestablished,reputableinstitution,northatitispointingtothepotentialseverityandinternationalisationoftherecession,buttheconclusionthattherearenoobviouspolicysettingstorectifythesituation(BIS2008;Bryan2008).

The impact on daily life

Theimmediateimpactofthecrisisandrecessionareregularlyreportedintermsofthenumberoflostjobs;consumptionandmanufacturingoutput;houseprices;andthenumberoflargefirmsthatclosetheirdoors.Theimpactoftheseheadlinemeasuresislessoftenoreasilyidentified,yetitismanifestedina‘crisis’ofdailylife—stress,over-work,balancingworkandfamilylife,rageanddepression,and‘lifestyle’relatedill-health.Thesehiddencostsaredirectlyconnectedtotheworkofmanyofthe‘new’adulteducatorswhoworkinthehealth,socialwork,familyandagedcare,charitiesandindigenoussectors,thereforemakingitvitalthatthehistory,evolutionanddimensionsofthecrisisareunderstood.

Theimpactoftheeconomiccrisisisnowspreadingwithobviousandlessapparentconsequences.SincetheUSrecessionbeganinlate2007,thenumberofpeopleofficiallyunemployedhasdoubledto14.9millionpeople,oroneintenofthelabourforce.Morethanthreemillionofthosearelong-termunemployed,thatis,theyhavebeenoutofworkforatleast27weeks(BLS2009),whileacrosstheEurozone,unemploymentaverages9.5percentandisaccompaniedbydeclininggrowth.TheUnitedNations(2009)reviseditsglobaleconomicgrowthforecastdownsharply,believingthattheworldeconomywill

510 Tony Brown

contractby2.6percent,whichcouldpushunemploymentpastthe50millionmark,whiletheWorldBank’s2010GlobalMonitoringReportconcludedthattheeconomiccrisiswouldleadto53millionmorepeopleremaininginextremepovertyby2015thanotherwisewouldhaveoccurred(Chan2010).

Thereareotherstatisticsthatshowthetollthatunemployment,foreclosuresandevictions,anddramaticdropsinstockpricestakeondailylives.HarveyBrenner,asociologistandpublichealthexpertatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,studiesthesocialcostsofeconomicfluctuations.Hefoundadirectcorrelationbetweeneconomicdownturnsandanincreaseinsuicideandsuicideattempts,heartattacks,domesticviolence,childabuseandmurder,evenestimatinghowmanymoredeaths,suicides,heartattacks,homicidesandadmissionstomentalhospitalscanbeexpectedwhenunemploymentrises.Brennercalculatedthat,foreveryonepercentincreaseintheunemploymentrate,anadditional47,000deathscouldbeexpected,including26,000deathsfromheartattacks,about1,200fromsuicide,831murders,and635deathsrelatedtoalcoholconsumption.Theimpactisswiftasshownbythedramaticincreaseincallsin2008totheUSNationalSuicidePreventionLifeline,whichreceived545,000calls,a36percentrisefromthe2007levels.Similarly,ratesofchildabuseanddomesticviolence,robberiesandothercrimesjumpduringeconomicdownturns.Brennerconcludedthatthoseaffectedaren’tasubsetofdysfunctionalpeoplebutmostlynormalpeoplereactingtodifficulttimes(Brenner1973,1979;currentfigurescitedinDreier2009).

Aquestiontheniswhydopeoplegoalongwiththestatus quoifthisisthecase?Isitbecausetheydon’tbelieve,orhaveconfidence,thatthereisanyotherforceinsocietythatcanchangethestatus quoforthebetter?Isitthatopportunitiesatworkto‘haveasay’,tobeheard,toexercisedemocracyarealmostnon-existent?Isitthatopportunitiestodiscussorposealternativeproduction


andinvestmentdecisionsaroundsocialgoods,theenvironment,transport,satisfyingwork,reducinghourstoachieveimprovedfamily,communityandworkbalance,andmoreimportantlyadifferentwayofgovernanceanddemocracy,areseenasfanciful?

Conclusion

TheshockofthefinancialcrisiswasquicklyfollowedbytheupsurgeofoptimismthataccompaniedthehistoricelectionofthefirstAfrican-AmericanPresident.Obama’selectionbroughttoanendtheeightyearsofGeorgeBush’sneo-conservativeinspiredpresidencyandheraldedanewperiodofhope.However,Obama’selectioncameaboutnotjustasareactionagainsttheBusheraandwhatitrepresented;itcouldonlybesuccessfulasaresultoforganisingamovementofpeople,andthatorganisingdrewuponatraditionofcommunity-basedorganisingandeducationthathadcommonrootswithadulteducationpractice.ObamahadbeeninspiredbytheradicaltheologianReinholdNiebuhr(Niebuhr2008)whohadalsoinfluencedtheyoungMylesHorton(Horton1998:34–36)beforeHighlanderhadstarted,andhadbeentrainedinthecommunityorganisingapproachofSaulAlinsky,whichcontinuestodayintheIndustrialAreasFoundationwherethousandsofnewcommunityorganisersaretrained.AsignificantfeatureofObama’scampaignwasthefield-organiserandvolunteertrainingsystemsthatturnedcampaignvolunteersintoorganisationalleadersandwhichwascoordinatedbyMarshallGanz(GarfieldandGladstone2008)whohadpreviouslyworkedwithCesarChavez’sUnitedFarmWorkers(UFW)whosegrassrootsorganisingcampaignshadpioneeredthemotto‘SisePuede’(‘Yes,itcanbedone’)butiscommonlytranslatedintoEnglishasObama’scampaignsloganof‘Yes,WeCan’.Thisverycontemporaryexampleisoneillustrationofwhatthispaperhasargued,andthatisadulteducatorsneedtoexaminehistoryinordertohelpunderstandconnectionswiththepast,thechallengesofthepresentandhowtheseenableustocreateoureducationalpractice.

512 Tony Brown

Theeconomiccrisishasshednewlightonthewideninginequalitiesthatdeepenedduringthepastthirtyyearsandinvitenewanalysesoftheeconomy,educationandtheenvironment.Whatisreallyusefulknowledgeintoday’scontext,andwhatdoadulteducationstudentsneedtoknow?Beingabletomakeconnectionswithchangeandupheaval,tounderstandthescopeandcausesofinequality,policyprescriptionsthatcontinuetoreflectneo-liberalhegemonyisenhancedbymakingconnectionswiththehistoryandtraditionsofadulteducationpracticeandtheory,aswellastheoryandinsightsfromcognatedisciplinesinthesocialsciences,andinvolvewhatBonnieThorntonDill(2009)calls‘intersectionalstudies’thatpresent‘momentsofopportunity’andnewinterdisciplinarywaysofworking.

Theorthodoxiesthatunderpinnedneo-liberalism’sriseexercisedahegemony,whichsqueezedthespaceforcritique.Nowthatthoseorthodoxiesareweakenedordamaged,spacesandaudiencesopentolearnanewasalternativeexplanations,imaginingsanddifferentvisionsofthefuturecanbeconsidered.Thecrisesareglobal,eventhoughtheimpactmayvaryinintensityfromcountrytocountry.Theglobalisedmarkethasbrokendownbordersbutalsocreatednewboundariesthatsharplydividetheworld’shavesandhave-nots.Inthiscontextcallstothinkaboutthepurposeofadulteducationcontinueafresh.Evenbeforetheglobalfinancialcrisis,Mojab(2006:347)posedthe‘mosturgentquestion’asbeing‘ifwewitnessaseriousturninthehistoryoftheworld,howdoweenvisageadulteducation?’

Inconsideringwhatreallyusefulknowledgeisinthecontextofcrisis;inlearningaboutthetraditionsofadulteducationpracticethatconnectthepastwiththepresent;inrememberingthepastinordertocritiquethepresent;andinlinkingthestoriesofself,communityandaction,itisworthrecallingthewordsofEduardLindemanwhoin1926(105)wrote:


Adulteducationwillbecomeanagencyofprogressifitsshort-termgoalofself-improvementcanbemadecompatiblewithalong-term,experimentalbutresolutepolicyofchangingthesocialorder.

References

Aronwitz,S.&Giroux,H.(1985).Education under siege: the conservative, liberal and radical debate over schooling,Massachusetts:BerginandGarvey.

BankofInternationalSettlements(2008).78th Annual Report,30Junewww.bis.org/publ/arpdf/ar2008e.htm

Brenner,M.H.(1973).Mental illness and the economy,Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Brenner,M.H.(1979).‘Influenceofthesocialenvironmentonpsycho-pathology:thehistoricperspective’,inBarrett,J.E.(ed.),Stress and mental disorder, NewYork:RavenUniversityPress:161–200.

Bryan,D.(2008).‘Pendingcrisis’,ABCUnleashed,2July,www.abc.net.au/unleashed/stories/s2291757.htm

BureauofLaborStatistics(2009).The employment situation—August 2009,www.bls.gov,4September.

Campbell,C.&Sherington,G.(2002).‘Thehistoryofeducation’,Change: Transformations in Education,5(1):46–64.

Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education(2009)‘Editorial:Adulteducationintroublingtimes’,21(2),March:iii–iv.

Chan,S.(2010).‘PoorernationsgetlargerroleinWorldBank’,New York Times,26April,B3.

Collins,M.(1991).Adult education as vocation: a critical role for the adult educator.NewYork:Routledge.

Cunningham,P.(1993).,Let’sgetreal:acriticallookatthepracticeofadulteducation’,Mountain Plains Adult Education Journal,22(1):3–15.

CunninghamP.(1996).‘Race,gender,classandthepracticeofadulteducationintheU.S’,inWangoola,P.&Youngman,F.(eds.),Towards a transformative political economy of adult education, Illinois:LEPSPress:139–160.

Dill,B.T.(2009).Emerging intersections: race, class, and gender in theory, policy and practice, NewJersey:RutgersUniversityPress.

Dorling,D.(2010).Injustice: why social inequality persists,Bristol:PolicyPress.

514 Tony Brown

Dreier,P.(2009).‘Thiseconomyisarealkiller’,The Huffington Post,26May,www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-dreier/this-economy-is-a-real-ki_b_173515.html

Edwards,R.andUsher,R.(1996).‘WhatstoriesdoItellnow?Newtimesandnewnarrativesfortheadulteducator’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,15(3):216–229.

Field,J.,Dockrell,R.andGrayP.(2005).‘Master’scoursesintheeducationofadultsintheUK—abridgedversion’,http://escalate.ac.uk/2143

Finger,M.andAsun,J.(2001).‘Thetransformationofadulteducation:whereadulteducationisgoing—orbeingdriventowards’,inFinger,M.&Asun,J.M.(eds.),Adult education at the crossroads: learning our way out.London:ZedBooks.

Ganz,M.(2009).‘Whystoriesmatter’,Sojourners magazine,38(3):16,www.sojo.net/index.cfm?action=magazine.article&issue=soj0903&article=why-stories-matter

Garfield,B.andGladstone,B.(2008).‘InterviewwithMarshallGanz,DesignerofObama’sOrganization’,Net routes, national public radio,7November,http://www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2008/11/07/04

Glowacki-Dudka,M.andHelvie-Mason,L.(2004).‘Adulteducationatthemargins:aliteraturereview’,New directions for adult and continuing education,no.104,Winter:7–16.

Goodman,J.andGrosvenor,I.(2009).‘Educationalresearch—historyofeducation,acuriouscase?’,Oxford Review of Education,35(5):601–616.

Hensley,D.,Maher,P.,Passmore,D.andJames,W.(2001).Conversations with long‑time adult educators,Proceedingsofthe42ndAdultEducationResearchConference,MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,Michigan,www.edst.educ.ubc.ca/aerc/2001/2001hensley.htm

Henwood,D.(2005).‘2004:incomedown,povertyup’,Left Business Observer,no.112:4.

Horton,M.(1998).The long haul: an autobiography,withJ.KohlandH.Kohl,NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Imel,S.,Brockett,R.G.andJames,W.B.(2000).‘Definingtheprofession:acriticalappraisal’,inHayes,E.&Wilson,A.(eds.),Handbook of adult and continuing education,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

InstituteforPolicyStudiesandUnitedforaFairEconomy(2008).Executive excess 2008, the annual CEO compensation survey,Boston.

International Journal of Lifelong Education(2009).‘Momentoustimesandadultandlifelongeducation—Editorial’,28(1):1–2.


Johnson,R.(1979).‘Reallyusefulknowledge:radicaleducationandworkingclassculture’,inClarke,J.,Critcher,C.&Johnson,R.(eds.).Working class culture: studies in history and theory,London:Imprint:75–103.

Johnson,R.(1988).‘Reallyusefulknowledge1790–1850:memoriesforeducationinthe1980s’,inLovett,T.(ed.).Radical approaches to adult education, London:Routledge:3–34.

Kalantzis,M.andCope,B.(2008).New learning: elements of a science of education,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Lauder,H.,Brown,P.andHalsey,A.H.(2009).‘Sociologyofeducation:acriticalhistoryandprospectsforthefuture’,Oxford Review of Education,35(5):569–585.

Lindeman,E.(1926).The meaning of adult education,NewYork:NewRepublic.

Lloyd,D.andThomas,P.(1998).Culture and state,NewYork:Routledge.

MacIntyre,A.(1985).After virtue: a study in moral theory,London:Duckworth.

Madrick,J.(2009).The case for big government.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Mezirow,J.(1991).‘Fadedvisionsandfreshcommitments:adulteducation’ssocialgoals’,paperpreparedfortheAmericanAssociationofAdultandCommunityEducation,November,www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/jackmezirow_insight.cfm

Mojab,S.(2006).‘Adulteducationwithoutborders’,inFenwick,T.Nesbit,T.&Spencer,B.(eds.),Contexts of adult education: Canadian perspectives,Toronto:ThompsonEducationalPublishing:347–356.

Newman,M.(1993/2002).The third contract: theory and practice in trade union training.Sydney:CentreforPopularEducation,UniversityofTechnologySydney.

Newman,M.(2007).‘Adulteducationandthehomefront’,Adults Learning,March:8–11.

Newman,M.(2009).‘Polemics,propagandaandone-sidededucation:adefence’,New Community Quarterly,7(4):4–6.

Niebuhr,R.(2008).The irony of American history,introductionbyA.J.Bacevich,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

O’Hara,M.(2010).‘WhyBritain’sbattletobringdownsocialinequalityhasfailed’,The Guardian,www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/apr/21/danny-dorling-charles-dickens-social-inequality

Simon,B.(1960).Studies in the history of education: 1780–1870,London:LawrenceandWishart.

516 Tony Brown

Simon,B.(ed.)(1972).The radical tradition in education in Britain,London:LawrenceandWishart.

Thompson,J(1993).‘Learning,liberationandmaturity:anopenlettertowhoever’sleft’,Adults Learning,4(9):244.

Thompson,J.(2007).More words in edgeways: rediscovering adult education.Leicester:NationalInstituteforAdultandContinuingEducation.

UnitedNations(2009).‘Worldeconomicsituationandprospects2009—update’,27May,http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/wesp.html

Welton,M.(1987).‘Vivisectingthenightingale:reflectiononadulteducationasanobjectofstudy’,Studies in the Education of Adults,19(1):46–68.

Wilson,A.L.andMelichar,K.E.(1995).‘A“rhetoricofdisruption”bywayofattainingthenotyetinthefuture:re-memberingthepastbywayofchallengingourpresenteducationalpractices’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,14(6):422–433.

Wolf,M.(2009).‘Seedsofitsowndestruction’,Financial Times,8March.

WorldBank(2008).2008 World development indicators online,TheWorldBank,Washington,DC.

Young,M.(2008).Bringing knowledge back in: from social constructivism to social realism in the sociology of education.London:Routledge.

Acknowledgement

Anearlierversionofthispaperwaspresentedatthe39thSCUTREAConference,Really useful research? Critical perspectives on evidence‑based policy and practice in lifelong learning,DowningCollege,Cambridge,UK,7–9July2009.

About the author

Dr Tony Brown is a Senior Lecturer in Organisational and Adult Learning at the University of Technology, Sydney. He also coordinates the postgraduate education program and teaches subjects on Adult Education history; work and learning; and using film for critical pedagogy. His research interest focuses on learning in social movements.


Contact details:

Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, P.O. Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007. Tel: +61 2 9514 3866 Fax: +61 2 9514 39xx Email: [email protected]

Endnotes

TheGiniindexisusedtosummarisethecourseofincomedistributionovertime,ortocompareitacrosscountries.TheGiniisanumberbetween0and1;ifasocietywereperfectlyequal,itsGiniindexwouldbe0,andifitwereperfectlyunequal(onepersonhadalltheincome),itwouldbe1.TheGiniusuallyfallsbetween.25(theSwedishneighbourhood)and.50(theBrazilianneighbourhood).

Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty ...Teaching adult education history in a time of uncertainty and hope Tony Brown Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University

Documents