Exploration of the Impact of Coaching Behaviors on Female Collegiate Athletes: A Study of Self-confidence, Mental Errors and Performance A Synthesis of the Research Literature A Synthesis Project Presented to the Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education The College at Brockport State University of New York In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education (Athletic Administration) By Tiye Q. Davis December 14, 2016
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Exploration of the Impact of Coaching Behaviors on Female Collegiate Athletes: A Study of Self-confidence, Mental Errors and Performance
A Synthesis of the Research Literature
A Synthesis Project
Presented to the
Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education
The College at Brockport
State University of New York
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
(Athletic Administration)
By
Tiye Q. Davis
December 14, 2016
THE COLLEGE AT BROCKPORT
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK
BROCKPORT, NEW YORK
Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education
Title of Synthesis Project:
Exploration of the Impact of Coaching Behaviors on Female Collegiate Athletes:
A study of Performance, Self-Confidence and Mental Errors
A Synthesis of the Research Literature
Read and Approved by:
Date: December 14, 2016
Accepted by the Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education, The College at Brockport, State University of New York, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Education (Physical Education).
Date: _________________ ________________________________ Dr. Cathy Houston-Wilson
Chairperson, Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education
structure of the coaching behavior questionnaire and its relationship to athlete variables. The
Sport Psychologist, Vol. 17, pages 16-34.
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Appendix A: Synthesis Article Grid *In alphabetical order
Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/Future Research
Baker, J., Côte, J., & Hawes, R., (2000). The relationship between coaching behaviors and sport anxiety in athletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport Vol. 3 (No. 2). Pages 110-119.
The purpose of this article is to correlate the relationship between coaching behaviors and sport anxiety in athletes. Using a variety of performance and perception of coaching behavior analyses, the interpersonal relationship between coach and athlete was evaluated due to the expectant nature that the relationship is predicted to influence the cognitive appraisal of situations by athletes.
Instrumentation used in this article were the Coach Behavior Scale for Sport, a 44-item scale which examines frequency of 7 coaching behaviors. Physical Training and Planning, Goal Setting, Mental Preparation, Technical Skills, Personal Rapport, Negative Personal Rapport, Competition Strategies, Sport Anxiety. Sport Anxiety Scale, a 22 item multi-dimensional scale, which measures trait anxiety in sport situations. Using three sub-scales. 1 measuring somatic anxiety, and 2 measuring forms of cognitive anxiety.
Participants of the study included, 228 athletes, 46% female and 52% male. All who participated on average 11 plus years in their respective sports, and had on average 2.2 years with their current coach.
Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationships of the seven coaching behaviors and three forms of sport anxiety. Age, gender and sport type were statistically controlled in the first step to remove their influence on the examined relationships.
Results of the regression analyses clearly indicated that certain coach behaviors are better predictors of sport anxiety than others, which contrasted with previous research. But can be attributed to the use of different scales in research analyses. The strongest relationship found in this study was between negative personal rapport behaviors and anxiety levels in athletes.
Athletes who report high negative personal rapport behaviors (feel intimidated, and fearful of their coach) also report higher mounts of sport anxiety. The weighing of data suggests that negative personal rapport behaviors and competition strategies behaviors are more influential in the relationships among forms of cognitive anxiety than for somatic anxiety. While the total anxiety measures are significant for both of the behaviors. The practical applications of these results suggest that coaches should consider the impact that their behaviors have on anxiety levels in their athletes. Future research should test these measures on specific sports groups. By fostering a sense of preparedness in athletes by increasing the frequency of these behaviors prior to and during competition, coaches can expect to decrease these forms of anxiety in their athletes.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
Becker, A.J. (2009). It’s not what they do, It’s how they do it: Athlete experiences of great coaching. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Vol. 4 (No. 1). Pages 93-119.
The purpose of this study was to complete a gap in the literature on coaching behaviors. The first gap being that questionnaires were used to evaluate the perceptions of coaching behaviors not feelings, the second being the exclusive study on coaching behaviors doesn’t not allow the weight of other factors in the evaluations. Specifically, research on coaching behaviors provides valuable information regarding leadership styles, feedback patterns & expectancy effects.
Phenomenological research methods were implemented to capture athlete experiences of great coaching. The interview method was taken with great emphasis to complete the study. The overarching topic being an athletes experience in their collegiate sports.
A sample of 18 participants included 9 females and 9 males who represented various sports. Race identification varied with 61% Caucasian participants, 11% Asian, 11% African American and 5% Pacific Islander.
Data were collected by 14 personal interviews & four phone interviews due to logistical reasons. Demographic information was collected post interview. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, which were then, shared with the respective participant for clarifications and comments. Then transcriptions were categorized in search of common themes.
Six major findings included: Coach Attributes, Environment, The System, Relationships, Coaching Actions and Influences. Participants described the background dimensions to be stable throughout their experiences. These coaches were consistent with who they were and how they maintained relationships, managed the team environment, and carried out their system. Thus, there was no uncertainty and the athletes
The results revealed a more comprehensive picture of factors that underlie in coaching greatness. Ultimately the participants were able to evaluate their collegiate coaching experiences as long lasting, extraordinary impressions.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
knew exactly what to expect from their coaches.
Bird. A.M., Horn. M.A., (1990). Cognitive Anxiety and Mental Errors in Sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Phycology, Vol. 12, pgs. 217-222.
The purpose of this study was to show that if metal errors that occur during competition are representative of cognitive/attentional disruptions, then, individuals who exhibit more mental errors should have higher cognitive anxiety than those who demonstrate fewer mental errors. Utilizing the explanation that the increase in anxiety that occurs as a result of the highly evaluative nature of the competitive setting as compared to practice conditions to prove the relative nature cognitive anxiety
Prior to competition participants were given the CSAI-2 and immediately after performance they were given the MEQ. The MEQ was based on a 10-point bipolar scale ranging from much affected (many mental errors) to very little affected (few mental errors). Individuals were then assessed by groups of High Mental Mistakes (1-4) and Low Mental Mistakes (7-10) based on confidence levels.
The initial subject pool was 202 female high school varsity softball players, ages 14-17. After the first round of questionnaires the pool was narrowed down to 161 participants by elimination of questionnaire results where those receiving a score of 5-6 were eliminated to represent two extremes sides of the results. Each had permission
A MANOVA was used to determine if there were overall differences between the low and the high mental groups.
Consistent with other available evidence, the predictive ability of the scales may vary as a function of certain situational factors, skill level, and nature of sport. The authors stated that the results support the prediction that elevations in cognitive anxiety are directly related to mental errors that occur during sport performance.
The framework that guides this study: cognitive (worry), and somatic (heightened physiological activation) types of anxiety, has shown its need for understanding. There is a need to understand the intricacies of the anxiety process and effects of motor output. When translating the findings into applications and selecting appropriate intervention techniques, cognitively based strategies should provide the most effective avenues for reducing mental errors in sport.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
and mental errors.
from the school and head coaches to participate.
Gearity, B.T., Murray, M.A., (2011). Athletes’ experiences of the psychological effects of poor coaching. Journal of Psychology of Sport & Exercise Vol. 12. Pages 213-211.
The purpose of this study was to describe the psychological effects of poor coaching reported by collegiate, professional and semi-professional athletes by employing a qualitative research design, this study sought to describe lived experiences to build the framework.
The subjects were chosen by a process of elimination in which the author solicited a variety of athletes who answered questions to deem them fit for the study. If an athletes’ responses showed signs of poor coaching they were invited to be a part of the study. In a phenomenological approach participant experiences were shared through a series of interviewing and transcribing, which developed five main themes: Poor teaching by the coach, Uncaring, Unfair, Inhibiting athlete’s mental
Participants of the study included 16 former and current athletes who self-reported having been poorly coached.
As themes were analyzed, they were broken into the following emerging sub themes: distracting, engendering self-doubt, demotivating, dividing the team, focus concentration and attention, cohesion and stress and coping. By process of categorizing statements and stories of experiences, researchers compared them to each other as well
Findings of the study were assessed in relation to two widely known theories: Social Cognitive Theory and Achievement Goal Theory. They were found to support previous research suggesting that a coach created ego-goal climate is associated with athletes perceiving greater peer conflict, less social support and positive feedback, more punishment-based feedback,
Consistent with the call to diversify approaches to the coach-athlete relationship, the study highlighted the strength of a phenomenological approach to understanding athletes lived experiences. The study concluded that future research consists of interventions and adaptations to coping skills such as goal setting, positive self-talk, imagery, and relaxation training, in settings where the coach-athlete relationship is deemed a negative one.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
skills and Athlete coping.
as to place topics in relation to SCT or AGT.
and higher anxiety and performance related worry.
Hays, K., Thomas, O., Maynard, I., & Butt, J. (2010). The role of confidence profiling in cognitive-behavioral interventions in sport. The Sport Psychologist Vol. 18. Pages 393-414.
Authors of this study took a case study approach to examine the application of confidence profiling to the development of individualized applied psychological skills intervention. The purpose was to explore the effectiveness of confidence profiling as the basis for confidence-enhancing interventions.
The study was conducted in three phases. Phase 1 included consisted of gathering background information and establishing participant needs. In phase 2, a cognitive behavioral intervention included cognitive restructuring as well as setting personal affirmations. Phase 3 included an intervention evaluation where confidence types were assessed. Each using Murphy’s 8 Step Cognitive Behavior Model.
The participants included one female athlete who had over eight years’ competition experience.
Due to the case study approach to this examination, each phase could not be worked on simultaneously rather consecutively. Phase 1 included initial contact with coach and player, confidence profiling for each, and summary. Phase 2 included identification of development areas, cognitive
The study found that use of Murphy’s eight step model, was one of significance and the benefit of confidence profiling for the athlete, which can be applied as a means to enhance sport confidence. More importantly, it can be used to measure confidence from the athlete’s perspective & provide a basis of one’s own confidence needs.
Findings suggest that the process of confidence profiling can be used for empowerment and confidence building. In future research the model can be used as a means of intervention for coach’s behaviors and for perceptions of coaching behaviors, by allowing the athlete to examine self-impact of feedback.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
restructuring, personal affirmations and self-esteem and goal setting. Phase 3 included re-administration of the confidence profile, a post-experimental interview and post intervention debrief with the coach.
Horn, S.T., Bloom, P., Berglund, K.M., & Packard, S. (2011). Relationship between collegiate athletes’ psychological characteristics and their preferences for
The purpose of this study was to determine if athletes’ psychological characteristics are correlated with their preferences for different types of coaching behaviors and leadership styles.
The study consisted of a series of self-report questionnaires which were constructed to specifically measure the following variables of interest: Preferred coaching behaviors, Motivational orientation, and Competitive trait
The participants consisted of 195 intercollegiate athletes, which was filtered down from an original count of 207 NCAA Division III athletes. Of the sample 109
The self-report questionnaires were administered before or after a sport session, where a member of the research team provided both oral and written explanation of
According to this model an athlete preferred coaching behavior will vary as a function of both their own personal characteristics and factors in the sport context.
There is a relatively large body of research to show that the behaviors exhibited by coaches in practice and competitive contexts do have a significant impact on their athletes’ levels of anxiety and motivational orientation. Mainly, this study concludes with the stress on the importance of the coach/athlete relationship, where it is only formidable to create the environment that suits each
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
different types of coaching behavior. The Sport Psychologist Vol. 25. Pages 190-211.
anxiety. Which then brought forth additional sub-scales.
were males and 86 females, with an age range of 18-26 years old. These athletes participated in a variety of sports.
the research project. Data were collected nameless and anonymously. Descriptive statistics were computed and screened, a univariate analysis was used to strengthen the relationship between the variables and each data set.
Consistent with the study hypothesis, the multivariate results revealed that athletes scores on the sport anxiety subscales were positively linked to preference for training and instruction, a democratic leadership, style, social support, & positive and informational-based feedback.
athlete if the coach is open and transparent with their intentions while understanding the needs of their players.
Kenow, L.J., & Williams. J.M., (1992). Relationship between anxiety, self-confidence, and evaluation of coaching behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, Vol. 6. pages
The purpose of this study was to test in a specific setting Smith and Smoll’s leadership behaviors in sport, additionally to examine whether or not athletes’ state anxiety, self-confidence and perceptions of their
The approach was conducted via two case studies. Study 1 took place 4 days prior to and 4 days after a game, with questions being administered by an assistant coach and similar in nature. Ex: my coach is usually calm before a game
Participants of the study included 11 female college basketball players and their male head coach, from an NCAA Division III team in the southwest, this
In cases, anxiety measures were made with use of the CSAI-2, assessing both cognitive and somatic anxiety. As well as the 28-item Coaching Behavior
Primary results of study 1 included an observation that athletes who scored high in self-confidence evaluated coaching behaviors positively while those who
Authors found common in case two, that players evaluating coaching outbursts as unhelpful while coach saw their behavior to be motivational. As athletes evaluated their coach, they perceived his state to be more anxious and less confident than he actually was. Which showed to be contrary to the hypothesis. On the other hand, another hypothesis proved correct where
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
344-357.
coaches’ behavior should be added to the model.
or I am usually calm before a game. Questions were in the form of a questionnaire – Coaches Behavioral Questionnaire. Study two took place 30 minutes prior to competition and immediately after competition.
same sample was also used in the second study. Study one consisted of evaluation during the last month of the competitive season. Study two focused on competition between the top teams in the conference during championships.
Questionnaire. scored low did not. While the coach rated his behavior normal. Results of study 2 noted significant changes in opinion of emotional outbursts from the coach.
those who perceive their coach negatively, have lower levels of cognitive anxiety.
Kenow, L., Williams, J.M. (1999). Coach-athlete compatibility and athletes’ perception of coaching behaviors. Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 22 (No. 2), pages 251-259.
The purpose of this study was to explore weather coach-athlete compatibility is significantly related to athlete perception and evaluation of coaching behaviors, whether compatibility mediates relationships of anxiety and self-
Instrumentation used in this study were the Coaching Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and CSAI-2. Participants were also asked to rate their compatibility on a scale from 1-9 (9-being the highest).
The participants included 68 female collegiate basketball players from non-scholarship programs. All with at least one full season of playing experience
A correlational analysis was used to assess the relationship between athlete trait anxiety, state cognitive and somatic anxiety, state self-confidence, compatibility
Researchers found athletes who considered themselves highly compatible, rated their coach’s behavior positively, while athletes who are high in cognitive anxiety/self-
Researchers concluded with the notion that if the athletes’ goals, personality, and beliefs are consistent with those of their coach, the interaction of the individuals will likely be satisfactory to both parties producing a positive interpersonal atmosphere. Future research may benefit from a practical standpoint, for coaches, to develop good rapport and demonstrate support for their athletes as this should improve
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
confidence, and whether compatibility, trait anxiety, state anxiety and/or self-confidence can significantly predict athlete perception of coaching behavior.
Participants completed the questionnaires with coaches absent from the area then placed them into envelops and signed the seal, to ensure confidentiality.
with their coach. Participation was voluntary with permission and consent from coaches and athletes.
and total factor scores for the CBQ.
confidence rated coach’s behavior negatively. The outcome proved more negative rating in coaching behaviors than positive.
the coach-athlete interaction regardless of the casual direction of self-confidence/compatibility relationship.
Lee, H., Magunsen, M.J., & Cho, S. (2013). Strength coach-athlete compatibility: Roles of coaching behaviors and athlete gender. International Journal of Applied Sport Sciences Vol. 25 (No. 1). Pages 55-67.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of gender on the influences of athletes perceived positive and negative strength and conditioning coach behaviors on strength coach-athlete compatibility, by exposing the ideology that athlete’s perceptions of their compatibilities with their coaches are undoubtedly linked to the coaching
Measures of supportive/emotional composure of negative activation from the Coaching Behavior Questionnaire were utilized to assess strength coaches negative and positive behaviors. As well as an assessment of compatibility in which player goals, personality and beliefs are perceived to be a match of their coaches, but self-rated on a scale of 1 (low) – 9 (high).
This study utilized a sample of 502 NCAA Division I athletes, after excluding 31 through a screening process, 471 was the final subject pool (270 males, 201 females). Varying in age and race, participants were members of softball, volleyball, and football teams.
Initially a MANOVA was conducted to check for potential manipulation biases and omission of underlying relationships. Following the statistical nature of the study, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed to examine the psychometric properties of the CBQ and
The results of the study found evidence of positive and negative behaviors that influenced athletes’ perceptions of coaching behaviors. Those that were positive.
In this study the relationship between positive and negative coaching behaviors was influenced by athlete gender, which was an unintentional result. Future research suggests that this study be sport specialized, across athletics to reveal what types of coaching behaviors impact student athletes by gender. It is common for women’s teams to have a male coach, or a female coach, but men’s teams have male coaches, therefore the relationship variance is examined differently across sports.
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
behaviors they experience.
Coach-athlete Questionnaire.
Myers, N.D., Vargas-Tonsing, T.M., Feltz, D.L. (2005). Caching efficacy in intercollegiate coaches: sources of, coaching behavior, and team variables. Psychology of Sport & Exercise Vol. 6. Pages 129-143.
The two primary purposes of this investigation were to examine the influence of proposed sources of efficacy information on dimensions of coaching efficacy for intercollegiate coaches, and to determine the influence of coaching efficacy on self-reported coaching behavior and team variables in men and women’s intercollegiate teams.
Data were collected twice for each participating team. First A questionnaire containing the Coaching Efficacy Scale, were sent to head coaches. Then a follow up phone call and electronic email which resulted in a 75% response rate. In the second data collection, both coaches and athletes were surveyed. Coaches completed questionnaires on their perceived frequency of their efficacy-enhancing behaviors, while athletes provided their perceptions of the head coach. Head coaches were asked to appoint someone not directly affiliated with the
Participants included 135 head coaches, who took part in Time 1 of the study, and 101 of those participated in Time 2, a total of 1618 athletes participated also. These athletes varied across sport and ranged between the ages of 18-26. All participants were members of NCAA Division II and III schools in the Midwest.
To determine the relationships between the sources and dimensions of coaching efficacy collected at Time 1, product-moment correlations were conducted. Thus, the influence of years as a collegiate coach, career-winning percentage, and perception of team ability on dimensions of coaching efficacy did not differ for males of
The findings of this study varied for both the male and female participants. For males, results supported previous research by demonstrating a relationship between the sources and dimensions of coaching efficacy, and the influence of Total Coaching Efficacy on self-reported coaching behavior and team variables. For female participants, findings extended previous research by
Across coaches, perception of support from athletes’ parents predicted the Character Building Efficacy, Technique Efficacy, and Motivational Efficacy. Across women’s teams the Total Coaching Efficacy predicted only coaches reported efficacy-enhancing behaviors with athletes, however the relationship between Total Coaching Efficacy and coaching behaviors was only significant for female coaches. Thus, across men’s and women’s teams, only when the sex of the male head coach matched the sex of the players did the learning and performance of the athletes predict coaching behaviors. Also. Across women’s teams the Total Coaching Efficacy did not predict team satisfaction. Only Motivational Efficacy was positively influenced. Additionally, it was considered that because the possibility of athletes’ gender bias, the moderation of coach’s gender
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Citation Purpose Methods & Procedures
Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
team to explain the study as well as to administer the questionnaires.
females. Also, a multivariate multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictive strength of each of the proposed sources on dimensions of coaching efficacy.
identifying influences of specific dimensions of coaching efficacy for intercollegiate coaches, a moderating role for coach’s gender on the influence of perceived social support, and a moderating role for the coach’s gender on the influence of team satisfaction.
may not fully explain a relationship between a coach’s belief and team satisfaction.
Ruggiero, T.E. & Lattin, K.S. (2008). Intercollegiate female coaches’ use of verbally aggressive communication toward African American female athletes.
This study seeks to examine the nature of interpersonal communication between female intercollegiate coaches and African American female athletes through the lens of verbally aggressive
A qualitative descriptive design with a phenomenographic approach was utilized to examine African American female athlete’s perceptions of the influences of verbally aggressive
As the study was exclusive to participants who were women of African descent, each participant had to have previously played four
Data collection was done by one-on-one interviews during a three-month period in late 2001. The semi-structured interviews
Six categories were constructed from how participants perceived verbally aggressive communication from their female coaches:
Many of the participants shared experiences of enduring threatening verbally aggressive communication in the forms of punishment by loss of scholarships or early morning and extra practices. Debt was used on participants as a form of guilt, as if the athletes owed their coach something. The persuasion of negative feelings towards
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Participants Analysis Findings Discussion/Implications/ Future Research
Howard Journal of Communications Vol. 19 (No. 2). Pages 105-124.
communication. Like their male counterparts, hegemonic patterns of racial inequality through this use of communication was studies.
communication from their coaches. This approach was performed by open and semi-structured interviews, which made a distinction between first and second-order perspectives.
years of high school basketball, and had been a current member of a collegiate women’s basketball team. A total of eight women from NCAA Divisions I, II, and III institutions were observed.
began in an area of the participants choosing, with a casual conversation before the recorded interview. Each interview lasted approximately 2-3 hours, and was transcribed, then they were coded and categorized.
threat, debt, negative esteem, assertive stimulation, activation of impersonal commitments and activation of personal commitments.
oneself was found in all eight participants. One reported that self-doubt impacted her personally, her talent and athletic abilities. Punishment activities typically involved the coach seeking compliance in a negative manner, excessive running or difficult drills for long periods of time. Appealing to persons internalized commitments was true for three of the participants, and appealing to a person’s commitment to others was found as a negative communication tool as well. The descriptive categories that emerged from this study supported the notion that verbally aggressive communication were frequent and memorable aspects of the communication process between female collegiate coaches and African American female athletes, and included stereotyping and an increase in uncertainty among individual athletes.
Siekanska, M., Blecharz, J. & Wojtowicz, A.
The primary objective of this study was to focus
In a mixed methods examination, participants were
This study included 80 athletes, 44
The statistical analysis was done using the
The results revealed that females were
One of the unique findings suggests that high-expectancy athlete’s may perceive the
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(2013). The athlete’s perception of coaches’ behaviors towards competitors with a different level. Journal of Behavioural Sciences in Sport Vol. 39. Pages 231-242.
on determining whether the athlete perceived any differences in coaching behaviors depending on whether the coach worked with a high or low-expectancy athletes. Secondly, to acquire an answer to the question of what coaching behaviors did athletes perceive as enhancing or inhibiting their sport development. Thirdly, to observe the types of relationships that were had between coaches and athletes.
asked to complete the Coaches’ Behaviors Survey then complete an exploratory question survey, such as a guided journaling of experiences. In Section 1 the questionnaire aimed to examine the degree to which the coach-athlete interaction affected their achievements and sport development. Section 2 addressed the participants’ opinions about the coach’s behavior toward the athletes with different sport skills. As well as to enumerate behaviors in favor of the athletes’ development and behaviors that hindered it.
males and 36 females, who represented both individual and team sports. Those who were identified as international athletes were placed into the high expectancy performance group (N=17), and the nationally recognized athletes (N=67) were placed into the low performance group.
Statistica 8.0 software. This calculated basic quantitative data to analyze variables and percentage values in the results. Qualitatively the open-ended responses of the Survey were categorized. Four themes emerged from this process: 1) results of the quantitative survey, 2) gender differences, 3) dependent variables and sport level, 4) exploratory responses that had not been
ready to build up a relationship and spend time with other members of their team, and paid more attention to coaching behaviors. Also, found in this study was the notion that coaching behavior towards more skilled athletes did not result in their enhanced sport growth, but was perceived as a hindrance. Additionally, athletes who were in the low-expectation group recorded excessive criticism, but could not see the
coaching behavior as inhibiting their athletic progress. Thus, to promote a broad development of the athlete we should adapt an interdisciplinary approach, which takes all enhancing and inhibiting aspects of athletic development into consideration. Coaches should not separate athletes into obvious groups of high and low-expectancy, rather crate drills and tasks that everyone can participate in, which will enhance the sport development of all included.
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thought of beforehand.
same in their counterparts.
Williams, J.M., Jerome, G.J., Kenow, L.J., Rogers, T., Sartain, T.A., & Darland, G. (2003). Factor structure of the coaching behavior questionnaire and its relationship to athlete variables. The Sport Psychologist, Vol. 17, pages 16-34.
The purpose of this study was to reexamine the factor structure of the coaching behavior questionnaire by administering it to a large enough pool of diverse participants to conduct both an explanatory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis. The article notes that there is little research on the topic, while it uses great reference to Smoll, and previous Kenow works; it is more of an ignition to intervention types of study. Testing took place prior to a practice session in the last third of the season, in most cases there were no
Quantitative instruments employed for data collection were the Coaching Behavior Questionnaire which consisted of a 21-question series set on a 4-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree with no neutral option. The CSAI-2 was administered to evaluate self-confidence. Also, a Compatibility Questionnaire was included to see if the relationship between a coach and a player showed a difference in the CBQ.
The participants of this study were 484 athletes, (273-college) and (211-high school), who played basketball, softball, baseball, and volleyball, with a mean age of 17. Participants had almost one full season or more playing experience under their current head coach.
An Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted via Statistical Package for Social Sciences, which was followed by a Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Correlational analyses were used to assess the relationship between the athletes’ evaluation of coaching behaviors on the two CBQ factors, and the athletes self-reported competitive
Across all sports, athletes who reported higher trait anxiety and lower self-confidence prior to competition, were more likely to perceive their coaches’ behaviors during competition as ones with a negative impact, as opposed to athletes who reported lower amounts of trait anxiety and high self-confidence.
It is discussed that if higher trait-anxious and cognitive and somatic-anxious athletes did interpret more coaching behaviors as threatening, then it is not surprising that these athletes would evaluate the coaching behaviors as having caused them more worry, distracted attention, elevated physiological arousal and poorer performance compared to athletes whose self-report indicated lower levels of anxiety. The preceding rationale also could explain the similar negative evaluation of coaching behaviors by athletes who lacked or had lower self-confidence.
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games within the testing dates.
trait anxiety, cognitive and somatic anxiety, state self-confidence and coach athlete compatibility.