Tacoma Narrows Bridge - Democritus University of Thracediocles.civil.duth.gr/.../nees/AMAK/narrowsbridge.pdf · TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE HAER No. WA-99 (Page 9) from the Oregon State

TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE HAER No. WA-99

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from the Oregon State Highway Commission Bridge Department, to plan the newstructure. Smith's career began in the 1910s as a faculty member with the OregonAgricultural College in Corvallis where he taught structural engineering. He was acolleague of Conde B. McCullough (Oregon State Bridge Engineer from 1919 to 1936),whom he followed to the OSHC in the late 1920s as a principal bridge designer. Heachieved a reputation as a top structural specialist. Smith's greatest design contribution toOregon bridge building was a large reinforced-concrete deck arch used repetitiously inapproach spans in the state's mid-1930s $6 million bridge construction program along theoregon Coast. But he also worked closely with McCullough, a noted short-spansuspension bridge expert, in researching suspension bridge design in the late 1930s andearly 1940s.23

Smith and his colleagues collaborated with Farquharson's research group at the Universityof Washington. Their design criterion for the replacement structure called for a practicalplan that provided the least wind resistance with a minimum of large flat surfaces. Theybelieved that they could achieve this by using deep, open stiffening trusses with trussedfloor beams instead of plate girder stiffening members and beams. They hoped that withshallow truss members they might avoid creating any large flat surfaces that led to the firstbridge's wind instability. Instead, they believed, the truss form-'s openness would breakup wind, reducing its destructive power.

Smith's team in the most basic sense understood the need to overcome wind resistance inthe replacement structure's design. Farquharson's researchers had studied the originalstructure reaction to wind and had created a dynamic scale model of it which they wind-tunnel tested. Von Karman postulated that airplane wings and bridge decks were similarin the sense than certain designs were more susceptible to wind effects, but heacknowledged further research using dynamic scale models was needed to betterunderstand this phenomenon. The result was that Smith's team worked closely withFarquharson's group in studying bridge design models both from the pure research aspectand the application to creating the second Tacoma Narrows bridge. They were pioneeringthe field of bridge aerodynamics.

Smith's group began with Farquharson's observations of Galloping Gertie, for there wereno dependable records of wave movement on other suspension spans. No bridge otherthan the first Tacoma Narrows bridge had been studied both through visual observationand wind tunnel analysis. Farquharson's data from both investigations were the basis forcontinued research with the hypothesis that if a dynamic scale model of a design proposalcould successfully complete rigorous wind tunnel testing, then, with confidence,engineers could construct a full-size version at the Narrows site.


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Farquharson's team constructed a 1:50 scale model of Smith's design with materials thatmade it a true dynamic representation. Their data gathered from tests proved that the bridgewas much more stable than the failed structure. Knowing that the Narrows's winds were,in general, horizontal, they subjected the model to forces with angles between two degreesupward and five degrees downward. It exhibited complete stability. Nevertheless,researchers feared that crosswinds, often blowing upward at six to eight degrees towardthe Narrows' high west shore might induce torsional oscillation in the new design. Testsproved their theories correct, and slight modifications to the deck truss helped minimizethe movement. Still, they sought ways to nullify the wind's effect and chose to fit themodel's solid deck with a series of longitudinal grates to permit freer air flow. The designchange, first promoted by Theodore von Karman years before, proved the cure, with onlyminute, and, in the researchers minds, an insignificant amount of residual torsionalmovement.26

Smith's and Farquharson's teams were not satisfied with their ability to nearly eliminatetorsional and vertical movements in their design. They understood that all bridges havethe capability of damping dynamic energy, but attempts to quantify this idea was, by the1940s, minimal. Damping helped control wave amplitudes, and they hoped to enhancetheir design's natural damping ability with mechanical devices. The first was a doublelateral bracing system in the stiffening truss. It increased torsional frequency motion andtorsional stiffness. The second was an assortment of several cylindrical hydraulic shockabsorbers used at three points in the structure: coupling the top of the stiffening truss atmid-span with the suspension cables, connecting between the top chords of the main spanand side span stiffening trusses, and extending as outriggers from the trusses' bottomchords to the towers.27

The result of research on design possibilities was the following structure for the TacomaNarrows. Reading west to east, it was:

one 162'-6" west anchoragethree 150' steel deck girder approach spansone 1,100' cable suspended steel side spanone 2,800' cable suspended steel main spanone 1,100' cable suspended steel side spanone 45'-2-1/2" reinforced-concrete T-beam approach spanone 42'-5" reinforced-concrete T-beam approach spanone 45' reinforced-concrete T-beam approach spanone 45' reinforced-concrete T-beam approach spanone 185' east anchorage and toll plaza


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length of suspended spans, 5,000'deck width, curb-to-curb, 46'-8 1/8", including

-four 9' lanes separated by 2'-9" slotted wind grates and 1'-7" wind grates separating the roadway from the sidewalks two 3'-6" sidewalks, one on each side of roadway width between suspension cables, 60' two 20'-1/4" diameter main cables

The suspended spans' deck configuration includes a 33'-deep riveted-steel Warrenstiffening trusses with double lateral bracing. Deck beams are 11'-deep trusses placed 6feet apart. I-beam deck stringers rest on the beams. Finally, a 6-3/8" thick reinforced-concrete deck slab with wind grating sits atop the stringers. Construction began on the$11 million second Tacoma Narrows bridge in April 1948 with Bethlehem Pacific CoastSteel receiving a contract for steel fabricating and erecting. John A. Roebling's Sons spunthe cable. A $14 million bond issue financed the project with the Washington Toll BridgeAuthority operating and maintaining the structure until bond obligations were paid.28

Work on the second Tacoma Narrows bridge began first with the piers that wereconstructed in 1938-39 for its predecessor. They had received minimal damage duringGertie's collapse. While the state collected $4 million in insurance compensation for thefirst bridge and salvage rights to its remains, it left the piers, minus their towers, and thewest approach span in place. Some skeptics feared that the original piers could not bearadditional foundatian pressures from the-more massive replacement span. Others believedthat a series of earthquakes that shook the Puget Sound area since 1938 had weakenedthem. 8Oth groups' assumptions were incorrect. The quakes inflected no damage on thepiers, and while weighing 160 percent more than the old structure, the new bridge'ssuperstructure design only increased the dead load pressure on the piers by 6 percent. Thenew towers, with wider bases, actually created a better, more even load distribution.

The channel piers used for both Tacoma Narrows bridges consisted of cellular reinforced-concrete built upon caissons sunk to the Narrows' floor. On these were poured concretecaps and pedestals for the steel tower legs. Contractors in March 1939 began pierconstruction by floating sections of caissons from Seattle supply yards to the Narrows,where they were anchored, each with twelve 570-ton concrete weights. The caissons,nearly 66' x 119' consisted of steel trussing and girders arranged within woodensheathing and finished on the lower portion with a sharp metal cutting edge. Once thepontoon was positioned to hover over its designated location, concrete was poured and itsunk under its


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own weight to a point-where a 12' wooden hull was erected on its top with steelframework and partitions and then it was concreted. The process, which took threemonths, was repeated in 12' increments until the bottom section of the pier, with its sharp-cutting edge reached the Narrows' sea floor. Then, boards in the caisson's bottom sectionwere removed and buckets scooped away mud and gravel, pulling it up through the pier'shollow concrete cells to the of surface. Bit by bit, the caisson sank to the Narrows' firmbedrock foundations. Once this process was completed, the workers placed concrete capsover the piers and the original Tacoma Narrows bridge's 425' steel towers were erected. 30

The piers sat for nine years after Galloping Gertie's collapse until construction began onher replacement's towers. The new design called for twin steel legs, 60' on center, restingon the piers. The original pedestals accommodating the first bridge's 50' batter towerswere not wide enough for the new structures. While the first bridge's road deck wasdesigned for two traffic lanes, its replacement's was wide enough for four traffic lanes. Inaddition, studies subsequent to the first bridge's destruction found that during Gertie'sshort existence salt water corrosion was evident on her tower legs. Designs for thereplacement bridge called for not only erecting new, wider pedestals, but also lengthenthem by 18' to raise the bottom of the new tower legs above the upper limit of salt spray.For these two reasons, the towers rose 58' higher than those on the first Narrows' bridge.3 1

Tower legs consisted of four cellular columns arranged in such a manner to form a fifthhollow core. Fears of high winds destructing the flexible tower legs before cables anddeck trusses acted to stabilize them prompted designers to erect temporary outriggers foradded support. Chicago booms attached to the completed towers' top cross-bracinghoisted and placed a 28-ton cast-steel cable saddle on the top of each leg. 32

In the meantime, Galloping Gertie's anchorages, spaced 39' apart, were retrofitted toaccommodate the new bridge's 60' separation between cables. Portions of the originalstructures were reused as the cores of new, heavier and wider 54,000-ton anchor blocksconstructed to resist the new structure's increased cable load. With the piers andanchorages modified to accept the new bridge's dimensions, construction began on thetowers and suspended spans. 33

With the towers and saddles in place, workers spun the 20" main suspension cables. Thenew, wider anchorages included new eyebars imbedded 62' into the new concrete. Eachmain cable was composed of 19 strands consisting of 458 No.6 gauge wires. Each


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strand was continuous from anchorage to anchorage, making loops at the eyebars' 26"diameter shoes. Once cables were spun, crews hung deck suspenders consisting of four1-3/8" wire cables.34

When Galloping Gertie's plate stiffening girder and deck were erected, they werepreassembled in sections, hoisted from barges and riveted into place. Because of itscomposition, the stiffening truss system on the second Tacoma Narrows bridge was moreeasily assembled on the job from shop-fabricated components. Two crews of rivetingteams and traveller operators worked from the tower piers to the center of the main span,while two other crews worked from the piers to the shore. 35

The procedure for erecting the deck system began with placing the top and bottom chordsand their diagonal bracing. Then, the pretrussed floor beams were positioned between thechords. Deck stringers were laid lengthwise on top of the beams. Crews pinned themembers in place, and behind them came the riveting gangs. As the process moved along,other workers followed behind attaching deck suspenders running from the main cables tothe stiffening trusses with non-corroding zinc jewels. With the deck system completed,the reinforced-concrete roadway was poured and the wind grating was installed. Finally,crews attached the mechanical damping devices. The bridge opened for traffic on 14October 1950.36

The Washington Toll Bridge Authority operated and maintained the Tacoma NarrowsBridge until 14 May 1965, when Governor Daniel Evans signed a bill at the bridge's tollplaza to signify an end to toll collecting thirteen years ahead of schedule. Since its openingin 1950, heavy traffic brought in more than $19 million in collections. From then, theWashington Department of Highways, and its successor the Washington State Departmentof Transportation, owned and maintained the bridge. 37

Repair and Maintenance

During its history, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge has been subjected to several wind stormsthat required closing the structure to truck traffic to avoid having vehicles blown intooncoming traffic. Not once was the bridge closed because of bridge deck oscillations. Inaddition, there are no visual or instrument recordinqs of deck oscillation that wereconsidered extraordinary. An earthquake in 1965 caused some minor damage to thebridge.38

An Olympia-based engineering consulting firm completed a comprehensive inspection ofthe Narrows bridge in 1983 and found that the suspender ropes had stretched over time,with those near the towers increasing bearing reactions in the towers as they


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shed their load. In addition, the main towers' east wind shoes were locking, increasingstress in the tower legs, and hydraulic dampers were not functioning because ofdeteriorated seals. 39

In a subsequent evaluation, in 1991, relying heavily on advanced testing techniquesincluding computer modeling, the Olympia firm concluded that the stretch in suspendersnoted in 1983 was insignificant. It recommended that further studies were warrantedinvolving a comprehensive dynamic investigation of the bridge, taking advantage of recentadvances made in understanding aeroelastic phenomena. It also proposed a seismic riskanalysis to determine the structure's ability to survive powerful earthquakes.40

The bridge has proved an important link between Tacoma and the Kitsap Peninsula.Traffic volume has steadily increased from an average of 16,339 vehicles per day in 1967to an estimated 87,000 vehicles per day in 2000. Planners may consider alternatives toimprove traffic flow across the narrows, including modifying the bridge to accommodateseveral more traffic lanes, or constructing an additional bridge.41

Data Limitations

Research resources are abundant on this bridge. The best repositories are the WashingtonState Department of Transportation Library, and the Washington State Library, both inOlympia; WSDOT's Bridge Preservation Section files; and articles about both bridges inprofessional engineering journals, found in most university research libraries.

Project Information

This project is part of the Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), National ParkService. It is a long-range program to document historically significant ehgineering andindustrial works in the United States. The Washington State Historic Bridges RecordingProject was co-sponsored in 1993 by HAER, the Washington State Department ofTransportation (WSDOT), and the Washington State Office of Archeology & HistoricPreservation. Fieldwork,-measured drawings, historical reports, and photographs wereprepared under the general direction of Robert J. Kapsch, Ph.D., Chief, HABS/HAER;Eric N. DeLony, Chief and Principal Architect, HAER; and Dean Herrin, Ph.D., HAERStaff Historian.

The recording team consisted of Karl W. Stumpf, Supervisory Architect (University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign); Robert W. Hadlow, Ph.D., Supervisory Historian(Washington State University); Vivian Chi (University of Maryland); Erin M. Doherty(Miami University), Catherine I. Kudlik (The Catholic University


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of America), and Wolfgang G. Mayr (U.S./International Council on Monuments andSites/Technical University of Vienna), Architectural Technicians; Jonathan Clarke(ICONOS Ironbridge Institute, England) and Wm. Michael Lawrence (University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign), Historians; and Jet Lowe (Washington, D.C.), HAERPhotographer.


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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

First Tacoma Narrows Bridge Construction

Eldridge, Clark H. "The Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge."Pacific Builder and Engineer 46 (6 July 1940): 35-40.

Moisseiff, Leon S. "Growth in Suspension Bridge Knowledge."Engineering News-Record 123 (17 August 1939): 206-09.

Murrow, Lacey V. "Construction Starts on the Narrows Bridge."Pacific Builder and Engineer 45 (4 March 1939): 34-37.

Neill, Thomas W. "Two New Washington Bridges that WriteHistory." Washington Motorist 21 (July 1940): 4-5, 12.

Official Opening: Tacoma Narrows Bridge and McChord Field, June30--July 4, 1940, A. D. Dedication Program. Tacoma:Johnson-Cox Company.

"Pacific Northwest Bridges Completed." Engineering News-Record125 (11 July 1940): 2.

"Puget Sound Bridge Proposed." Engineering News Record 110 (2February 1933): 171.

First Tacoma Narrows Bridge Destruction

"Action of 'Karman Vortices'." letter to the editor by Blake D.Mills. Engineering News-Record 125 (19 December 1940): 808.

"Another Consultant Board Named for Tacoma Span." EngineeringNews-Record 12 5 ( 5 December 1940): 735 .

Averill, Walter A. "Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge."Pacific Builder and Engineer 46 (December 1940): 20-27.

"Board Named to Study Tacoma Bridge Collapse." Engineering NewsRecord 125 ( 28 November 1940): 725 .

Bowers, N.A. "Model Tests Showed Aerodynamic Instability of Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Engineering News-Record 125 (21 November 1940)

"Details of Damage to Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Engineering NewsRecord 125 (18 November 1940): 720.

"Dynamic Stability of Suspension Bridges." editorial. PacificBuilder and Engineer 46 (December 1940): [1].


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"Dynamic Wind Destruction." editorial. Engineering News-Record 125 (21 November 1940): 672-73.

Eldridge, Clark H. "Tacoma Narrows Bridge: Final Report on Design and Construction." TMs. [1941]

Farquharson, F. B., et al. "A Dynamic Model for the Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge. Seattle: University of Washington, 1940.

Frazer, R. A. "Aerodynamic Oscillations of Suspension Bridges." Engineering [London] 171 (2 March 1951): 270-71.

"Film Showing Collapse of Tacoma Span Available." Engineering News-Record 125 (5 December 1940): 733.

"Laboratory Studies on the Tacoma Narrows Bridge at the University of Washington." [Seattle: University of Washington, Department of Civil Engineering, 1941]

"Resonance Effects of Wind." letter to the editor by H. R. Thayer Engineering News-Record 125 (19 December 1940): 808

Steinman, D. B. "Aerodynamic Theory of Bridge-Oscillations." Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 75 (October 1949): 1147 ff.

"Supplemental Tests on the Dynamic Model of the Original Tacoma Narrows Bridge." [Seattle]: University of Washington, Structural Research Laboratory [1943].

"Tacoma Bridge Oscillations Being Studied by Model." Engineering News-Record 125 (1 August 1940): 139.

"Tacoma Narrows Bridge Wrecked by Wind." Engineering News-Record 125 (14 November 1940): 647, 656-58.

"Tacoma Narrows Collapse." letters to the editor by T.C. Rathbone, C. A. P. Turner, and Harold E. Wessman. Engineering News-Record 125 (5 December 1940): 736-37.

Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge Construction

Ammann, O.H., Charles A. Ellis, and F. H. Frankland. "Unusual Design Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Discussion. Proceedings of the American Society for Civil Engineers 74 (June 1948): 985-92.


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Andrew, Charles E. "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Number II . . . The Nation's First Suspension Bridge Designed to be Aerodynamically Stable." Pacific Builder and Engineer 56 (October 1950): 54-56 ff.

_________. Final Report on Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Tacoma, Washington[Washington Toll Bridge Authority], 1952.

_________. "Unusual Design Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Paper.Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 73 (December 1947): 1483-97.

_________. "Unusual Design Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Discussion.Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 75 (June 1949): 823-24.

Andrew, Charles E., John I. Purcel, Glenn B. Woodruff, and Theodore von Karman. "The Redesign of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Tms. Washington Toll Bridge Authority Consulting Board. 194S, revised 1947.

"Bridge Which Buckled in Wind Will Grow Into Wider Span." Christian Science Monitor, 11 September 1948.

"Cable Spinning at Tacoma Narrows." Engineering News-Record 144 (16 February 1950): 44-4S.

"High-Strength, Lightweight Deck for New Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Engineering News Record 146 (11 January 1951): 34.

Hills, Harold W. "The Techniques of Cable Spinning as Exemplified at the New Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Western Construction 57 (February 1951): 78-81.

Horwood, Ed. "Cable Spinning Operations Underway at Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Pacific Builder and Engineer 55 (November 1949): 44-47.

"'Jinx' Bridge Going Up Again." Western Construction News 24 (15 August 1949): 61-63.


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MacPhersan, A. R. "Construction Begins on New Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Roads and Streets 92 (January 1949): 63-65.

"Narrows Bridge Ready Sept. 1950." Seattle Times, 13 March 1948.

"Plywood Plays Vital Role in Building Huge New Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge." Veneers and Plywood 44 (September 195O): 26-27.

Souvenir of Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Tacoma, Washington. dedication program. Tacoma, WA: Pioneer Incorporated [1952]

Tacoma Narrows Bridge. brochure. Washington Toll Bridge Authority: [l952]. copy in Washington History File, Washington State Library, Olympia.

"Tacoma Narrows Bridge: Reconstruction to Follow Design Resulting from Extensive Wind Tunnel Research." Roads and Streets 90 (December 1947): 88-90.

"Toll Bridges and Ferries: Tacoma Narrows Bridge." Washington State Highway Commission First Biennial Report; Washington Department of Highways Twenty-fourth Biennial Report, 1950 1952. Olympia: State Printing Plant [1952], 63-64.

University of Washington Structural Research Laboratory tF. B. Farquharson, et al.]. Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension Bridges with Special Reference to the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1954.

Vincent, George S. "Suspension Bridge Vibration Formulas." Engineering News-Record 146 (11 January 1951): 32-34.

Vogel, Elmer C. "New Tacoma Narrows Bridge Called Forerunner of New, Safe Type of Suspension Structure." Seattle Times, 8 October 1950.

Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge Toll Free

"Ceremony Tomorrow to Celebrate Narrows Bridge as Toll-Free Span." Seattle Times, 13 May 1965.

Cunningham, Ross. "Western Sound Area Just as Entitled to Free Bridges as Rest of State." Seattle Times, 9 December 1962.

"End of Tolls Sought for Narrows Span." Seattle Times, 26 March 1964, 1.


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"House Unit Would Halt Narrows Tolls." Seattle-Times, 13 February 1965, 9.

"Narrows Bridge Toll Removal Sought in Court." Olympia Daily Olympian, 26 March 1964, 6.

"Narrows Bridge Tolls to Stay." Olympia Daily Olympian, 6 February 1963, 6.

"Narrows Bridge Top Money-maker." Daily Olympian (Olympia), 15 January 1964, 22.

Charles E. Andrew. Engineer

"C. E. Andrew, Span Designer, Dies at 84." Seattle Times, 5 July 1969, 10.

Cunningham, Ross. Unfair to Make Him Scapegoat." Seattle Times, 8 June 1979, A13, in Washington History File, Washington State Library, Olympia.

"Designer of Floating Bridge Succumbs." Olympia Daily Olympian, 6 July 1969, 11, in Washington History File, Washington State Library, Olympia.

Modern Accounts of First Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Berreby, David. "The Great Bridge Controversy." Discover, February 1992, 26-33.

Coatsworth, Leonard. "TNT Staffer Cheats Death in Bridge Collapse." Tacoma News Tribune, 1 July 1976.

"Galloping Gertie--Going--GONE!" Seattle Times, 1 November 1970.

Gunns, Albert F. "The First Tacoma Narrows Bridge: A Brief History of Galloping Gertie." Pacific Northwest Quarterly 72 (October 1981): 162-69.

Helsel, Dorris. "Longtime Bridge Engineer Recalls 'Galloping Gertie with Heartache." Olympia Daily Olympian, 3 September 1986, 1, 2.

"Remember the Death 'Galloping Gertie'?" Seattle Times, 5 November 1964, 39.

Ryan, Jack. "Gertie Isn't Dead Yet: 'Galloper' Has Life in Deep." Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 14 May 1973.


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Schultz, Gordon. "Galloping Gertie's Anniversary." Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 7 November 1965

Stansfield, Dick. "'Galloping Gertie' Went Into Narrows 25 Years Ago." Olympia Daily Olympian, 6 November 1967, 15.

"Tacoma Narrows Bridge Tolls Reduces." Engineering News-Record 125 (8 August 1940): 197.

Miscellaneous

Arvid Grant Associates. "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Condition, 1983." For the Washington State Department of Transportation.

_________. "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Report, August 1991."For the Washington State Department of Transportation.

Bleich, Friederich, Conde B. McCullough, Richard Rosencrans, and George S. Vincent. The Mathematical Theory of Vibration in Suspension Bridges. Bureau of Public Roads. Department of Commerce. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1950.

Brierley-Green, David, professional engineer with Arvid Grant Associates Inc., Olympia, WA. Interview by Robert W. Hadlow and Karl W. Stumpf. 20 July 1993. notes.

Gotchy, Joe. Bridging the Narrows. Edited by Gladys C. Para. Gig Harbor, WA: The Peninsula Historical Society, 1990.

Hadlow, Robert W. "Conde B. McCullough, 1887-1946: Master Bridge Builder of the Pacific Northwest." Ph.D. diss. Washington State University, 1993.

[Krier, Robert H.] "Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Historic Bridge Inventory Second Phase, Preliminary Evaluation." Bridge No. 16/110. Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia, WA. 1993.

McCullough, Conde B., Glenn S. Paxson, and Richard Rosencrans. The Experimental Verification Theory for Suspension Bridge Analysis (Fourier-series Method). Technical Bulletin No. 15. Salem, OR: Oregon State Highway Department, 1942.

McCullough, Conde B., Glenn S. Paxson, and Dexter R. Smith. The Derivation of Design Constraints for Suspension Bridge Analysis (Fourier-series Method). Technical Bulletin No.14. Salem, OR: Oregon State Highway Department, 1940.


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McCullough, Conde B., Glenn S. Paxson, and Dexter R. Smith. An Economic Analysis of Short-span Suspension Bridges for . Modern Highway Loadings. Technical Bulletin No. 11. Salem, OR: Oregon State Highway Department, 1938.

McCullough, Conde B., Glenn S. Paxson, and Dexter R. Smith. Rational Design Methods for Short-span Suspension Bridges for Modern Highway Loadings. Technical BuIletin No. 13. Salem, OR: Oregon State Highway Department, 1940.

Morgan, Murray and Rosa Morgan. South on the Sound: An Illustrated History of Tacoma and Pierce County. Windsor Publications, 1984.

Plowden, David. Bridges: The Spans of North America. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974, 1984.

Steinman, David and Sara Ruth Watson. Bridges and their Builders.; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1941.

U.S. Department of the Interior. National Park Service. "National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form for Tacoma Narrows Bridge Ruins/Galloping Gertie, Pierce County, Washington. 1992 .

Washington. State Department of Transportation. Bridge Preservation Section. Bridge Files.


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ENDNOTES

1. Murray and Roas Morgan, South on the South Shore: An Illustrated History ofTacoma and Pierce County (Windsor Publications, 1984): 115; see also, Albert F.Gunns, "The First Tacoma Narrows Bridge: A Brief History of Galloping Gertie,"Pacific Northwest Quarterly 72 (October 1982): 165-66.

2. Morgan and Morgan, South on the Sound, 116; "Puget Sound Bridge Proposed,"Engineering News-Record 110 (2 February 1933): 171; the design for Chandler's 1,200'structure with a 196' clearance is unknown; Gunn, "The First Tacoma Narrows Bridge,"166-67.

3. Gunn, "The First Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 166-67; "Construction Starts onthe Narrows Bridge," Pacific Builder and Engineer 45 (4 march 1939): 34-35.

4. Dorris Hensel, "Longtime Bridge Engineer Recalls 'Galloping Gertie' withHeartache," Daily Olympian (Olympia, WA), 3 September 1986, 1, 2; Joe Gotchy,Bridging the Gap, edited by Gladys C. Para, (Gig Harbor, WA: The Peninsula HistoricalSociety, 1990), 41-42.

5. Official Opening: Tacoma Narrows Bridge and McChord Field, June 30--July 4,194a, A. D. Dedication Program. Tacoma: Johnson Cox Company), 16; "ConstructionStarts on the Narrows Bridge," Pacific Builder and Engineer 45 (4 March 1939): 34-35;Charles E. Andrew, Final Report on Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Tacoma, Washington,[Washington Toll Bridge Authority] 1952, 13-14.

6. For a comparison of dimensions between the first and second Tacoma NarrowsBridge, see Gotchy, Bridging the Narrows, 97.

7. Leon S. Moisseiff, "Growth in Suspension Bridge Knowledge," Engineering News-Record 123 (17 August 1939): 206-09, 206 and 208 (quotes).

8. Ibid., 207-08

9. Ibid., 208-09.


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10. Eldridge, Clark H., The Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge," Pacific Builder andEngineer 46 (6 July 1940): 35.

11. Neill, Thomas W., "Two New Washington Bridges that Write History,"Washington Motorist 21 (July 1940), 4-5, 12; Gotchy, Bridging the Gap, 39; "GallopingGertie--Going--GONE!" Seattle Times, 1 November 1970; "Tacoma Bridge OscillationsBeing Studied by Model," Engineering News-Record, 125 (1 August 1940): 139.

12. "Tacoma Bridge Oscillations Being Studied by Model," 35; "Laboratory Studies onthe Tacoma Narrows Bridge at the University of Washington." [Seattle: University ofWashington, Department of Civil Engineering, 1941] [xii]; Friederich Bleich, CondeB. McCullough, Richard Rosencrans, and Georqe S. Vincent, The MathematicalTheory of Vibration in Suspension Bridges, Bureau of Public Roads, Department ofCommerce, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1950), 7-8; Matthys Levyand Mario Salvadori in Why Buildings Fall Down: How Structures Fail (New York W.W. Norton, 1993), 110-11, suggest that the dampers or hydraulic shocks neverfunctioned properly because sandblasting grit used on the steel girders prior to paintingdamaged their leather seals, rendering them useless; N. A. Bowers, "Model TestsShowed Aerodynamic Instability of Tacoma Narrows Bridge," Engineering News-Record125 (21 November 1940): 44.

13. Levy and Salvadori, Why Buildings Fall Down, 111; Bower, "Model TestsShowed Aerodynamic Instability of Tacoma Narrows Span," 44-47; "Galloping Gertie--Going--GONE!"; Walter A. Averill, "Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge," PacificBuilder and Engineer 46 (December 1940): 20-27.

14. N. A. Bowers, "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Wrecked by Wind," EngineeringNews-Record 125 (14 November 1940): 647, 656, 658; Levy and Salvadori, WhyBuildings Fall Down, 113-14; Averill, "Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 20-26,David Steinman and Sara Ruth Watson, Bridges and their Builders (New York: G. P.Putnam's Sons, 1941), 355-57, 356 (quote).

15. Averill, "Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 20-26; Levy and Salvadori,Why Buildings Fall Down, 113-14; The Mathematical Theory of Vibration inSuspension Bridges, 7-11; Steinman and Watson, Bridges and their Builders, 357(quote). Both the Seattle Times and the Seattle Post-Intelligencer issues for the week afterthe disaster give much coverage to the bridge failure.


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16. Dynamic Wind Destruction," editorial, Engineering News Record 125 (21November 1940): 672; Bleich, McCullough, Rosecrans, and Vincent, The MathematicalTheory of Vibration in Suspension Bridges, 7-11. The state of Washington'sinvestigation board members were Lief Sverdrup, senior partner of Sverdrup and Parcel,consulting engineers of St. Louis; Russell Cone, resident and later chief engineer ofGolden Gate Bridge project; and Francis Donaldson, consulting engineer, chiefengineer in early stages of Grand Coulee Dam project. The PWA's board consisted ofGlenn Woodruff, detail design engineer for the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge;Theodore von Rarman, aeronautical engineer and director of the David GuggenheimAeronautical Institute at the California Institute of Technology; and Othmar Ammann,engineer involved in the design and construction of the Hell Gate, Triborough, and Bronx-Whitestone bridges in New York, and member of the board of engineers in charge of theGolden Gate Bridge construction. It budgeted $2.8 million for the project. See "BoardNamed to Study Tacoma Bridge Collapse," Engineering News-Record 125 (28 November1940): 725; "Another Consultant Board Named for Tacoma Span," Engineering News-Record 125 (5 December 1940): 735; and Averill, "Collapse of the Tacoma NarrowsBridge," 26-27; "Tacoma Narrows Bridge: Reconstruction to Follow Design Resultingfrom Extensive Wind Tunnel Research," Roads and Streets 90 (December 1947): 72-73,90

17. Levy and Salvadori, Why Buildings Fall Down, 116-19; Steinman andWatson, Bridges and Their Builders, 360, 363.

18. Steinman and Watson, Bridges and Their Builders, 359-60, 363 (quote); Levy andSalvadori, Why Buildings Fall Down, 117-18.

19. Gunns, "The First Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 165, 168-69.

20. Ibid., 168; Andrew, Final Report on the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 14; Levy andSalvadori mentioned the early 1990s research that confirmed Theodore von Xarman'sconclusions, but they did not disclose the source. See Levy and Salvadori, WhyBuildings Fall Down, 118.

21. Levy and Salvadori, Why Buildings Fall Down, 119. According to DayidPlowden, in Bridges: The Spans of North America, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge disasterended Moissieff's career. He had submitted a plan in 1938 for bridging the Straits ofMackinac. Confident in his design for the Narrows structure, he submitted a proposal fora 4,600' span with identical features. David Steinman


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and Glenn Woodruff finally were awarded the contract for an 8,614' structure with a3,800' main span. Its 38'-deep stiffening trusses were 68 percent greater in span length-to-stiffening truss than those found on the Golden Gate Bridge. Steinman and Woodruff'sdesign, Plowden wrote "was probably the most aerodynamically stable suspension bridgeever built. " See Plowden, 291.

22. Andrew, Final Report of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 18-19; Andrew, "UnusualDesign Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge," paper, Proceedings of the AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers 73 (December 1947): 1483-97.

23. McCullough wrote in the late 1930s and early I940s that suspension bridges were apractical alternative for short crossings because more sophisticated mathematicalcalculations, using the Fourier-series or sine-series method of exact stress analysis, gavemore accurate calculations than the traditional and less reliable elastic theory. Itstreamlined the designer's approach to determining a structure's specificationsbased on load requirements, roadway widths, and total length. The Fourier-seriesmethod was a short-cut because using it saved time, thus keeping down costs down andmaking suspension bridges economical for short crossings. See Robert W. Hadlow,"Conde B. McCullough, 1887-1946: Master Bridge Builder of the Pacific Northwest,"(Ph.D. diss., Washington State University, 1993), 77-79, 191, 216-17. See also CondeB. McCullough, Glenn S. Paxson, and Dexter R. Smith, An Economic Analysis ofShort-span Suspension Bridges for Modern Highway Loadings, Technical Bulletin No.11 (Salem, OR: Oregon State Highway Department [OSHD], 1938); and McCullough,Paxson, and Smith, Rational Design Methods for Short-span Suspension Bridges forModern Highway Loadings, Technical Bulletin No. 13 (Salem, OR: OSHD, 1940);McCullough, Paxson, Smith, The Derivation of Design Constraints for SuspensionBridge Analysis (Fourier-series Method), Technical Bulletin No. 14 (Salem, OR: OSHD,1940); and McCullough, Paxson, and Richard Rosencrans, The ExperimentalVerification Theory for Suspension Bridge Analysis (Fourier-series Method), TechnicalBulletin No. 15 (Salem, OR: OSHD, 1942).

24. Andrew, Final Report of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 18-19, 32-38; Charles E.Andrew, "Unusual Design Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge, "paper,Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 73 December 1947): 1483-97.

25. Andrew, "Unusual Design Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 1490-91.


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26. Ibid., 1491-92; Andrew, Final Report of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 81-83 andfig. 12.

27. Andrew, Final Report of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 22-23; Andrew, "UnusualDesign Problems--Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge," 1492-94.

28. "'Jinx' Bridge Going Up Again," Western Construction News 24 (15 August1949): 61-63; contracts for new structure exclusive of reused west approach spans andanchors blocks was $11,196,584.19. The main contracts were: $8,263,902.92 toBethlehem Pacific Coast Steel Corporation and $2,932,681,27 to John A. Roebling'sSons. See "Tacoma Narrows Bridge, No. 16/110," Kardex Card File, Bridge ConditionUnit, Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia, WA.

29. Andrew, Final Report of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 16-17.

30 Lacey V. Murrow, Construction States on the Narrows Bridge,"Pacific Builder and Engineer 45 (4 March 1939): 35-36; Gotchy,Bridging the Narrows, 97.

31. A. R. MacPherson, "Construction Begins on New Tacoma Narrows Bridge, "Roadsand Streets 92 (January 1949): 63-64.

32. Creeper derricks erected the tower leges by stacking 32' sections of the columns.The procedure for placing the 28-ton saddles was delayed when a strong earthquakerocked the Puget Sound area in April 1949. Its magnitude was so great that it hurled oneof the saddles from its perch and threw it in the Narrows. See Gotchy, Bridging theNarrows, 48, 53; "'Jinx' Bridge Going Up Again, H 61.

33. "'Jinx' Bridge Going Up Again," 61-62; Andrew, Final Report on Tacoma NarrowsBridge, Tacoma, Washington, 21.

34. For a thorough discussion of the cable operation, see Ed Horwood, "Cable SpinningOperations Underway at Tacoma Narrows Bridge," Pacific Builder and Engineer 55(November 1949): 44-47. See also Gotchy, Bridging the Narrows, 56; and Andrew,Final Report on Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 26.


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35. Andrew, Final Report on Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 30.

36. Gotchy, Bridging the Narrows, 64, 80; Andrew, Final Report on Tacoma NarrowsBridge, 31

37. "Ceremony Tomorrow to Celebrate Narrows Bridge as Toll-Free Span," SeattleTimes, 13 May 1965, 4.

38. Arvid Grant Associates, "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Report, August l991," for theWashington State Department of Transportation, 6-7.

40. Ibid., 1-4, 104-09.

41. Arvid Grant Associates, "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Report, August 1991," for theWashington State Department of Transportation, 6-7.

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