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This file is part of the following reference:
Breen, Daniel A. (2007) Systematic conservation assessments for marine protected areas in New South
Wales, Australia. PhD thesis, James Cook University.
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1
Appendices – Table of Contents
Appendix 1. Ecological Reserve Guidelines to identify MPAs in NSW 2 Appendix 2. Options for MPAs in the Manning Shelf Marine Bioregion 2.1 A multiple-use marine park in the Manning Shelf Bioregion 5 2.2 Khappinghat Creek 9 2.3 Lakes Innes & Cathie 9 2.4 Camden Haven River, Queens Lake, Watson Taylors Lake and Gogleys Lagoon 10 2.5 Korogoro Creek 11 2.6 South West Rocks Creek 11 2.7 Saltwater Creek and Saltwater Lagoon 11 2.8 Killick Creek 11 2.9 Unamed Creek (Big Hill Point) 12 2.10 Limeburners Creek and Saltwater Lake – Hastings River 12 2.11 Kooragang Island and Fullerton Cove 13 2.12 Macleay River Delta and Macleay Arm 14 2.13 Warrell Creek – Nambucca River 15 2.14 Manning River (Harrington) and Manning River South Channel (Farquhar Inlet) 15 2.15 Intertidal rocky shores and inshore reefs 15 2.16 Offshore reefs, islands, and aggregations of Grey Nurse Sharks 16 Appendix 3. Options for MPAs in the Hawkesbury Shelf Marine Bioregion 17 3.1 Option A. Hunter River to Avoca Lake 17 3.2 Option B. Lake Munmorah (Wybung Point) to Narrabeen Lakes 23 3.3 Option C. Avoca Lake to Port Hacking 27 3.4 Option D. Cape Banks to Shellharbour 33 Appendix 4. Options in the Batemans and Twofold Shelf Bioregions 37 4.1 Option A. Shellharbour to Jervis Bay Marine Park 37 4.2 Option B. Termeil Lake to the Moruya River 42 4.3 Option C. Durras Lake to Wallaga Lake 45 4.4 Option D. Middle Lagoon to Twofold Bay 49 4.5 Option E. Twofold Bay to Nadgee 52 Appendix 5. Steering and expert committees for the Great Barrier Reef Representative Areas Project 53 Appendix 6. Survey of scientists for the GBRMPA Representative Areas Program 54 Appendix 7. IUCN protected area categories 58 Appendix 8. Electronic copy of thesis and data files 65
2
Appendix 1.
Ecological Reserve Guidelines to identify MPAs in N SW (from Ron Avery in Breen et al . 2004)
Ecological viability requires consideration of reserve design including size, shape, replication
and the configuration of reserves within a network. Reserve design criteria aim to ensure that
individual MPAs and the overall reserve system remain ecologically viable. Marine reserve
design guidelines frequently cited in the scientific literature include the following.
Establish clear objectives The primary objectives of any MPA need to be stated clearly. A reserve’s location, design and
management should reflect its intended purpose. Reserve design for fisheries management,
sedentary organisms, birds and whole ecosystems may differ considerably (Agardy 2000, Planes
et al. 2000, Roberts and Hawkins 2000, Salm et al. 2000).
Select, design and manage the MPA in line with thes e objectives The biology of the target organisms including their life cycles, movements, feeding, behaviour
and physiology all need to be considered in reserve design. Even where a range of biodiversity
is targeted, careful consideration should be given to the ecology of the organisms the MPA is
designed to protect.
Conduct site assessments Once candidate MPA sites have been identified at a regional level, more detailed site studies are
required to assess the validity of broadscale predictions, collate any detailed information
available and specifically assess local patterns of biodiversity, threats and issues for future
management.
Use natural boundaries and include whole ecosystem s and habitats Where possible, the natural limits of ecosystems or habitats should be used to help define
marine protected area boundaries (Salm et al. 2000). Where an entire ecosystem or habitat is
important for conservation, all of its area should be protected (Roberts and Hawkins 2000, Salm
et al. 2000). Reservation of an entire system is likely to enhance protection by:
• taking advantage of the unit’s natural isolation from threatening processes
• inhibiting excessive spill over of mobile organisms from the reserve
� protecting the full range of variation occurring within a unit.
Use core and buffer zones Highly protected core conservation areas should be surrounded by an appropriate buffer zone to
avoid sudden transitions from highly protected areas to areas with relatively little protection.
High value conservation sites that are vulnerable to human use should be protected in core
protection zones. Buffer zones may also be used to provide important corridors between areas.
3
Use highly protected areas The concept of minimum or optimum MPA size should be applied to core sanctuary zones, not
to the total extent of a multiple-use MPA (Salm et al. 2000). Most evidence of the beneficial
effects of MPAs is related to core sanctuary (or ‘no take’) areas where extractive use is
prohibited.
Ensure adequate size and number of reserves There are few general rules for determining the best size and arrangement of MPAs as biologies
and life histories vary widely among species and with season and location (Roberts and
Hawkins 1997, Crosby et al. 2000, Roberts 2000, Salm et al. 2000). However, protected areas
should be as large as possible and should not be smaller than the average size for a given habitat
type (Salm et al. 2000).
Where MPAs target particular species, and where sufficient data exist, attempts can be made to
estimate an appropriate MPA size and configuration. MPA size may also be determined by
examining the percentage of species richness represented with increasing reserve size (Salm et
al. 2000), or through fisheries and other modelling techniques (Crosby et al. 2000).
One trend however, persists: the larger the MPA, the more species that will be represented, and
the more likely their populations are to survive disturbances (Salm et al. 2000).
Maximise habitat complexity Representation of species and habitat diversity can be enhanced by establishing MPAs in
locations with a wide range of physical environments (e.g. estuaries, islands and headlands with
significant depth gradients and both protected and exposed aspects). Different organisms
associate with different marine structures and high habitat complexity is often associated with
high species diversity. For example, the species richness of rocky reef fish communities is
greatest in areas with high habitat complexity (Garcia-Charton et al. 2000).
Maximise the connection between neighbouring habita ts Many species selectively use different habitats at different times, seasons or stages in their life
history. Protection of organisms in one habitat may be compromised unless other locations on
which they depend are also managed for conservation (Salm et al. 2000).
Complement existing MPAs Reserve design should consider the role of individual MPAs in contributing to the overall
complement of biodiversity represented in reserves and should also consider the role of MPAs
in the ecological functioning of the reserve system (Crosby et al. 2000, Salm et al. 2000).
4
Coordinate management across marine and terrestrial environments Coordinated management of marine and terrestrial systems can help conserve ecosystem
function and mitigate against catchment based threats. Increasing urban development and
inappropriate land use in coastal catchments are recognised as major threats to marine
biodiversity in New South Wales. With the population in the non-metropolitan coastal areas of
NSW increasing by 45% between 1981–1991, the terrestrial reserve system and improved
integrated planning are seen as key mechanisms for conserving marine and coastal biodiversity
(NSW Government 1997).
Build a network of MPAs for all ecosystems, communi ties and species to: • represent the full regional range of marine biodiversity
• insure against risk through replication
• ensure connectivity between ecosystems and populations
• provide scientific reference sites
• intersperse replicate study sites for research, monitoring and adaptive management
• promote ‘spill over’ effects to surrounding areas
• provide for the recovery of damaged environments
• provide opportunities for understanding, sustainable use and enjoyment
� provide opportunities for community input and stewardship.
Exercise risk management and the uncertainty princi ple Information for management of marine biodiversity will never to be perfect and identification
and selection criteria can only hope to approximate ideal objectives and goals. In setting and
implementing criteria, the NSW Government has adopted a precautionary approach to managing
MPAs i.e. ‘Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full
scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent
environmental degradation’ (National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development
1992).
5
Appendix 2. Options for MPAs in the Manning Shelf Marine Bioregion
2.1 A multiple-use marine park in the Manning Shelf Bioregion
The primary identification criteria for comprehensiveness and representativeness are most easily
met, and for some features can only be met, in the region between Stockton Beach and Wallis
Lake. Under the adopted criteria, comprehensiveness requires conserving examples of ‘the full
range of marine ecosystems and habitats across the marine environment’. According to the
environmental classification adopted for the study, this means representation of each of the five
major estuary ecosystems, the four ocean ecosystems classified by depth, and the nine habitat
surrogates (mangrove, seagrass, saltmarsh, subtidal sediment, beach, intertidal rocky shore,
subtidal reef and island).
Each of these ecosystems and habitats can be represented in the region between Stockton Beach
and Wallis Lake, in many cases by the most extensive examples of their type in New South
Wales. This represents an opportunity to manage within one area, conservation of some of the
state’s most important resources for marine biodiversity and sustainable use.
For reserve design, including many interrelated features within one MPA means the potential to
conserve whole ecosystems, processes, communities and populations throughout the duration
and spatial extent of entire life cycles. This may help to maintain connectivity among different
ecosystems and their diverse components, and provides for greater control over threatening
processes operating from within and outside MPAs.
The region not only includes the largest areas of most ecosystem and habitat types, but also a
greater number and variety of often larger features. This replication of habitats in different areas
is likely to include a greater diversity of life forms and provide better protection against
disturbance. Having many features spread over broader areas also provides for greater flexibility
in multiple-use zoning with more opportunities to provide for a range of conservation values,
sustainable use and stakeholder interests.
There are also practical advantages in focusing broad-scale ecosystem management strategies in
an area with so many important features. There are compliance benefits for more efficient
monitoring and surveillance, in simplifying education, and in better communication generally.
A large marine park of national and international significance will also promote widespread
awareness of the area’s values and the benefits MPAs can have for biodiversity and sustainable
use.
The outstanding natural features of the estuaries, coast and ocean between Wallis Lake and
Stockton Beach that identify it as a candidate site for a large multiple-use marine park are as
follows.
6
• Port Stephens (tide-dominated drowned river valley) and the Myall Lakes (brackish barrier
lake ecosystem) are the only major examples of their ecosystem type in the Manning Shelf
Bioregion and the largest of their type in New South Wales.
• Port Stephens includes the largest area of mangrove forest in New South Wales (27 km2 or
21% of the state total), the largest area of saltmarsh in the state (14 km2 or 13% of the state
total), and the second largest area of seagrass in the bioregion (8 km2 or 5% of the state
total).
• Myall Lakes connects with Port Stephens via the Myall River, which has the highest
proportional cover of seagrass (71% of open water) in the bioregion and forms a unique link
between brackish and marine estuarine ecosystems.
• Smith’s Lake is the largest example of an intermittent coastal lagoon in New South Wales
and lies immediately between Myall Lakes to the south and Wallis Lake to the north.
• Wallis Lake is the largest example of a tide-dominated barrier estuary in the Manning Shelf
Bioregion. The lake includes the largest area of seagrass (31 km2 or 21% of the state total)
and the northern most beds of Posidonia in the state, as well as extensive areas of saltmarsh
(4 km2 or 7% of the state total).
• In ocean ecosystems, the sections of coast and ocean between Wallis Lake and Stockton
Beach include all offshore depth zones including the 60–200 m depth zone within the state 3
nm limit.
• The sections of coast between Wallis Lake and Stockton Beach also include:
1 more inshore and offshore islands
2 more inshore and offshore subtidal reef
3 more intermediate, reflective and estuarine beach habitat
4 more rocky intertidal habitat with more sites representing all five identified ‘community’ types (boulder, cobble, platform, crevice, pool).
• Summed irreplaceability for a hypothetical 20% representation of each ecosystem and
habitat type was highest for Port Stephens, Wallis Lake, Myall Lakes and the coast and
ocean sections between Myall Lakes and Stockton Beach.
• The numbers of species of juvenile fishes and invertebrates caught in surveys by NSW
Fisheries were high for Wallis Lake and Port Stephens and summed irreplaceability for
representation of each species was highest for these estuaries.
• The numbers of commercial fish and invertebrate species in NSW Fisheries catch return
records for 1997–98, and the summed irreplaceabilities for representation of each species
were highest for Port Stephens and Wallis Lake.
• Port Stephens, Wallis Lake and Myall Lakes have large areas of important bird habitat for
threatened species, species protected under JAMBA/CAMBA international treaties and for
other native species. The ocean coast between Smiths Lake, Myall Lake, Port Stephens and
7
the Hunter River supported the most area of important bird habitat for threatened,
JAMBA/CAMBA and other species.
• On average, 38% of Grey Nurse Sharks sighted in surveys of all New South Wales between
1998 and 2000 were recorded between Wallis Lake and Port Stephens at the Pinnacle,
Latitude Rock, Seal Rocks and Broughton Island.
• The endangered Gould's Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera) breeds only on Cabbage Tree and
Boondelbah Islands off the coast of Port Stephens and has been sighted near Wallis Lake.
• The endangered Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) has significant nest sites at Wallis Lake and
has been sighted at Myall Lakes and Port Stephens.
• The endangered plant, coastal spurge (Chamaesyce psammogeton) has been found growing
on the main sandbar at the entrance of Smiths Lake (Webb et al. 1998).
• RAMSAR wetlands of international importance have been identified for Myall Lakes
National Park including:
• Myall Lakes
• Yaccaba Headland, Fame Cove and Corrie Island Nature Reserve in Port Stephens
• the southern shores of Smiths Lake
• the ocean coast between Smiths Lake and Port Stephens.
• Wallis Lake, Myall Lakes and Port Stephens are included in the ‘Directory of Nationally
Important Wetlands’.
• From 10–20% of lands adjoining Port Stephens and Myall and Wallis Lakes are classed as
SEPP 14 important coastal wetlands. Corrie, Swan and Wirrung Islands and several
wetlands surrounding the Port Stephens estuary are listed as SEPP 14 coastal wetlands. In
Wallis Lake, SEPP 14 coastal wetlands include part of Regatta, Yahoo, Big, Snake,
Goodwin and Wallis Islands and areas surrounding the lake and its tributaries to the north
and west. Several areas within Myall Lakes National Park have been listed as SEPP 14
coastal wetlands.
• Port Stephens estuary is on the Interim list for the Register of the National Estate. The Fly
Point – Halifax Bay area within the Port Stephens estuary supports a high diversity and
abundance of sedentary marine animals, particularly sponges (Australian Heritage
Commission 1998) and is listed on the Register of the National Estate.
• Myall Lakes National Park is registered on the National Estate. Wallis Lake is listed as an
indicative place on the Register of the National Estate and Bandicoot Island Nature Reserve,
Yahoo Island Nature Reserve and Wallis Island Nature Reserve are all listed on the Register
of the National Estate.
• There are a number of areas of particular conservation significance in the Port Stephens
estuary system due to the presence of mangrove, seagrass, saltmarsh and wetland complexes
with relatively natural or protected subcatchments. These include the lower Myall River, the
Corrie Island area, Kore Kore Creek system, Fame Cove and Creek, Bundabah Creek
8
(North Arm), Deep Creek system (Karuah River), Reedy Creek, Swan and Worimi Island
complex, the northern shores of Big Swan Bay, Twelve Mile Creek system, Tilligerry
Creek, Fenninghams Island Creek, Wallis Creek complex and Cromartys Bay.
• The Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes (Healthy Rivers Commission 2002)
recommends Myall Lakes for significant protection, Smiths Lake for significant protection
and Wallis Lake for secure ‘healthy modified conditions’.
• Myall Lakes and the Myall River are the only estuaries in the bioregion classified with a
very low degree of disturbance in the ‘Environmental inventory of estuaries and coastal
lagoons’ (Bell and Edwards 1980).
• Short (1995) recommends four intertidal rock platforms between Wallis Lake and Stockton
Beach for protection.
• The only rock platform in the Manning Shelf Bioregion recommended for protection by
Griffiths (1982) is Bald Head, near Smiths Lake.
• The area includes Sugar Loaf Point (Seal Rocks), a major separation point for the East
Australian Current (Godfrey et al. 1980, Cresswell 1983 and 1998) and also includes a
range of sediment types identified by Colwell et al. (1981).
• Catchments for Myall Lakes, Port Stephens and Smiths and Wallis Lakes are largely
undisturbed when compared with the heavily cleared catchments of the main branches of
the Macleay, Hastings, Manning and Hunter River estuaries.
• Estuarine waters in Myall Lakes, Port Stephens and Smiths and Wallis Lakes are in
relatively good condition, although problems with blue green algae in Myall Lakes and
sewage contamination in Wallis Lake indicate how seriously this situation can change. The
above areas are not, however, as affected by flood mitigation works. In particular, the
drainage of acidic water to estuaries from ‘reclaimed’ wetlands is not as serious as has
occurred in the Macleay, Hastings, Manning and Hunter River estuaries.
• All of the Myall Lakes (the largest MPA in New South Wales managed by NSW National
Parks), some adjacent exposed coast and several locations in Port Stephens are already
marine protected areas under the National Parks and Wildlife Act but this legislation, on its
own, does not provide protection for fish or aquatic invertebrates from fishing.
• Most adjacent lands around the Myall Lakes, the major offshore islands, the coast and many
areas around Port Stephens and Smiths and Wallis Lakes are managed as national park or
nature reserve. Wallis Island is partly dedicated as nature reserve and Yahoo, Regatta and
Bandicoot Islands are dedicated as nature reserves. These adjoining terrestrial reserves help
provide protection from land-based threats and may also provide an indication of the
condition of adjacent waters.
• Local and state agencies and infrastructure already exist in the region to provide support for
management, research and education for marine conservation.
9
• Because of its natural attractions, proximity to major urban centres, improvements in
transport and access, and its development as a tourism, holiday and residential area, the
region is increasingly vulnerable to impacts from high levels of use and development.
� A large, multiple-use marine park would provide for more comprehensive management of
these important marine areas and the increasing levels of human activity in the region.
Significant areas in relatively unimpacted, small estuaries
2.2 Khappinghat Creek Khappinghat Creek is the largest intermittent creek in the bioregion and contains small areas of
seagrass and extensive areas of sand, mud flats and rocky shores. The creek system includes
large areas of Casuarina, Melaleuca and Juncus wetlands protected under SEPP 14. Areas of
littoral rainforest near the creek entrance are protected under SEPP 26. The extensive reef
systems occurring offshore are unusual for the northern half of the Manning Shelf Bioregion
which is often dominated by large expanses of sand and limited nearshore reef.
All of the Khappinghat Creek estuary, most of the shores, and 57% of lands within 1 km are
already protected within Khappinghat Nature Reserve. Prior to declaration of the nature reserve
in 1993 the area was managed as state forest and some sand mining for minerals occurred.
However the catchment, waters and intermittent entrance appear to remain in a relatively natural
condition and there are few neighbouring built-up areas or disturbed acid sulphate soils. The
Australian River and Catchment Disturbance indicators show little disturbance to flow or
catchment. Khappinghat Creek may be the only opportunity in the bioregion to protect an
estuary for which both waters and surrounding lands have been left relatively undisturbed.
2.3 Lakes Innes & Cathie The estuary is the second largest intermittent lagoon in the bioregion and after Port Stephens
and includes the second largest area of saltmarsh (6 km2). Saltmarsh occupies 51% of the
estuary area including the largest single patch of saltmarsh (3.2 km2) in the bioregion.
The site provides outstanding opportunities for the scientific study of coastal geomorphology
and wetlands processes, particularly in relation to the study of ecological succession during the
process of estuary infilling. The site contains coastal wetlands, including extensive areas of
saltmarsh and adjoining wet heath, Melaleuca, Casuarina and rainforest. The area is particularly
diverse in terrestrial fauna and provides habitat for twenty threatened fauna species including
Ospreys and Australasian Bittern.
The estuary was rated by the Inventory of Estuaries and Coastal Lakes (Bell and Edwards 1980)
to have waters, shore and catchment in good condition, and by the Australian Estuaries
Database to be only slightly affected by human activity. Land capability of surrounding areas is
generally most suitable for forest or undisturbed natural vegetation and least suitable for
10
cultivation or grazing. Australian River and Catchment Disturbance indices are generally low to
medium for surrounding areas. The Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes recommends Lake
Innes for ‘significant protection’ and Lake Cathie for ‘secure healthy modified condition’.
Almost all of the Lake Innes and Lake Cathie estuary and most of adjacent lands (59% within
1 km) are included within Lake Innes Nature Reserve. Much of the nature reserve is designated
under SEPP 14 as protected coastal wetland and it may represent one of the few major wetlands
on the NSW coast which is not affected by flood mitigation and drainage schemes (NPWS
1995).
2.4 Camden Haven River, Queens Lake, Watson Taylors Lake and Gogleys Lagoon
After Wallis Lake and Port Stephens, Camden Haven includes the third largest area of seagrass
(6.3 km2) in the bioregion and the seventh largest area of seagrass in New South Wales. Queens
Lake contains the most extensive seagrass beds, while smaller amounts of seagrass, mangrove
and saltmarsh are distributed throughout the estuary system.
Watsons Taylors Lake and the Crowdy Bay National Park wetland system are listed in the
Directory of Important Wetlands and Gogleys Lagoon near the mouth of the Camden Haven
River is considered to be a geomorphically significant feature (Eric Claussen pers. com.). The
lagoon contains mangrove, saltmarsh and littoral rainforest communities, and provides
important habitat for migratory waders (David Scott pers. comm.). The close proximity to the
subtidal habitats of Perpendicular Headland provide an immediate connection between estuarine
and ocean habitats.
The Camden Haven estuary is rated by the Australian Estuaries Database to have high fisheries
value and a ‘slightly affected’ ecological status. Land capability for surrounding lands is low for
cultivation and Australian River and Catchment Condition indices for disturbance are low to
medium. The Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes recommends Queens Lake for ‘significant
protection’ and Watson Taylor Lake for ‘secure healthy modified condition’.
Most of Watsons Taylors Lake is included in the northern end of the Crowdy Bay National Park
but Queens Lake and several of the major tributaries lie outside the national park and are subject
to increasing development pressures. Queens Lake is subject to a long-standing reserve proposal
including areas of vacant Crown lands.
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2.5 Korogoro Creek The significance of Korogoro Creek lies in its hydrological relationship with extensive fresh
water wetlands of the Swan Pool swamp (listed as an important Australian flood plain wetland),
and the transition between freshwater and estuarine vegetation communities.
Korogoro Creek supports limited areas of estuarine vegetation including a low mangrove forest
of Avicennia marina and isolated Aegiceras corniculatum. Saltmarshes in areas of infrequent
tidal inundation include Sporobulus virginicus and Sarcocornia quinqueflora. Further up-stream
the sedge Baumea juncea and maritime rush Juncus kraussii give way to swamp forests
dominated by Casuarina spp. (NPWS 1998a).
Hat Head National Park includes wetlands behind the frontal dune systems of Smokey and
Killick Beaches, fresh water wetlands of the Swan Pool (swamp) to the west of Hat Head
Village, and the beach dunal systems (NPWS 1998a). The park provides important habitat for
many species of wader birds for feeding and resting on sand and mud flats, rock platforms and
beaches, including at least ten JAMBA/CAMBA species (NPWS 1998a).
The upper reaches of Korogoro Creek and 57% of adjoining lands within 1 km are included
within Hat Head National Park.
2.6 South West Rocks Creek For its size, this small creek system has a relatively high proportion of its area covered by
mangrove (67%), saltmarsh (18%) and seagrass (20% of open water). Although most of the area
is protected by SEPP 14 zoning there are currently no MPAs in the estuary, no adjoining
national parks or nature reserves and 20% of land within 1 km is in built-up areas.
2.7 Saltwater Creek and Saltwater Lagoon Both Saltwater Creek and Saltwater Lagoon are protected by SEPP 14, while NSW National
Parks estate includes the whole of Saltwater Lagoon and part of the immediate catchment of
Saltwater Creek. Built-up areas within the small catchment pose a potential threat to the
condition of the creek and lagoon. The Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes describes the
lagoon as having an extreme natural sensitivity and has recommended that the lagoon be
secured in a ‘healthy modified condition’.
2.8 Killick Creek Killick Creek has no MPAs, 17% of adjoining land within 1 km inside Hat Head National Park
and 26% of lands within 1 km classed as SEPP 14. The proximity of built–up areas poses a
potential threat to the condition of the creek and there has been extensive catchment clearing in
the immediate area.
12
2.9 Unamed Creek (Big Hill Point) Unamed Creek has no MPAs but 49% of lands within 1 km lie within SEPP 14 areas and
Limeburners Creek Nature Reserve. A further 40% of adjacent lands are classified as
wilderness, with no mapped built-up areas, low land capability for cultivation or grazing, and
low disturbance from settlement, land use or extractive industry (ARCCD). Despite these
apparently favourable indicators there is little natural riparian vegetation with clearing for a
camp ground, golf course and low-density tourist development.
Significant areas in less impacted parts of the major estuaries
2.10 Limeburners Creek and Saltwater Lake – Hasting s River
The wetlands of the Limeburners Creek area have been listed in the Directory of Important
Australian Wetlands and the nature reserve is registered on the National Estate. Much of the
lower Limeburners Creek system including the extensive estuarine vegetation lie outside the
protected areas but are worthy of marine protection.
Much of the area (51%) has been designated as a coastal wilderness by independent state and
national wilderness assessments, and the lake is identified as one of the most natural coastal
lakes on the NSW coast. It is listed as ‘near pristine’ by the Healthy Rivers Commission and is
the only coastal lake in the bioregion recommended for comprehensive protection by the
Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes.
The Environmental Inventory of Estuaries and Coastal Lagoons (Bell and Edwards 1980) rates
disturbance to shore, waters and catchment as low. Mean Australian River and Catchment
Disturbance indices for the subcatchment are generally low for settlement, land use,
infrastructure and extractive industry. There are few built-up areas adjacent to this section of the
estuary but a high percentage of high risk or disturbed acid sulphate soils within 1 km.
Species listed under JAMBA and CAMBA which use the nature reserve include the nationally
endangered Little Tern (Sterna albifrons).
The terrestrial conservation values of the site include the presence of a wide range of landforms
providing evidence of past and present coastal processes. These landforms support a very
extensive mosaic of vegetation communities including littoral and subtropical rainforest,
mangrove forest and woodlands, wet and dry sclerophyll forests, shrublands, swamps, coastal
heathland, saltmarsh and dune grasses. Extensive wetlands drain into the Saltwater Lake and
Limeburners Creek estuary. During prolonged periods of rain the generally saline Saltwater
Lake becomes brackish to fresh. The area supports a diverse range of wildlife communities
including threatened species and birds protected under international agreements (NPWS 1998b).
During the Pleistocene period (~60,000 years ago) Point Plomer, Big Hill and Queens Head
were islands separated from the mainland. They have since merged with the mainland as a
13
consequence of sand deposition. An unusual limestone outcrop at Big Hill Point (including a
natural arch and sea cave) is a record of the coral reefs that once existed along the ancient NSW
coast.
Most of the upper reaches and land within 1 km of Limeburners Creek and Saltwater Lake are
included within Limeburners Creek Nature Reserve (58%) and SEPP 14 wetland (70%).
2.11 Kooragang Island and Fullerton Cove The Hunter River estuary includes the second largest area of mangrove habitat (15.5 km2) after
Port Stephens and the third largest area (5 km2) of saltmarsh in the bioregion. Much of this
vegetation is found in the Kooragang Island–Fullerton Cove area.
Fullerton Cove is a large shallow embayment north of Kooragang Island. It has a depth of two
to three metres at its centre and at low tide, large areas of mudflats are exposed. Kooragang
Nature Reserve (including Fullerton Cove) is recognised as a nationally and internationally
important wetland (listed by the Directory of Important Wetlands and RAMSAR) providing
habitat for many species of migratory waders and species listed as endangered at a national level
including the Little Tern (Sterna albifrons). Species which are considered vulnerable at a state
level include the Freckled Duck (Stictonetta naevosa), Pied Oystercatcher (Haematopus
longirostris), Mongolian Plover (Charadrius mongolus), Large Sandplover (Charadrius
leschenaultii), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Terek Sandpiper (Xenus cinereus), Great
Knot (Calidris tenuirostris) and Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus).
In general the area has undergone significant manipulation. Kooragang Island originally
consisted of several smaller islands or bars. Several attempts to control deposition and siltation
of the Newcastle port area resulted in the agglomeration of these islands into a smaller number
of larger units by the artificial filling of channels and the construction of training walls. In 1970,
a levee bank was built around Fullerton Cove in an effort to ameliorate flooding in low-lying
areas of Newcastle, downstream of Kooragang Island. Drains were installed to reclaim the
significant wetland areas behind the levees for agriculture (Directory of Important Wetlands of
Australia 1996).
Past filling has destroyed up to 10 km2 of estuarine wetlands, but remaining wetlands remain in
a healthy condition. The estuarine herb Zannechellia palustris, considered endangered at a state
level has been recorded immediately adjacent to the western end of the reserve. This herb is
found in New South Wales only in the Newcastle/Lake Macquarie area and along Ironbark
Creek (Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia 1996).
After Myall Lakes, Kooragang Nature Reserve is the second largest MPA in New South Wales
managed by NSW National Parks.
14
2.12 Macleay River Delta and Macleay Arm This area includes Clybucca Creek downstream of Clybucca, Macleay River downstream of
Rainbow Reach, Macleay Arm and associated intertidal wetlands. The area is listed on the
Directory of Important Australian Wetlands and contains five categories of wetland including
(Calidris ruficollis), Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata) and Bar-tailed Godwit
(Limosa lapponica).
• Voyager Point Wetlands at the junction of the Georges River and Williams Creek are listed
on the Register of the National Estate (Commonwealth of Australia 2003). The area
includes wetlands characteristic of the Georges River including mangroves and Casuarina
glauca. Saltmarsh species here include Samolus repens, Suaeda australis, Sarcocornia
quinqueflora, Sporobolus virginicus and Cotula coronopifolia and a pure stand of the
uncommon species Wilsonia backhousei. Estuarine sedgeland here includes Juncus kraussi,
Baumea juncea and Phragmites australis. The freshwater wetlands are characterised by
paperbark swamps and emergent and submerged aquatic vegetation including Eleocharis
sphacelata, Triglochin procera typha orientalis and species of Myriophyllum, Utricularia,
Nymphoides and Persicaria. Threats to the area include changes in water quality, wash from
speedboats and drainage from nearby housing developments.
• Option C includes within its boundaries, the majority of coastal and estuarine marine
habitats in the Sydney Metropolitan area. It includes areas ranging from the most impacted
locations to relatively unaffected areas in the Hawkesbury River and Port Hacking. The
Hacking River (with 64% of adjacent land in national park), Hawkesbury River (42%),
Pittwater (45%), Brisbane Water (15%) and Wamberal Lagoon (all waters and 16% of
adjacent land in reserve) all have significant proportions of adjacent lands included in
national parks or nature reserves. However Botany Bay, the Parramatta River and Georges
River all have less than 10% of their shores in terrestrial reserves.
The Avoca-Brisbane Waters (42% of land within 1 km of the coast) and Botany-Port
Hacking (26%) have moderate proportions of adjacent lands in national parks and nature
reserves but other sections of coast in this option have less than 12% of adjacent land in
terrestrial reserves.
• Option C includes the most extensive urban and industrial areas in NSW. While the
Hawkesbury River has a relatively low level of urban development (0.6%) within 1 km of
its shores, estuaries between Dee Why and the Georges River all had over 50% of their
shores built on. Over 50% of the ocean coast between Barrenjoey and Cape Banks is
adjacent to urban areas.
• Mean river and catchment disturbance indices for this option were generally the highest in
the State with the exceptions of Port Hacking and the Hawkesbury River. Inputs from
sewage and stormwater outlets throughout the Sydney area are also likely to be higher than
elsewhere in the bioregion and there is evidence of contamination of estuarine sediments
32
with heavy metals and PCBs in sections of the Parramatta River, Botany Bay and the
Georges River (Birch 1995).
• The Healthy Rivers Commission “Independent Inquiry into Coastal Lakes” rates the
catchment condition of Dee Why, Curl Curl and Manly Lagoons as severely modified and
the lake conditions as severely affected with recommended management as “targeted for
repair”.
• Many shores in the Sydney Metropolitan area have been substantially modified or replaced
with walls, wharves or marinas, particularly in Sydney Harbour. However a number of
studies have shown that these may support very diverse assemblages of marine species and
that despite an extremely high level of urban development, marine biodiversity may be very
high (Chapman and Bulleri 2003). It can also be argued that irreplaceable areas at risk
should be given priority over remote locations, which may be in better condition, but may
require less immediate protection.
33
3.4 Option D. Cape Banks to Shellharbour The main features of the estuaries, coast and ocean between Cape Banks and Shellharbour are as
follows:
• Option D includes three of the four estuarine ecosystem types that occur in the Hawkesbury
Shelf bioregion including a tide dominated river valley (Port Hacking), barrier estuaries
(Lake Illawarra and Port Kembla) and intermittent estuaries (Towradgi and Benson Creeks).
• Together with existing MPAs, this option would account for a total of 12% of the area of
tide dominated drowned rivers in the bioregion, 18% of wave dominated barrier estuaries
and 11% of the area of intermittent estuaries. However, this option would not add to the
26% of ocean embayment already represented in Towra Point Aquatic Reserve and Nature
Reserve. 1
• Option D would add large areas of ocean ecosystems between 0-20 m (39% of this zone
within NSW coastal waters) and between 20-60 m (31% of this zone within NSW coastal
waters), and a significant proportion of those deeper areas in the 60-200 m zone (63%) that
lie within the 3 nm limit to State waters.
• Option D includes Lake Illawarra which has the fourth largest area of seagrass habitat in the
bioregion. There are also significant areas of seagrass in Port Hacking. Together with
existing MPAs this option would help protect 22% of the bioregion’s seagrass habitat in
MPAs.
• Port Hacking includes small areas of mangrove habitat adding slightly to existing habitats
already protected in MPAs for a total of 23% of the bioregion’s mangrove habitats included
in, or adjacent to MPAs.
• Port Hacking and Lake Illawarra include small areas of saltmarsh adding slightly to a total
of 6% of this habitat included in, or adjacent to some form of MPA.
• Option D would add large areas of exposed intertidal beach (29%), exposed intertidal rocky
shore (40%), inshore shallow reef (41%), and inshore sand (34%) to the total area of these
habitats protected in MPAs.
• The majority of the area of inshore and offshore islands in the Hawkesbury Shelf are found
in this option. Together with existing MPAs, this marine park option would help contribute
towards protecting 73% of the area of islands in the bioregion within MPAs.
• Six rock platforms in this option were recommended for protection by Short (1995).
2 now within the NSW Department of Primary Industry 1 Although a variation on this option might also include Botany Bay and the Georges River, thereby representing all estuarine ecosystem types within one large multiple-use marine park.
34
• This option also includes Brickyard Point (north of Wollongong), selected as a candidate
site for a marine protected area in the NSW Fisheries2 assessment to identify aquatic
reserves for rocky intertidal shores (Otway 1999).
• Summed irreplaceability scores for representation of 20% of habitats and ecosystems were
low for Port Hacking but relatively high for Lake Illawarra and the highest in the bioregion
for the Towradgi-Shellharbour section of coast and ocean. The latter score strongly reflects
the presence of offshore islands in this area.
• Option D for a large marine park covers approximately 570 km2 representing 28% of NSW
waters in the Hawkesbury Shelf bioregion.
• This area includes existing aquatic reserves at Boat Harbour and Ship Rock, Intertidal
Protected Areas at Inscription Point (Kurnell) and Cabbage Tree Point in Port Hacking, and
the marine components of the Royal National Park in Cabbage Tree Basin, South West
Arm, the Hacking River and Wattamolla Lagoon.
• The area includes sightings of threatened and protected fish species including Black Cod,
Dr Chris Jenkins (Ocean Sciences Institute University of Sydney)
Dr John Hooper (Queensland Museum)
Dr Patricia Hutchings (Australian Museum)
Mr Warren Lee Long (QDPI)
Dr Roland Pitcher (CSIRO)
Dr David Williams (AIMS & CRC Reef).
54
Appendix 6. Survey of scientists for the GBRMPA Representative Areas Program
Survey of reserve habitat requirements for adequate representation and protection of biological diversity
in the Great Barrier Reef Region
As part of the Representative Areas Program, we are surveying a select group of experts researching different groups of organisms in the Great Barrier Reef Region.
Our aims are to describe:
-the prime habitat requirements of different groups of organisms,
-the main causes and patterns of diversity for those groups,
-appropriate reserve designs for these organisms
-additional sources of data and expertise
-any areas of special importance for the maintenance of marine ecosystem diversity and function.
While we realise that information may be incomplete, we urge you to use your expert opinion and judgement in answering this survey as best you can. If you would like to qualify your response or are unable to complete the survey please give reasons in the spaces below or on the spare sheets provided.
Please consider the following questions in the context of choosing representative areas of habitat to be protected by Marine Park zoning. This relates particularly to the scale of information you provide. For practical reasons protected areas are likely to range in size from a few km to 100s of km's. For example zoning decisions are more likely to be influenced by environmental variation among different reefs than variation within a single reef.
You may wish to fill out the electronic version of this form by typing responses in the shaded yellow boxes and drawing lines and labels on the maps with the drawing tools provided, or you may wish to print out this form and write and draw on the paper copies.
More detailed maps of each section of the Marine Park are attached to this e-mail if you require them.
1. Your name?
2. Your position?
3. Your organisation?
55
4. Which groups (eg. populations, taxa, or communities) of organisms are you most familiar with (eg. southern Dugong, butterfly fishes, soft bottom infauna) in the GBR region?
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
For one of these groups please attempt to answer the following questions. (Feel free to provide information for additional groups on separate copies of this survey.)
5. Organism group (eg. algae)
6. What environmental factors (or even approximate surrogate variables) and categories would best define the most distinct spatial patterns in diversity and abundance for this group?
Please answer the following questions with regard to maintaining representative diversity in the organism group described, while allowing for reasonable use.
(To allow for uncertainty feel free to provide a range of values eg. "between 20-30%")
7. Is any particular shape, orientation or configuration of reserve of value in preserving the organism group?
8. Is any particular shape, orientation or configuration of reserve to be avoided?
9. If several reserves are used, what distance apart should they be to maintain connectivity among organisms?
10. Are there any environmental boundaries that need to be considered when siting protected areas?
11. What major threats need to be considered for the conservation of this group of organisms?
12. Assuming zoning is effective what other strategies are required to protect these organisms?
13. Can you provide any other relevant data, information or references to other sources? (see attached contact list)
14. Would you like to provide additional information during the selection of Representative Protected Areas and the subsequent rezoning process?
Please turn over to the map below or if required use the more detailed section maps in the attached .exe files.
57
Thank you for your help, if you have any inquiries please call Dan Breen at GBRMPA at (07) 4750 0700.
For the organism group described please use the map to: 15a. Circle (and/or describe) the limits of its spatial distribution (eg. all reefs) 15b. Within this region circle broadscale divisions that explain most spatial variation in diversity and abundance. (please explain…) 15c. Within these divisions circle and label with the appropriate bold letters areas important for : A high Abundance, size, or productivity D high within group Diversity R Rare or spatially restricted organisms T Threatened organisms F Feeding M Migration B Breeding L sources of Larvae and recruitment N Nurseries S Scientifically important areas O Other
58
Appendix 7. Protected Area Management Categories from “Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories” IUCN (1994). CATEGORY I Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area : protected area managed mainly for science or wilderness protection CATEGORY la Strict Nature Reserve: protected area managed mainly for science Definition Area of land and/or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features and/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/or environmental monitoring. Objectives of Management • to preserve habitats, ecosystems and species in as undisturbed a state as possible; • to maintain genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state; • to maintain established ecological processes; • to safeguard structural landscape features or rock exposures; • to secure examples of the natural environment for scientific studies, environmental monitoring and education, including baseline areas from which all avoidable access is excluded; • to minimise disturbance by careful planning and execution of research and other approved activities; and • to limit public access. Guidance for Selection The area should be large enough to ensure the integrity of its ecosystems and to accomplish the management objectives for which it is protected. The area should be significantly free of direct human intervention and capable of remaining so. The conservation of the area's biodiversity should be achievable through protection and not require substantial active management or habitat manipulation (c.f. Category IV). Organizational Responsibility Ownership and control should be by the national or other level of government, acting through a professionallyqualified agency, or by a private foundation, university or institution which has an established research or conservation function, or by owners working in cooperation with any of the foregoing government or private institutions. Adequate safeguard and controls relating to long-term protection should be secured before designation. International agreements over areas subject to disputed national sovereignty can provide exceptions (e.g. Antarctica). Equivalent Category in 1978 System Scientific Reserve / Strict Nature Reserve
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CATEGORY Ib Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection Definition Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition. Objectives of Management • to ensure that future generations have the opportunity to experience understanding and enjoyment of areas that have been largely undisturbed by human action over a long period of time; • to maintain the essential natural attributes and qualities of the environment over the long term; • to provide for public access at levels and of a type which will serve best the physical and spiritual wellbeing of visitors and maintain the wilderness qualities of the area for present and future generations; and • to enable indigenous human communities living at low density and in balance with the available resources to maintain their life style. Guidance for Selection The area should possess high natural quality, be governed primarily by the forces of nature, with human disturbance substantially absent and be likely to continue to display those attributes if managed as proposed. The area should contain significant ecological, geological, physiogeographic, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic or historic value. The area should offer outstanding opportunities for solitude, enjoyed once the area has been reached, by simple, quiet, non-polluting and non-intrusive means of travel (i.e. non-motorised). The area should be of sufficient size to make practical such preservation and use. Organizational Responsibility As for Sub-Category Ia. Equivalent Category in 1978 System This sub-category did not appear in the 1978 system, but has been introduced following the IUCN General Assembly Resolution (16/34) on Protection of Wilderness Resources and Values, adopted at the 1984 General Assembly in Madrid, Spain.
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CATEGORY II National Park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation Definition Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible. Objectives of Management • to protect natural and scenic areas of national and international significance for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational or tourist purposes; • to perpetuate, in as natural a state as possible, representative examples of physiographic regions, biotic communities, genetic resources, and species, to provide ecological stability and diversity; • to manage visitor use for inspirational, educational, cultural and recreational purposes at a level which will maintain the area in a natural or near natural state; • to eliminate and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation; • to maintain respect for the ecological, geomorphologic, sacred or aesthetic attributes which warranted designation; and • to take into account the needs of indigenous people, including subsistence resource use, in so far as these will not adversely affect the other objectives of management. Guidance for Selection The area should contain a representative sample of major natural regions, features or scenery, where plant and animal species, habitats and geomorphological sites are of special spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and tourist significance. The area should be large enough to contain one or more entire ecosystems not materially altered by current human occupation or exploitation. Organizational Responsibility Ownership and management should normally be by the highest competent authority of the nation having jurisdiction over it. However, they may also be vested in another level of government, council of indigenous people, foundation or other legally established body which has dedicated the area to long-term conservation. Equivalent Category in 1978 System National Park
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CATEGORY Ill Natural Monument: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features Definition Area containing one, or more, specific natural or natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. Objectives of Management • to protect or preserve in perpetuity specific outstanding natural features because of their natural significance, unique or representational quality, and/or spiritual connotations; • to an extent consistent with the foregoing objective, to provide opportunities for research, education, interpretation and public appreciation; • to eliminate and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation inimical to the purpose of designation; and • to deliver to any resident population such benefits as are consistent with the other objectives of management. Guidance for Selection The area should contain one or more features of outstanding significance (appropriate natural features include spectacular waterfalls, caves, craters, fossil beds, sand dunes and marine features, along with unique or representative fauna and flora; associated cultural features might include cave dwellings, clifftop forts, archaeological sites, or natural sites which have heritage significance to indigenous peoples). The area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the feature and its immediately related surroundings. Organizational Responsibility Ownership and management should be by the national government or, with appropriate safeguards and controls, by another level of .government, council of indigenous people, non-profit trust, corporation or, exceptionally, by a private body, provided the long-term protection of the inherent character of the area is assured before designation. Equivalent Category in 1978 System Natural Monument / Natural Landmark
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CATEGORY IV Habitat/Species Management Area: protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention Definition Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species. Objectives of Management • to secure and maintain the habitat conditions necessary to protect significant species, groups of species, biotic communities or physical features of the environment where these require specific human manipulation for optimum management; • to facilitate scientific research and environmental monitoring as primary activities associated with sustainable resource management; • to develop limited areas for public education and appreciation of the characteristics of the habitats concerned and of the work of wildlife management; • to eliminate and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation; • and to deliver such benefits to people living within the designated area as are consistent with the other objectives of management. Guidance for Selection The area should play an important role in the protection of nature and the survival of species, (incorporating, as appropriate, breeding areas, wetlands, coral reefs, estuaries, grasslands, forests or spawning areas, including marine feeding beds). The area should be one where the protection of the habitat is essential to the well-being of nationally or locally-important flora, or to resident or migratory fauna. Conservation of these habitats and species should depend upon active intervention by the management authority, if necessary through habitat manipulation (c.f. Category Ia). The size of the area should depend on the habitat requirements of the species to be protected and may range from relatively small to very extensive. Organizational Responsibility Ownership and management should be by the national government or, with appropriate safeguards and controls, by another level of government, non-profit trust, corporation, private group or individual. Equivalent Category in 1978 System Nature Conservation Reserve / Managed Nature Reserve / Wildlife Sanctuary
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CATEGORY V Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation Definition Area of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, ecological and/or cultural value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance and evolution of such an area. Objectives of Management • to maintain the harmonious interaction of nature and culture through the protection of landscape and/or seascape and the continuation of traditional land uses, building practices and social and cultural manifestations; • to support lifestyles and economic activities which are in harmony with nature and the preservation of the social and cultural fabric of the communities concerned; • to maintain the diversity of landscape and habitat, and of associated species and ecosystems; to eliminate where necessary, and thereafter prevent, land uses and activities which are inappropriate in scale and/or character; • to provide opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism appropriate in type and scale to the essential qualities of the areas; • to encourage scientific and educational activities which will contribute to the long term well-being of resident populations and to the development of public support for the environmental protection of such areas; and • to bring benefits to, and to contribute to the welfare of, the local community through the provision of natural products (such as forest and fisheries products) and services (such as clean water or income derived from sustainable forms of tourism). Guidance for Selection The area should possess a landscape and/or coastal and island seascape of high scenic quality, with diverse associated habitats, flora and fauna along with manifestations of unique or traditional land-use patterns and social organisations as evidenced in human settlements and local customs, livelihoods, and beliefs. The area should provide opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within its normal lifestyle and economic activities. Organizational Responsibility The area may be owned by a public authority, but is more likely to comprise a mosaic of private and public ownerships operating a variety of management regimes. These regimes should be subject to a degree of planning or other control and supported, where appropriate, by public funding and other incentives, to ensure that the quality of the landscape/seascape and the relevant local customs and beliefs arc maintained in the long term. Equivalent Category in 1978 System Protected Landscape
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CATEGORY VI Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems Definition Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs. Objectives of Management • to protect and maintain the biological diversity and other natural values of the area in the long term; • to promote sound management practices for sustainable production purposes; • to protect the natural resource base from being alienated for other land-use purposes that would be • detrimental to the area's biological diversity; and • to contribute to regional and national development. Guidance for Selection The area should be at least two-thirds in a natural condition, although it may also contain limited areas of modified ecosystems; large commercial plantations would not be appropriate for inclusion. The area should be large enough to absorb sustainable resource uses without detriment to its overall longterm natural values. Organizational Responsibility Management should be undertaken by public bodies with a unambiguous remit for conservation, and carried out in partnership with the local community; or management may be provided through local custom supported and advised by governmental or non-governmental agencies. Ownership may be by the national or other level of government, the community, private individuals, or a combination of these. Equivalent Category in 1978 System This category does not correspond directly with any of those in the 1978 system, although it is likely to include some areas previously classified as “Resource Reserves”, “Natural Biotic Areas/Anthropological Reserves” and “Multiple Use Management Areas / Managed Resource Areas”.
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Appendix 8. Electronic copy of thesis and data files.
Glossary Adequacy The maintenance of the ecological viability and integrity of
populations, species and communities (ANZECC 1999).
Biodiversity The variety of life forms: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form (NSW National Parks 1999).
Bioregion An area defined by a combination of biological, social and geographic criteria, rather than by geopolitical considerations. Generally, a system of related, interconnected ecosystems (ANZECC 1999).
Comprehensiveness Includes the full range of ecosystems recognised at an appropriate scale within and across each bioregion (ANZECC 1999).
Ecologically sustainable use
Using, conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained and the total quality of life, now and in the future can be increased.
Ecosystem All of the organisms in a community in a given area in interaction with their abiotic (non-living) environment and each other.
Endemism Originating in a given area and confined to that area (NSW National Parks 1999).
Habitat The living space of a species or community, providing a particular set of environmental conditions (NSW National Parks 1999).
Irreplaceability Irreplaceability is a measure designed to estimate the likelihood of a site being required to meet a conservation target or the extent to which conservation options are reduced if that site is unavailable. Summed irreplaceability is calculated by adding the individual feature irreplaceabilities for all the features at a site.
Naturalness The extent to which an area is free from human induced change.
NSW waters Waters within 3 nautical miles of the NSW coast and islands, under the jurisdiction of the State of NSW.
Representativeness Those marine areas that are selected for inclusion in reserves should reasonably reflect the biotic diversity of the marine ecosystems from which they derive (ANZECC 1999).
Abbreviations AHO Australian Hydrographic Office
AMBIS Australian Marine Boundary Information System
ARCCD Australian River and Catchment Condition Database
ANZECC Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
CAR Comprehensive, adequate and representative
DEC NSW Department of Environment and Conservation
DIPNR NSW Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
DPI NSW Department of Primary Industries
EEZ Exclusive economic zone
EPA NSW Environmental Protection Authority
FMA Fisheries Management Act 1994
IMCRA Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation for Australia
IUCN World Conservation Union (formerly known as International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
MPA Marine protected area (includes marine and estuary areas)
MPAC Marine Park Advisory Council
NPWS National Parks and Wildlife Service
NPWAC National Parks and Wildlife Advisory Council
NRSMPA National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas