Syntax n All native speakers of a language are able to produce and comprehend an unlimited number of sentences.

SyntaxSyntax

All native speakers of a language All native speakers of a language are able to produce and are able to produce and comprehend an unlimited number comprehend an unlimited number of sentences.of sentences.

SyntaxSyntax

All native speakers of a language All native speakers of a language are able to produce and are able to produce and comprehend an unlimited number comprehend an unlimited number of sentences.of sentences.– All the passengers on the plane, All the passengers on the plane,

which is flying to Pago-Pago, would which is flying to Pago-Pago, would rather not listen to Abbot and rather not listen to Abbot and Costello.Costello.

SyntaxSyntax

All native speakers of a language All native speakers of a language are able to produce and are able to produce and comprehend an unlimited number comprehend an unlimited number of sentences.of sentences.– It is furthermore, not a question of It is furthermore, not a question of

memorizing all the possible sentences memorizing all the possible sentences in the English language, otherwise, in the English language, otherwise, how could you understand new how could you understand new sentences you never heard before?sentences you never heard before?

SyntaxSyntax

Speakers of a language are able to Speakers of a language are able to make intuitive judgments about make intuitive judgments about sentences:sentences:

SyntaxSyntax

Speakers of a language are able to Speakers of a language are able to make intuitive judgments about make intuitive judgments about sentences:sentences:– The dog bit the horse.The dog bit the horse.– Dog the horse the bitDog the horse the bit

SyntaxSyntax Speakers of a language are able to Speakers of a language are able to

make intuitive judgments about make intuitive judgments about sentences:sentences:– The dog bit the horse.The dog bit the horse.– Dog the horse the bitDog the horse the bit

Without giving grammatical Without giving grammatical explanations, any native speaker of explanations, any native speaker of English can determine that the first English can determine that the first example is correct.example is correct.

SyntaxSyntax

This intuitive skill is a reflection of This intuitive skill is a reflection of our linguistic competence, as our linguistic competence, as opposed to our linguistic opposed to our linguistic performanceperformance

SyntaxSyntax

Competence vs. PerformanceCompetence vs. Performance

SyntaxSyntax

Competence vs. PerformanceCompetence vs. Performance– Real speech (Performance) is marked Real speech (Performance) is marked

by lapses, memory gaps, coughs, by lapses, memory gaps, coughs, “umms” and “uhs”, etc.“umms” and “uhs”, etc.

SyntaxSyntax

Competence vs. PerformanceCompetence vs. Performance– Real speech (Performance) is marked Real speech (Performance) is marked

by lapses, memory gaps, coughs, by lapses, memory gaps, coughs, “umms” and “uhs”, etc.“umms” and “uhs”, etc.

– Our competence is much more Our competence is much more consistent.consistent.

SyntaxSyntax

Structural ambiguity:Structural ambiguity:– In languages which depend on word In languages which depend on word

order, the syntax may not lead to order, the syntax may not lead to perfect understanding.perfect understanding.

SyntaxSyntax

Structural ambiguity:Structural ambiguity:– The mother of the boy and the girl will The mother of the boy and the girl will

arrive soon.arrive soon.

SyntaxSyntax

Structural ambiguity:Structural ambiguity:– The mother of the boy and the girl will The mother of the boy and the girl will

arrive soon.arrive soon.– Such a sentence needs further Such a sentence needs further

clarification.clarification.

SyntaxSyntax Structural ambiguity:Structural ambiguity:

– The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.soon.

– Such a sentence needs further clarification.Such a sentence needs further clarification. The mother of the boy and girlThe mother of the boy and girl is is arriving soon. arriving soon. The mother of the boy and the girl The mother of the boy and the girl areare arriving arriving

soonsoon The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon, The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon,

won’t shewon’t she?? The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon, The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon,

won’t theywon’t they??

SyntaxSyntax

Structural ambiguity:Structural ambiguity:– The mother of the boy and the girl will The mother of the boy and the girl will

arrive soon.arrive soon.– Or, meaning can be gathered through Or, meaning can be gathered through

context, for example, if you knew you context, for example, if you knew you were talking about a certain group of were talking about a certain group of people, further clarification probably people, further clarification probably wouldn’t be needed.wouldn’t be needed.

SyntaxSyntax

In studying syntax, a linguist tries In studying syntax, a linguist tries to state explicitly the grammar to state explicitly the grammar rules of a given language - beyond rules of a given language - beyond what might be taught in a what might be taught in a grammar book.grammar book.

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule...rule...

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– John can lift 500 pounds.John can lift 500 pounds.

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– John can lift 500 pounds.John can lift 500 pounds.– 1 2 3 4 51 2 3 4 5

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– John can lift 500 pounds.John can lift 500 pounds.– 1 2 3 4 51 2 3 4 5– Reverse the order of words 1 and 2Reverse the order of words 1 and 2

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– John can lift 500 pounds.John can lift 500 pounds.– 1 2 3 4 51 2 3 4 5– Reverse the order of words 1 and 2Reverse the order of words 1 and 2– Can John lift 500 pounds?Can John lift 500 pounds?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds.Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds.– 1 2 3 4 5 61 2 3 4 5 6– Reverse the order of words 1 and 2Reverse the order of words 1 and 2

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IQR-I– Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds.Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds.– 1 2 3 4 5 61 2 3 4 5 6– Reverse the order of words 1 and 2Reverse the order of words 1 and 2– John yesterday could lift 500 pounds.John yesterday could lift 500 pounds.

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IIQR-II– To form a sentence from a delcarative To form a sentence from a delcarative

sentence, place the first verb at the sentence, place the first verb at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IIQR-II– To form a sentence from a delcarative To form a sentence from a delcarative

sentence, place the first verb at the sentence, place the first verb at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

– Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds?Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question rule…Example: the English question rule… QR-IIQR-II

– To form a sentence from a delcarative To form a sentence from a delcarative sentence, place the first verb at the sentence, place the first verb at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

– Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds?Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds?– Close, but no cigar… also what about:Close, but no cigar… also what about:

Know you those women?Know you those women?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IIIQR-III– Place the auxiliary verb at the Place the auxiliary verb at the

beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence– If there is no auxiliary verb, place an If there is no auxiliary verb, place an

appropriate form of the verb “do” at appropriate form of the verb “do” at the beginning of the sentencethe beginning of the sentence

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question rule…Example: the English question rule… QR-IIIQR-III

– Place the auxiliary verb at the Place the auxiliary verb at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

– If there is no auxiliary verb, place an If there is no auxiliary verb, place an appropriate form of the verb “do” at the appropriate form of the verb “do” at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

– Do you know those women?Do you know those women?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IIIQR-III– What about sentences with two What about sentences with two

auxiliary verbs?auxiliary verbs?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IIIQR-III– What about sentences with two What about sentences with two

auxiliary verbs?auxiliary verbs?– John will have left.John will have left.

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IVQR-IV– Place the first auxiliary verb at the Place the first auxiliary verb at the

beginning of the sentence...beginning of the sentence...

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-IVQR-IV– Place the first auxiliary verb at the Place the first auxiliary verb at the

beginning of the sentence…beginning of the sentence…– Will John have leftWill John have left

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question rule…Example: the English question rule… QR-IVQR-IV

– Place the first auxiliary verb at the Place the first auxiliary verb at the beginning of the sentence…beginning of the sentence…

– Will John have leftWill John have left– Works fine for simple sentences, but Works fine for simple sentences, but

what about: The people who were what about: The people who were saying that John is sick will leave soon.saying that John is sick will leave soon.

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-VQR-V– Locate the first auxiliary verb that Locate the first auxiliary verb that

follows the subject and place it at the follows the subject and place it at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-VQR-V– Locate the first auxiliary verb that Locate the first auxiliary verb that

follows the subject and place it at the follows the subject and place it at the beginning of the sentencebeginning of the sentence

Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds.Yesterday John could lift 500 pounds. Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds?Could yesterday John lift 500 pounds? Yesterday could John lift 500 pounds?Yesterday could John lift 500 pounds?

SyntaxSyntax

Example: the English question Example: the English question rule…rule…

QR-VIQR-VI– Take the first auxiliary verb and place Take the first auxiliary verb and place

it immediately to the left of the it immediately to the left of the subjectsubject

– Yesterday could John lift 500 pounds?Yesterday could John lift 500 pounds?

SyntaxSyntax

The notion of subjectThe notion of subject

SyntaxSyntax

The notion of subjectThe notion of subject– The farmer fed the ducklingsThe farmer fed the ducklings

SyntaxSyntax

The notion of subjectThe notion of subject– The farmer fed the ducklingsThe farmer fed the ducklings

SyntaxSyntax

The notion of subjectThe notion of subject– The farmerThe farmer fed the ducklings fed the ducklings– In declarative sentences, subject In declarative sentences, subject

generally precedes the main and generally precedes the main and auxiliary verb.auxiliary verb.

SyntaxSyntax

The notion of subjectThe notion of subject– DidDid The farmer The farmer feed the ducklings? feed the ducklings?– In declarative sentences, subject In declarative sentences, subject

generally precedes the main and generally precedes the main and auxiliary verb.auxiliary verb.

– It forms the constituent around which It forms the constituent around which an auxiliary is fronted in forming a an auxiliary is fronted in forming a questionsquestions

SyntaxSyntax The notion of subjectThe notion of subject

– The farmerThe farmer feeds the ducklings, feeds the ducklings, does hedoes he??– In declarative sentences, subject generally In declarative sentences, subject generally

precedes the main and auxiliary verb.precedes the main and auxiliary verb.– It forms the constituent around which an It forms the constituent around which an

auxiliary is fronted in forming a questionsauxiliary is fronted in forming a questions– It is the constituent with which a pronoun in It is the constituent with which a pronoun in

a tag agrees in person, number and gender.a tag agrees in person, number and gender.