Synchronic and diachronic phonology of Lavïa - Ingenta ...

Synchronic and diachronic phonologyof LavïaA Wa language of Yunnan and Myanmar

Jackson T.-S. SunAcademia Sinica

Lavïa, spoken in a belt across both sides of the Yunnan-Myanmar border, isan under-researched Wa language falling under the Waic subgroup ofPalaungic in the Austroasiatic language family. This study investigates thesound system of Lavïa and traces its development from an ancestral Proto-Wa-Lawa phonological system. Modern Lavïa phonology is characterizedby well-preserved sesquisyllablic structure, rich inventories of consonantand vocalic clusters, and lack of phonemic tone or phonation. Diachroni-cally, Lavïa shows widely attested Waic sound changes as well as certain dis-tinctive innovations which, among other things, yielded voiceless nasals andcaused huge upheavals in its vocalic system. These diagnostic innovationshelp define Lavïa’s unique position within the Wa language cluster.

Keywords: Austroasiatic, Palaungic, Wa cluster, synchronic, diachronicphonology

1. Introduction

Of the vast array of Wa-Lawa languages1 and dialects spoken in the YunnanProvince of China and neighboring areas in Burma,2 one finds in the Chinesesources a heterogeneous “dialect group” called Awa阿佤, which is said to includefour “subdialects”, namely Masan馬散, Awalai阿佤來, Damangnuo大芒糯, and

https://doi.org/10.1075/lali.00062.sunLanguage and Linguistics 21:2 (2020), pp. 285–330. issn 1606-822x | e‑issn 2309-5067 © ILAS

1. Wa-Lawa is one of the two language clusters under Waic (the other being Blang), one ofthe six sub-branches of the Palaungic branch in the Austroasiatic family (Diffloth 1980:13–15;ms.).2. One reviewer points out that “The number of Wa speakers in Thailand is minimal, and theyare all relatively recent arrivals from Burma; there is no distinctive variety of Wa spoken inThailand”.

https://doi.org/10.1075/lali.00062.sun

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Xiyun 細允 (Zhou et al. 2004). This is most misleading. We can now avow thatMasan and Xiyun are distinct Wa-Lawa languages, to be renamed Lavïa (la-vɨɒʔ) and Va (vaʔ; Sun 2018b) based on their autonyms. Moreover, Awalai andDamangnuo may also turn out to be separate languages on a par with Lavïa, inview of their special phonological developments.3

Lavïa is a non-tonal, non-phonational language spoken in a belt of communi-ties (bearing various autonyms like ʔa vɤʔ, rɤ viaʔ, ʔa vɔʔ, vɨaʔ, and vɤʔ) stretchingacross northern Ximeng 西盟 County of Pu’er 普洱 City, Yunnan, and adjacentareas in northern Shan State of Myanmar, as shown on the following map:

Figure 1. Map of the Lavïa-speaking area

The first substantial work on this language was Drage (1907), in which an unspec-ified variety of Lavïa was described using a shaky transcription. Linguisticallyreliable work on Lavïa was not accessible until the national surveys of minoritylanguages of China conducted in the 1950’s, resulting in the publication of good-quality data on the Masan variety of Lavïa (Zhou & Yan 1984: 107–153). Manyyears afterwards, further data on the Zhongke中課, Yuesong岳送, and Yancheng岩城 varieties of Lavïa also became available (Zhou et al. 2004).4

3. For example, these Wa-Lawa languages lost the PWL prenasal (*mpaŋ ‘ladder’ > Lavïa npɒŋ,but Awalai and Damangnuo pɔŋ), and failed to share certain characteristic Lavïa innovations,such as stop epenthesis in PWL nasal+liquid clusters (*ʔmraʔ ‘steal’ > Lavïa nprɨɒʔ, but Awalaimriaʔ, Damangnuo mrɔʔ) and certain vowel breaking changes induced by onset voicing (*gaŋ‘mouse’ > Lavïa kʰɨɒŋ, but Awalai kʰaŋ, Damangnuo kʰɔŋ) (Zhou et al. 2004).4. It is fortunate for our field that Zhou & Yan (2004) decided to include comparative data intheir valuable book from the conservative Lavïa variety of Yancheng, now part of Myanmar.

286 Jackson T.-S. Sun

This article presents a phonological sketch of the Lavïa variety of Banzhe班哲 (pa-cʰək) Village, Mengka 勐卡 (məŋkʰa) Town in Ximeng County, on thebasis of firsthand materials collected in Kunming.

This paper is organized as follows: § 2 presents the synchronic phonologicalsystem of Banzhe Lavïa (hereafter: Lavïa); § 3 discusses the changes which shapedthe modern Lavïa phonology from the Proto-Wa-Lawa (PWL) sound system asreconstructed by Diffloth (1980; ms.). The salient traits of Lavïa synchronic anddiachronic phonology, and its typological importance as a Waic language are pre-sented in the concluding section.

2. Synchronic phonology

2.1 Word structure

As is typical in Mon-Khmer languages, well-formed words in Lavïa can be mono-syllabic or sesquisyllabic, or a compound comprising elements exemplifyingeither syllable type. In sesquisyllabic words, a phonologically reduced minor syl-lable precedes a stressed major syllable. The iambic stress pattern also carriesover to compound words, although the first compound element is not phonolog-ically reduced; e.g. kuan ʔiá ‘chick’; lai muóʔ ‘time’; vu vɨɒʔ ‘get dark’; lu lié ‘swimaround’.

2.2 The minor syllable

Seven minor syllables occur in our data: ʔa-, pa-, ka-, ca-, la-, ra-, and si-. Minorsyllables are unstressed with indistinctly pronounced vowels. The minor syllables,set off by a hyphen in this work, are realized with fully articulated vowels in cita-tion or deliberate speech only. The major functions of minor syllables in Lavïa arelexical, as in (1), as well as derivational, as in (2):

(1) taiʔ ‘vegetable’ ka-taiʔ ‘small hole’liaŋ ‘spindle’ ʔɑ-liaŋ ‘wheel’

(2) nprɨɒʔ ‘steal’ pa-nprɨɒʔ ‘thief ’vuok ‘reap’ si-vuok ‘sickle’liaŋ ‘spindle’ ka-liaŋ ‘spin’si-tɛʔ ‘eight’ ʔa-tɛʔ ‘eighty’

Synchronic and diachronic phonology of Lavïa 287

2.3 The major syllable

The Lavïa syllable canon can be formulated as (C)C(C)-V(V)(V)(C), which isfurther analyzable into onset (C)C(C) and rhyme V(V)(V)(C) portions. The the-oretically possible sequence CCCVVVC is not attested. The other syllable typeslicensed by this canon are illustrated below:

(3) CV ŋu ‘earthworm’; ʔa ‘smegma’CVC kap ‘chin’; ʔɛm ‘raw, uncooked’CVV lai ‘squirrel’; ʔai ‘first male child’CVVC kias ‘serow’; ʔauk ‘chest’CVVV ŋuai ‘thirty’; muai ‘heal, recover’CVVVC kən ɲiauʔ ‘some’; piauk ‘tie up (animals or people)’CCV kla ‘testicle’; plɒ ‘expand’CCVC pʰroʔ ‘blanket’; klap ‘stick to [v]’CCVV plai ‘liquor’; ncʰai ‘estimate’CCVVC pʰries ‘wild boar’; kʰruoʔ ‘thin (of one’s body)’CCVVV pluai ‘bead’; pʰriau ‘fierce’CCVVVC npiauŋ ‘gourd flute’CCCV nkwi ‘bamboo mat’; npʰla ‘waste time’CCCVC nkʰloc ‘trigger’; nkʰwac ‘hiccup’CCCVV nprie ‘dirty’; nkʰwia ‘hover, walk in circles’CCCVVC nkwɨɒŋ ɲɨɒʔ ‘foundation (of house)’; nkʰlauŋ ‘height’CCCVVV npʰluai ‘switch on (light), set afire’

2.3.1 Onsets

2.3.1.1 Simple onsetsLavïa has twenty-five simplex onset consonants:

(4) p t c k ʔpʰ tʰ cʰ kʰm n ɲ ŋm n ɲ ŋf s hv z

rl

w

The affricate series symbolized here as c, cʰ, nc, and ncʰ are realized as alve-olopalatals [tɕ], [tɕʰ], [ȵtɕ], and [ȵtɕʰ] before i; elsewhere, pronunciation variesbetween alveolar and alveolopalatal. The dental fricatives s and z are also pro-


nounced as prepalatals before i. Velar and palatal nasals contrast before i, asshown by minimal pairs like the following:

(5) ŋi ‘gums’ɲi ‘second male child’

The voiceless continuents m, n, ɲ, ŋ are a notable feature, absent from most Waiclanguages.5 The phoneme h- is usually pronounced as a velar [x] or uvular [χ].The phoneme r is normally a tap, often pre-voiced in word-initial position [ᵊɾ-].The voiced labial fricative v, varying in realization between a labiodental [v] and abilabial [β], is distinct from the glide w, a marginal onset which occurs in Chineseloans only:

(6) va ‘a personal name’wa ‘tile < Chinese瓦’

The glottal stop /ʔ/ does not contrast with its absence at the syllable onset posi-tion.

Examples of these onset consonants are given below:

(7) p- ʔɑ-pac ‘bridge’; pak ‘bald, barren’pʰ- pʰɔm ‘fart’; pʰak ‘wash (something hard, with a brush or scrubber)’m- ma ‘dry field’; mək ‘mince’m- ma ‘bamboo strip’; mɔŋ ‘hear’f- faʔ ‘monkey’; fap ‘yawn’v- ʔa-vie ‘tiger’; vum ‘scar’t- tau ‘weasel’; tɒk ‘kindle’tʰ- tʰu ‘peak’; tʰa ‘ignore’n- nɨm ‘urine’; nɒh ‘laugh’n- nam ‘blood’; nən ‘topple’s- sup ‘tobacco’; sak ‘full (with food)’z- ʔa-zuoŋ ‘thunder, dragon’; zuoŋ ‘know’l- la ‘tea’; luom ‘sharp’r- rɔŋ ‘pole’; raiʔ ‘far, deep’c- cak ‘sambhar deer’; cɒk ‘buy’cʰ- cʰə ‘bag, pocket’; cʰa ‘poor’ɲ- ɲɨɒʔ ‘house’; ɲies ‘smile, sneer’ɲ- ɲak ŋai ‘eye secretions’; ɲup ‘catch’k- kak ‘branch’; kɔi ‘have, exist’kʰ- kʰauʔ ‘tree’; kʰat ‘rough, coarse’ŋ- ŋuo ‘fire’; ŋuom ‘sit’

5. The Paraok Wa, for example, has breathy-aspirated nasals rather than voiceless nasals(Watkins 2002: 117).


ŋ- ŋɔʔ ‘rice plant’; ŋɛ ‘pregnant’h- hoc ‘muscle’; hauk ‘ascend’ʔ- ʔak ʔom ‘crossbow’; ʔiaŋ ‘return’

2.3.1.2 Cluster onsetsA Lavïa cluster onset is of the structure (C1)C2(C3)-. The C1 slot can be filled onlyby a prenasal n- (see below), whereas the C3 (or medial) slot only by -r-, -l- and-w-. Bilabial and velar stops combine with the two liquid medials l and r to forma major type of cluster initials. The medial -w- is phonetically labiodental. Velarstops in combination with l are often realized as uvulars:

(8) pl pr kl kr kw [kv]pʰl pʰr kʰl kʰr kʰw [kʰf ]

Another major cluster type consists of stops or stop-liquid clusters preceded bya homorganic nasal, represented herein by /n/. These segment sequences are nottreated as unitary prenasalized stops in our analysis since, at least in some cases,the prenasal element is a separate morpheme serving a derivational function (e.g.hlauŋ ‘high’ nkʰlauŋ ‘height’). Unaspirated stops in these clusters are redundantlyvoiced, e.g. npruoŋ [mbruoŋ] ‘horse’. The prenasal element is however alwaysvoiced, even before voiceless aspirated stops, e.g. npʰla [mpʰla] ‘waste time’.

(9) np nt nc nknpʰ ntʰ ncʰ nkʰnpl nklnpʰl nkʰlnpr nkrnpʰr nkʰr

nkwnkʰw

(10) np- npa ‘thigh’; npoŋ ‘dam up’npʰ- npʰɨɒ ‘cut diagonally’; npʰok ‘ride’pl- plɛʔ ‘fruit’; plɔk ‘boil [v]’pʰl- pʰləŋ ‘sprout [n]’; pʰlɨɒk ‘blind’npl- nplɛʔ tɛʔ ‘arm’; npləc ‘deceive’npʰl- npʰlen ‘convex’; npʰla ‘waste time’pr- prɛ ‘hail’; prɛm ‘old (as of things)’pʰr- pʰrɨs ‘rash, measles’; pʰrɨɒʔ ‘eat (meal)’npr- npruoŋ ‘horse’; nprɨɒʔ ‘steal’npʰr- npʰraŋ ‘hoe’; npʰro ‘blow (air)’nt- ntɔŋ ‘head’; ntɔk ‘install’ntʰ- ntʰuok ‘corner, angle, country’; ntʰə ‘put down’


nc- ncauk ‘spoon’; ncət ‘put out (fire)’ncʰ- ncʰɨ ‘declivity’; ncʰun ‘wait’nk- nkɔs ‘porcupine’; nkaŋ ‘tie (knot)’nkʰ- nkʰɛɲ ‘gall’; nkʰəʔ ‘glad’kl- klaŋ ‘eagle, hawk’; kliaŋ ‘twist’kʰl- kʰlaʔ ‘trousers’; kʰlap tɛʔ ‘clap’nkl- nkluoʔ ‘mud’; nkluas ‘explode’nkʰl- nkʰluop ‘scale’; nkʰlat ‘frighten’kr- kraʔ ‘road, way’; krəi ‘wither’kʰr- kʰrəŋ ‘object, possession’; kʰrep ‘cut with scissors’nkr- nkrɨɲ ‘termite’; nkruoʔ ‘burp’nkʰr- nkʰrɒŋ ‘small bamboo basket’; nkʰrak ‘snore’kw- kwɛ ‘stir’kʰw- kʰwit ‘stir’nkw- nkwɨɒʔ ɲɨaʔ ‘foundation of house’; nkwih ‘crack [v]’nkʰw- nkʰwia ‘hover’; nkʰwac ‘hiccup’

A number of additional clusters, hl-, hr-, and mr-, are also attested; their usualphonetic realizations being hl- ([ɬl]), hr- ([χɾ]), mr- ([mɾ]). That is, the /h/ ele-ment in /hl/ and /hr/ is always voiceless.

(11) hl- hlaʔ ‘leaf ’; hlak ‘intelligent’hr- hraŋ ‘tooth’; hrɛ ‘thin (as of books)’mr- mrɛʔ ‘quantity, amount’; mraɲ ‘tattered’

2.3.2 Rhymes

2.3.2.1 Nuclear vowels

2.3.2.1.1 Simplex vowelsLavïa distinguishes the following monophthongal vowels:

(12) i ɨ ue o

ɛ ə ɔa ɒ

The lower central vowel phoneme ə is phonetically [ʌ]. The language makes elab-orate distinctions among back vowels. In addition to u, o, and ɔ common in Waiclanguages, ɒ is also additionally distinctive, as shown by these minimal sets:

(13) som ‘want, desire’ ʔoʔ ‘crow (as of rooster)’sɔm ‘night’ ʔɔʔ ‘bamboo’sɒm ‘eat (rice)’ ʔɒʔ ‘flaunt, show off ’sum ‘till, plough’


Vowels in open syllables are markedly lengthened. The higher mid vowels e, o, ətend to be realized as falling diphthongs, especially in open syllables; e.g. le [lei]‘cup’, po [pou] ‘fly [v]’, klə [klʌɨ] ‘tadpole’. Another notable allophonic rule is glideinsertion between a velar onset and the vowel a; e.g. kaʔ ‘fish’ [keaʔ].

(14) a ma ‘dry field’; hak ‘skin’i mi ‘rich’; lik ‘pig’u mu ‘crawl’; pʰuk ‘scoop’e me ‘retreat’; ŋem ‘nail, claw’ɛ mɛʔ ‘bleat’; si-kɛ ‘be blocked’o mo ‘refine (ore)’; ntok ‘lead (the way)’ɔ mɔʔ ‘hide something’; lɔk ‘(of water) boil’ɒ mɒ ‘broadcast (seeds)’; mɒk ‘hat’ə mə ‘boundary’; ncək ‘key’ɨ mɨ ‘silver, money’; nkʰɨs ‘badger’

2.3.2.1.2 Vowel clustersLavïa has an extensive inventory of vowel clusters in three types: (a) rising diph-thongs ia, ie, iə, ɨɒ, ua, uo; (b) falling diphthongs ai, ui, oi, ɔi, ɒi, əi, ɨi, au, iu; (c)triphthongs iau, uoi, uai.

The rising diphthongs ie and iə are interchangeable in closed syllables(phonemicized as ie) but contrastive in open ones, as shown by the minimal pairŋie ‘pregnant’ vs. ŋiə ‘thrust forcibly’.

The offglides -i and -u in the falling diphthongs could alternatively be treatedas consonantal codas -j and -w, and in so doing simplify the rhyme system byeliminating all falling diphthongs. Little can be gained by this analysis for adiphthong-rich language like Lavïa, however, as some of these complex vocoidsthemselves take consonantal codas (e.g. la-ʔaih ‘sweat’, ka-taiʔ ‘hole’, kən ɲiauʔ‘some’). The consonantal-coda analysis of the offglides would create cluster codas,violating the typical Mon-Khmer syllable canon.

Of the triphthongs, the sequence uoi, distinct from ui, is another character-istic sound of the language. The contrast is established by minimal sets like thefollowing: lui ‘swim’ vs. luoi ‘make same mistake again’; ŋui ‘lower (head)’ vs. ŋuoi‘fifth child’; mui ‘large tree sp. with edible berries’ vs. muoi ‘common cattle’.

Examples of the attested vowel clusters are:

(15) ia kia ‘look’; tiak ‘lose, away’ie tʰie ‘duck’; kʰiec ‘shy, ashamed’iə ɲiə ‘littered (with corpses)’; ŋiə ‘thrust forcibly’ɨɒ ntʰɨɒ ‘dike’; vɨɒʔ ‘bring back’ua kua klaŋ ‘rapids’; suat ‘prick’uo nkʰuo ‘brain, marrow’; npʰuoʔ ‘increase’


ai ŋai ‘eye’; saiʔ ‘ache, be ill’ui nkʰui ʔia ‘cockscomb’; pʰrui ‘catch fire’oi ʔoi ‘eighth female child’; koi ‘Lahu’ɔi mɔi ‘axe’; kɔi ‘have, exist’ɒi kɒi ‘cicada species’; ŋɒiʔ ‘moo (of female buffaloes)’əi kəi ‘thread’; nkʰəiʔ ‘torch’ɨi pʰɨi ‘person, human’; tʰɨi ‘take’au ka-nau ‘lungs’; zauŋ ‘village’iu si-kliu ‘willow’; liuŋ ‘graze [vt]’iau miau ‘cat’; piauk ‘tie up (animal)’uoi ɲuoi ‘waist’; kʰuoi ‘cautious’uai ŋuai ‘thirty’; tuai ‘strike (match)’

2.3.2.2 CodasLavïa distinguishes the following consonantal codas:

(16) -p -t -c -k -ʔ-m -n -ɲ -ŋ

-s -h

Stop codas are unreleased. Between certain vowels and the coda -n, a transitionalschwa is inserted; e.g. ʔa-pon [ʔapoən] ‘female’; hɔn [xɔən] ‘Chinese yam’. Betweeni and velar codas, the vowel ɨ is automatically inserted, creating a phonetic-leveldiphthong [iɨ], e.g. tʰiŋ [tʰiɨŋ] ‘big’; lik [liɨk] ‘pig’. Velar codas are conspicuouslylabialized after u, a feature reminiscent of Vietnamese: auk [ʔaukʷ] ‘chest’; zauŋ[zauŋʷ] ‘village’. After high front vowels, -h is realized as a palatal [ç].

(17) -p kap ‘chin’-t kat ‘blocked’-c pac ‘dig with hand’-k kak ‘branch’-ʔ kaʔ ‘fish’-m kam ‘husk’-n nkan ‘ramie’-ɲ kaɲ ‘paddy field’-ŋ kaŋ ‘bolt (door)’-s nkas ‘foot’-h kah ‘untie’


3. Phonological history

In this section, the sound changes that molded the modern Lavïa phonologicalsystem out of the ancestral PWL system are identified.

3.1 Sound changes affecting onsets

3.1.1 Simplex onsetsThe PWL simple onset inventory contained the following twenty-three conso-nants:

(18) *p- *t- *c- *k- *ʔ-*ph- *th- *ch- *kh-*b- *d- *j- *g-*m- *n- *ɲ- *ŋ-

*s- *h-*r-*l-

*w- *y-

Most of these survived as such in Lavïa, except for the voiced stops and the glides.The plain voiced stops *b-, *d-, *g-, *j- transformed into voiceless aspirated stops,while the glides *w- and *y- strengthened to voiced spirants v- and z-:

(19) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*pon pɔn ‘four’ *cak cak ‘sambhar

deer’*phɒn pʰuan ‘five’ *chyoŋ cʰauŋ ‘light(weight)’*bɛʔ pʰeʔ ‘goat’ *jeŋ cʰeɲ ‘sew’*maʔ maʔ ‘mother’ *ɲaʔ ɲɨɒʔ ‘house’*wak vɨɒk ‘insect,

worm’*yaʔ zaʔ ‘grandmother’

*tɒŋ tɔŋ ‘roast’ *koh kauh ‘get up’*th(ə)y kʰauʔ

tʰai‘plough[n]’

*khiʔ kʰɛʔ ‘firewood’

*daŋ tʰɨɒŋ ‘cross’ *gɨc kʰɨc ‘burn [vt]’**()nɨm/*nɨm nɨm ‘urine’ *ləŋaʔ la-

ŋɨɒʔ‘sesame’

*siʔ seʔ ‘headlouse’

*ʔɨp ʔəp ‘cooked rice’

*rep rip ‘grass’ *hum hoŋ ‘bedbug’*lɛs les ‘six’


3.1.2 Complex onsetsPWL had a rich system of cluster onsets. Several distinct types are recognized(Diffloth 1980: § 4).

3.1.2.1 Preglottalized sonorantsThe PWL preglottalized sonorants merged into the corresponding plain sono-rants. The erstwhile preglottality had however triggered different vowel develop-ments from PWL plain sonorant onsets, see § 3.2.1 below:

(20) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔmoʔ mauʔ ‘rope’ *ʔrɒŋ rɔŋ ‘house-pole’*ʔlaŋ laŋ ‘long’ *ʔyoŋ zauŋ ‘village’

3.1.2.2 Preaspirated sonorantsPWL clusters of this type were composed of sonorants preceded by an h-like ele-ment. The preaspiration is generally preserved in Lavïa, but the actual realizationsdiffer according to the sonorant type.

Preaspirated nasals became fused into unitary voiceless nasals in Lavïa, creat-ing an innovative manner type among onset consonants. The PWL h+w combi-nation also turned into a distinct fricative f, further enriching the onset inventory.The PWL cluster *hr- and *hl- remained as complex onsets in Lavïa – direct evi-dence that the so-called ‘preaspirated’ consonants in PWL were once true clusters:

(21) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*hnam nam ‘blood’ *hraŋ hraŋ ‘tooth’*hwaʔ faʔ ‘monkey’ *hloŋ hlauŋ ‘high’

3.1.2.3 Post-glottalized liquidsCertain PWL sesquisyllabic forms were reconstructed with liquid-onset minorsyllables in combination with ʔ-onset major syllables. These forms are preservedas such in Lavïa. Interestingly, simplification by way of syllable coalescence hasalready set in, and alternative monosyllabic pronunciations with simple liquidonsets are also permitted:6

(22) PWL Lavïa*rəʔom ra-ʔɔm ~ rɔm ‘water’*lərʔa ra-ʔa ~ ra ‘two’*ləʔɔy la-ʔuai ~ luai ‘three’

6. Some exceptions are found; e.g. la-ʔɔs ~ *lɔs ‘grease’ and ra-ʔaŋ ~ *raŋ ‘rock’


3.1.2.4 Stop or nasal plus liquid clustersWith PWL onsets of the nasal+liquid type, stop epenthesis occurred after thenasal element, whereas in the case of the stop+liquid type, the liquid element sur-vived as such:

(23) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔmraʔ nprɨɒʔ ‘steal’ *prem prɛm ‘old, used’*səŋroŋ nkruoŋ ‘knee’ *braʔ pʰrɨɒʔ ‘eat (juicy food)’

3.1.2.5 Other consonant cluster typesA number of other complex onset types are posited for PWL, including prenasal-ized stops, *s+nasal, *r+consonant, *stop+stop sequences, and even more compli-cated combinations.

The prenasal element is well attested in Lavïa.7

(24) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*mpɔŋ npɒŋ ‘ladder’ *ndəut ntʰut ‘snap (of a

thread)’*mper npiu ‘gourd’ *ndah ntʰɨɒh ‘slap’*ntiŋ ntiaŋ ‘wall’ *(r)ŋ-

goŋnkʰuoŋ ‘pillow’

*ntak ntak ‘tongue’ *ŋgoʔ nkʰuoʔŋuo

‘embers’

*mboh npʰuoh ‘face’

The other PWL clusters appear to be sesquisyllabic in nature, involving minorsyllables containing *sa-, *ra-, and others, some of which are directly kept in theLavïa reflexes:

(25) PWL Lavïa*sə-ma si-mɨɑ ‘seed’*rə-pon ra-pɔn ‘forty’*kə-tɒm ka-tɔm ‘egg’

But in some cases, the Lavïa forms contain minor syllables different from thoseposited in the PWL reconstructions (especially *rə-):8

7. In a number of cases the Lavïa forms do not reflect any nasal element in the protoforms; e.g.PWL *(n)tay > Lavïa tai ‘skirt’; PWL *rndak > Lavïa tʰɨɒk ‘palm, sole’. As pointed out by onereviewer, the change of voiced (and nasal+voiced) to voiceless aspirated stops (e.g. PWL *mb-> /npʰ/ [mpʰ]) must be chronologically ordered before the change of *nasal+voiceless unaspi-rated to phonetically voiced stops (e.g. PWL *mp- > /np/ [mb]).8. However, even closely related Lavïa varieties sometimes show divergent minor syllablesfor the same root. Consider the word for ‘tiger’: Banzhe ʔa-vie, Masan ʔa-vi, Zhongke ra-ve,Yancheng si-vɤi.


(26) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*rə-way ʔa-vie ‘tiger’ *rə-waʔ la-vɨaʔ ‘Lavïa (autonym)’*rə-mpɨk ʔa-pac ‘bridge’ *rə-mɒs la-muos ‘banana’*rə-deŋ ka-tʰeɲ ‘navel’

3.2 Sound changes affecting nuclei

3.2.1 PWL vowelsThe vocalic inventory of PWL contained nine vowels, with no length distinction:

(27) *i *ɨ *u*e *o

*ɛ *ɔ*a *ɒ

Almost all these proto vowels underwent splitting conditioned by voicing of theproto onsets, or articulation places of the proto codas, or both. It should be notedthat onset voicing as a conditioning factor for vowel splitting refers to voicing ofa voiced consonant with or without a prenasal or liquid medial; in other words,*b(r)-, m(r)- and *mb- are ‘voiced’ in this sense but *hm-, *ʔm- and *mp- are not.9

3.2.1.1 PWL *aThe unrounded low vowel *a continued unchanged in Lavïa when the proto onsetwas a voiceless obstruent, or a preglottalized or preaspirated sononant:

(28) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*paʔ paʔ ‘you [du]’ *()-ŋ-ʔar ŋa ‘twenty’*klaŋ klaŋ ‘eagle’ *hnaŋ naŋ ‘wear around neck’*sak sak ‘sated’ *ʔmar ma ruok ‘dry field’

When the proto onset was voiced, *a underwent breaking into ɨɒ or ie dependingon the proto coda: ɨɒ if the coda was a guttural (i.e. velar or glottal) (29), and ieotherwise (30):10

(29) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*braʔ pʰrɨɒʔ ‘eat’ *rak rɨɒk ‘call (as of an animal)’*ɲaʔ ɲɨɒʔ ‘house’ *gaŋ kʰɨɒŋ ‘mouse, rat’*wah vɨɒh ‘wide’ *səŋa si-ŋɨɒ ‘green’

9. For extended discussion of the notion of voicing “permeability” with reference to tonogen-esis, register genesis, and vowel breaking in modern Waic languages, see Diffloth (1980:33ff ).10. Similar differentiation of diphthongs conditioned by different proto codas could also be atwork in Drage’s Wa data. Owing to the erratic transcription in this source, however, this factescaped Diffloth’s notice (1980:38–39).


(30) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*bam pʰiem ‘chew’ *kəɲas ɲies ‘sneer’*yam ziem ‘weep’ *wac viec ‘knife’*sənat si-niet ‘gun’ *gac kʰiec ‘shy’*gat kʰiet ‘very’ *baɲ pʰieɲ ‘white’*wan vien ‘tie up’

3.2.1.2 PWL *iThe PWL high front vowel *i is kept unchanged in Lavïa with a voiced onset:11

(31) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*lih lih ‘go down’ *diŋ tʰiŋ ‘older paternal

uncle’*lik lik ‘pig’ *(kə)-bit pʰic ‘glutinous’*gis kʰis ‘salt’ *ŋgriʔ ŋkriʔ ‘pestle’*gin kʰin ‘draw

(water)’*ŋgiʔ ŋkʰiʔ ‘pine’

After voiceless onsets, *i diphthongized to ia before *-ŋ (32),12 and lowered to ɛotherwise (33):13

(32) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔiŋ ʔiaŋ ‘return’ *ntiŋ ntiaŋ ‘wall, partition’*s(ŋ)kiŋ si-kiaŋ ‘ginger’ *kliŋ ka-liaŋ ‘spin (yarn)’

(33) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*khiʔ kʰɛʔ ‘firewood’ *kliʔ klɛʔ ‘penis’*khiʔ kʰɛʔ ‘moon’ *pliʔ plɛʔ ‘fruit’*mpi mpɛ ‘mattress’ *hri hrɛ ‘thin (of a book)’

3.2.1.3 PWL *ɨWith voiced onsets, the vowel *ɨ exhibits two reflexes depending on the coda. Itlowered and moved further backed to ə (phonetically [ʌ]) before a guttural coda(34), and stays as ɨ after other codas (35):

11. Exceptions: PWL *kədiʔ > tʰeʔ ‘one’.12. The generalization cannot extend to all velar codas, as no PWL etyma were found with avoiceless onset and an *-ik rhyme.13. Exceptions: PWL *siʔ > seʔ ‘head louse’; PWL *kris > kres ‘black bear’; PWL *s(ŋ)krit > si-kret ‘cricket’; PWL *()-biʔ > si-pʰeʔ ‘job’s tear millet’; PWL *ʔin > ʔien ‘this’; PWL *phiʔ > pʰiʔ‘otter’.


(34) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ɲɨʔ ɲəʔ ‘drink’ *grɨŋ kʰrəŋ ‘things’*klbɨʔ ka-pʰəʔ ‘soul’ *blɨŋ pʰləŋ ‘shoot (of plant)’

(35) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*bɨs pʰɨs ‘resin’ *ʔŋrɨɲ nkrɨɲ ‘termite’*nɨm nɨm ‘urine’ *jrɨm kʰrɨm ‘soya bean’

With voiceless PWL onsets, Lavïa likewise shows two-way splitting conditionedby the proto coda. Before a guttural coda, PWL *ɨ diphthongized to ai (36),14 andlowered to ə after other codas (37):

(36) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*sɨʔ kuan saiʔ ‘grandchild’ *rəmpɨk ʔa-pac ‘bridge’*ʔrɨʔ raiʔ ‘deep’ *kɨŋ kaɲ ‘field’*ləʔɨh la-ʔaih ‘sweat’ *pɨŋ paɲ ‘blow’

(37) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*hɨm həm ‘bathe’ *pɨ pə ‘grey’*hlɨt hlət ‘deaf ’ *kɨr kə ‘wind’*tɨs təs ‘breast’

3.2.1.4 PWL *uThe high back vowel *u generally lowered to o:15

(38) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*bruʔ pʰroʔ ‘blanket’ *tuŋ ntoŋ ‘stew, boil over slow fire’*nsum ncʰom ‘plant [v]’ *sut sot ‘pick up’*ntum ntom ‘soak’ *kus kos ‘boil (rice)’*pur po ‘fly [v]’ *klun klon ‘python’

3.2.1.5 PWL *oThe PWL back vowel *o underwent multiple splitting. After a voiced onset andfollowed by a coronal coda, *o raised to u:

(39) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*(rə)-moɲ ʔa-muɲ ‘wife’ *bon pʰun ‘(day-)time’*ɲo ɲu ‘guest’ *broy pʰrui ‘catch fire’*ɲor ɲu ‘wax’ *jos cʰus ‘sell’

14. The palatal codas in examples like ‘bridge’ stem from a further development; i.e. *rəmpɨk> *ʔa-paik > ʔa-pac.15. Exceptions where *u is kept as such: PWL *kədu > ka-tʰu ‘belly’; *ʔuc > ʔuc ‘be finished’.


After a voiced onset and before other codas, *o underwent diphthongization touo:

(40) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*boʔ pʰuoʔ nkruom ‘friend’ *mrok npruok ‘dhole’*sə-moʔ si-muoʔ ‘stone’ *ŋom ŋuom ‘sit’*roh ruoh ‘bark [v]’ *ŋop pʰun ŋuop ‘early morning’

With a voiceless onset and a guttural coda, *o lowered and diphthongized into au:

(41) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*hoŋ hauŋ ‘steam [v]’ *ʔmoʔ mauʔ ‘rope’*hok hauk ‘climb’ *rəŋkoʔ nkauʔ ‘husked rice’*koŋ kauŋ ‘dig’ *croʔ si-rauʔ ‘new’

With a voiceless onset and other codas, *o lowered to ɔ:16

(42) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*rənsom sɔm ‘night’ *rhom ra-hɔm~hrɔm ‘heart’*hon hɔn ‘tuber’ *pon pɔn ‘four’*hoc hɔc ‘arrive’ *ŋkos nkɔs ‘porcupine’*r/ləʔos la-ʔɔs ‘grease’

3.2.1.6 PWL *ɔWith plain voiced onsets, PWL *ɔ underwent raising and diphthongization intouo:17

(43) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ŋɔk si-ŋuok ‘neck’ *ŋgɔŋ nkʰuoŋ ‘mountain’*mɔɲ muoɲ ‘mouth’ *rɔy ruoi ‘fly (insect)’*kəmɔy muoi ‘common cattle’ *pəryɔŋ ʔa-zuoŋ ‘rainbow’*jɔs cʰuos ‘large black ant’

With voiceless onsets, PWL *ɔ became lowered and diphthongized to ua before acoronal coda (44),18 lowered to ɒ before a velar coda (45), and remained as ɔ oth-erwise (46):19

(44) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*kɔn kuan ‘child’ *ʔmɔc muac ‘broken rice’*hɔt huat kʰɛʔ ‘follow’ *sɔc ncʰuac ‘whistle’

*ŋʔɔy ŋuai ‘thirty’

16. With an important exception PWL *kol > kau ‘ten’, noted by Diffloth with reference toDrage’s Lavïa data (1980:54).17. Exceptions: PWL *bɔʔ > pʰoʔ ‘younger sibling’; *-lɔʔ > loʔ ‘snail’; *ŋɔl > ŋu ‘earthworm’.18. Exception: PWL *ntɔt > tɔt ‘smoke (a cigarette)’.19. Exception: PWL *krɔ > krɒ ‘cotton tree (Bombax ceiba)’, PWL *kətɔm > ka-tɒm ‘liver’.


(45) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa**hmɔk mɒk ‘hat’20 *mpɔŋ npɒŋ ‘ladder’*kɔk kɒk ‘call, shout’ *klɔŋ klɒŋ ‘river’*(rə)ʔwɔk vɒk ‘crooked’ *ʔɔŋ ʔɒŋ ‘large wasp sp.’

*krɔŋ si-krɒŋ ‘spine’

(46) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔɔʔ ʔɔʔ ‘bamboo’ *-ʔlɔh ʔa-lɔh ‘exchange’*hlɔʔ hlɔʔ kʰauʔ ‘tree bark’ *sʔɔh si-ʔɔh ‘dry’*sɔʔ sɔʔ ‘dog’ *hŋɔʔ ŋɔʔ ‘rice plant’

3.2.1.7 PWL *ɒWith plain voiced onsets *ɒ, like *ɔ, also became raised and diphthongized intouo:

(47) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*mrɒŋ npruoŋ ‘horse’ *lɒm luom ‘sharp’*rəmɒs la-muos ‘banana’ *rɒs ruos ‘choose’*ŋɒ ŋuo ‘fire’ *yɒŋ zuoŋ ‘know’*gɒt kʰuot ‘old, elderly’

With voiceless, preaspirated or preglottalized onsets, *ɒ generally merged into ɔ(48), except before a coronal proto coda where it became diphthongized to ua(49):

(48) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔɒ ʔɔ ‘elder sister’ *hlɒŋ hlɔŋ ‘cool’*mpɒ pɔ ‘mortar’ *plɒŋ plɔŋ ‘thatch grass’*kətɒm ka-tɔm ‘egg’ *sʔɔh si-ʔɔh ‘dry’*klɒm klɔm ‘carry on shoulder’

(49) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*kɒt kuat ‘cold’ *ʔɒs uas ‘swell’*phɒn pʰuan ‘five’ *ʔənsɒs ka-suas ‘charcoal’*sɒr sua ‘civet’ *ʔlɒs luas ‘loud’

20. The vowel *o in the pw and PWL form *hmok posited in Diffloth ms. was marked asdoubtful. The Lavïa evidence points rather to **hmɔk.


3.2.1.8 PWL *eWith voiced onsets, *e normally stayed as such:

(50) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*rədeŋ ka-tʰeɲ ‘navel’ *greh reh ‘spill our’21

*breʔ pʰreʔ ‘weather’ *səŋeʔ si-ŋeʔ ‘sun’*get kʰet ‘bite’ *meʔ meʔ ‘you [sg]’*beh pʰeh ‘spit out’

With voiceless onsets, *e typically lowered to ɛ:22

(51) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*preʔ prɛʔ ‘spicy’ *het hɛc ‘dried, parched’*hreŋ hrɛɲ ‘thousand’ *prem prɛm ‘old, used’*-seh sɛh ‘down’ *səntem si-tɛm ‘nine’*ʔem ɛm ‘alive’ *rəhmeŋ mɛɲ ‘male’*kheʔ kʰɛʔ ‘back(side)’ *(ŋ)-khen nkʰɛɲ ‘gall bladder’

3.2.1.9 PWL *ɛWith voiced onsets, *ɛ became raised to e, merging with *e in this phonologicalcontext:

(52) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*bɛʔ pʰeʔ ‘goat’ *lɛs les ‘six’*rɛm rem ‘weed [v]’ *ʔɛʔ ʔeʔ ‘we [incl]’23

*rɛs res ‘root’

With voiceless onsets, *ɛ generally underwent lowering and diphthongization toia (53), except when followed by a guttural coda, where it remained as ɛ (54):

(53) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔɛt ʔiat ‘small’ *p-()-hɛr hia ‘bee’*ŋkɛn nkian tɛʔ ‘finger’ *ʔɛr ʔia ‘chicken’*tɛp tiap ‘flea’ *hrɛm hriam ‘iron’

(54) PWL Lavïa*ʔɛŋ ʔɛɲ ‘excrement’*hlɛʔ hlɛʔ ‘rain’*kətɛʔ ka-tɛʔ ‘earth’

21. The r- onset is irregular.22. A handful of exceptions with unaltered vowel e are found: PWL *pes > pes ‘sweep’; PWL*tes > tes ‘mushroom’; PWL *mhem > ŋem ‘nail (body part)’; PWL *ses > ses ‘write’; PWL *peʔ> peʔ ‘you [pl]’.23. The vowel of the root *ʔɛʔ posited in Diffloth ms. was marked as doubtful.


3.2.2 Summary and generalizationsAs demonstrated above, the nine PWL vowels went through a full range of condi-tioned splits in Lavïa. The observed historical changes are typologically unusualin that, unlike the celebrated cases of Labovian vowel shifts, Lavïa vowel shiftingwas conditioned by onset voicing and articulation place of codas rather than byquantity differences in the rhymes. Moreover, the direction of shifting may differfor the same proto vowel (e.g. PWL *o could raise to u or lower to ɔ) dependingon the conditioning factors. In the following table, the reflexes of the nine PWLvowels are given with their conditioning environments:

Table 1. Lavïa vowel splits and their conditioning*onset voicing *coda Lavïa reflexes

guttural ɨɒ+other ie

*a

− regardless a+ regardless i

*-ŋ ia*i

−other ɛ

guttural ə+other ɨ

guttural ai

*ɨ

−other ə

*u ± regardless ocoronal u+other uo

guttural au

*o

−other ɔ

+ regardless uovelar ɒ

coronal au

*ɔ−

other ɔ+ regardless uo

coronal ua*ɒ

−other ɔ

+ regardless e*e− regardless ɛ+ regardless e

guttural ɛ*ɛ

−other ia

A number of generalizations present themselves in the table above.


First, all the PWL vowels except *u underwent diversification conditioned byonset voicing (as defined in §3.2.1 above) and articulation place of the codas. Inview of the insightful generalization “…phonation types (registers) affect vowelsystems by causing diphthongization, but tones have little effect on vowel qualityand do not create diphthongs…” (Diffloth 1980: 36), Lavïa may have once had aclear (from PWL voiceless stops) vs. slack (from PWL voiced stops) phonationdistinction which, after triggering the observed massive vowel shifts, was subse-quently lost in Banzhe and the other known Lavïa varieties, save for a trace ofslack phonation in the guise of secondarily aspirated stops.

Second, in the process of vowel splitting, most PWL vowels after voicedonsets shifted higher or, in the case of the PWL high vowels, stayed high. As dis-cussed in Diffloth (1980: 37ff.) concerning the proto low vowel *a, raising maytake the form of a high onglide in a diphthong, as in the case of *a becoming ɨaand *o becoming uo. Notably, raising and vowel breaking led to near-total mergerof the PWL non-high back rounded vowels after voiced onsets. The converseprocess of lowering occurred with all PWL vowels after voiceless onsets, with theexception of the rounded low vowel ɒ, for which further lowering would not bepossible. Again, vowel lowering may be direct (*i > ɛ; *ɨ > ə; *o > ɔ; *ɔ > ɒ; *e > ɛ)or realize by a low component vowel in a diphthong (*i > ia; *ɨ > ai; *o/ɔ > au;*ɛ > ia). These facts fall in well with Thurgood (2002)’s prediction regarding theeffects of voice quality on vowel height and fronting, such that breathy phonationconditions vowel raising and backing, while tense phonation conditions vowelslowering and fronting.

Third, the convoluted developments of proto vowels added many innovativevocoid clusters (au, ua, uo, ie, and ɨa) to the modern Lavïa system, without dimin-ishing the number of contrastive monophthongs and vocoid clusters inheritedfrom the PWL nucleus inventory.

Fourth, regarding syllable codas, the gutturals and coronals are naturalarticulation-place classes that play the most prominent role in conditioning vowelsplits.

3.3 Sound changes affecting codas

All its onset consonants, except -l, and -w and the voiced stops, could serve as syl-lable codas in PWL.

(55) *-p *-t *-c *-k *-ʔ*-m *-n *-ɲ *-ŋ

*-s *-h*-r

*-y


The attested codas fall under three natural classes: labial (*-p, *-m), coronal (*-t,*-n, *-s, *-r, -c, *-ɲ, *-y), and guttural (*-k, *-ŋ, *-ʔ, *-h). As we have seen in previoussections, codas belonging to the same natural class frequently patterned togetherin sound changes.

Lavïa generally preserves the PWL stop and nasal codas, except that protodental and velar codas became palatals after front vowels:

(56) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔet ʔɛc ‘sleep’ *hwɛk fɛc ‘dark’*(kə)-bit pʰic ‘glutinous (rice)’ *ʔɛŋ ʔɛɲ ‘excrement’*ʔɛk ʔɛc ‘elder brother’ *jeŋ cʰeɲ ‘sew’

Palatalization of dental and velar codas, for obvious reasons, did not apply wherediphthongization had turned *i into (phonetic-level) iɨ (e.g. PWL *diŋ > tʰiŋ[tʰiɨŋ] ‘father’s elder brother’; PWL *lik > lik [liɨk] ‘pig’), ia (e.g. PWL *ntiŋ> ntiaŋ ‘wall’) and ie (e.g. PWL *ʔin > ʔien ‘this’).

Of the PWL continuant codas, *-s (57) and *-h (58) are preserved as such,making Lavïa one of the few Waic languages where both contrastive Austroasiaticspirant codas are directly attested:

(57) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*tes tes ‘mushroom’ *ʔɒs uas ‘swell’*lɛs les ‘six’ *ʔənsɒs ka-suas ‘charcoal’

(58) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*lih lih ‘exit’ *rntah ʔa-tah ‘medicine’*koh kauh ‘get up’ *ləʔɨh la-ʔaih ‘sweat’

PWL -y has also been retained in Lavïa, interpreted here as a vocalic glide -i:

(59) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔlay lai ‘squirrel’ *broy pʰrui ‘catch fire’*ɲɔy ɲuoi ‘waist’ *kɨy kəi ‘thread’

On the other hand, PWL *-r was elided without a trace, constituting anothersource of modern open syllables:

(60) PWL Lavïa PWL Lavïa*ʔmar ma ruok ‘dry field’ *kɨr kə ‘civet’*sɒr sua ‘civet’ *mor mu ‘crawl’


4. Concluding remarks

This article delineates the phonological patterns and sound changes of Lavïa, aWaic language of southwestern Yunnan and eastern Myanmar.

Synchronically, the Lavïa sound system features a well-preserved sesquisyl-labic structure, abundant consonant and vocalic clusters, and total absence ofcontrastive tone or phonation.

The innovations that shaped modern Lavïa phonology include a number ofdevelopments commonly attested in Waic languages, such as devoicing and aspi-ration of proto voiced stops, loss of marked glottality in the preglottalized con-sonants, and strengthening of glide *y- to fricative z-. On the other hand, certainmore distinctive phonological innovations are also found, such as transformationof *h+nasal clusters into voiceless nasals and, in particular, prolific vowel shiftsvia raising, lowering and diphthongization which caused huge upheavals in thevocalic system.

The complete lack of either tone or register distinctions makes Lavïa typolog-ically unusual among Waic languages.24 On the other hand, Drage (1907) appar-ently heard multiple tones in the Lavïa dialect(s) he worked on (for discussions,see Diffloth 1980: 23–26). Could these simply be impressionistic whims of anuntrained transcriber, or are they clues pointing to an earlier tonal or phonationstage still extant in some Lavïa dialects?

The foregoing generalizations are drawn on the basis of primary data from asingle variety of Lavïa: Banzhe. A systematic comparison of the many local Lavïavarieties (Masan, Yuesong, Yancheng, and others) remains to be undertaken, butthe internal diversity of Lavïa can be appreciated by noting that, for example,PWL *-s merged into *-h in Masan whereas PWL *-r, dropped in Banzhe, stillsurvives in the Yuesong (Yunnan) and Yancheng (Myanmar) varieties. Much fur-ther work needs to be done to document and analyze the more diverse forms ofLavïa in Yunnan and Myanmar, in order to identify significant innovations thatare shared across the whole Lavïa dialect complex, which will be indispensable fora proper characterization of Lavïa as a distinct member among the Waic languagecluster.

24. This is true of Banzhe (our target Lavïa variety) as well as the Masan, Zhongke, Yuesong,and Yancheng varieties reported in Zhou et al. (2004). On the other hand, many Waic languagesmake contrastive use of tones (e.g. all the Blang languages, such as Pang reported Sun (2018a),and the Wa-Lawa language Vaʔ) or phonation (e.g. Paraok (Watkins 2002) and Phalok(Diffloth, ms.)).


Acknowledgements

The material in this article is based on fieldwork with Sai Kai (sai kai)岩改, a college studentfrom Banzhe Village, Mowo Township, Ximeng County, Pu’er City, Yunnan Province. I owehim a debt of gratitude for his friendship and capable assistance. I extend my sincere thanks toProf. Jingliu Wang王敬騮, Prof. Aishe Zhao趙岩社, and my other hosts at the Department ofNationality Languages, Yunnan Minzu University for their hospitality and assistance during myresearch visits. This paper has benefited much from very detailed and enlightening commentsfrom Prof. Weera Ostapirat and the two anonymous reviewers. The errors that remain are myown responsibility.

Abbreviations

PWL Proto-Wa-Lawa

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Appendix. English-Lavïa Vocabulary

10th year, chicken; num ʔia11th year, dog; num sɔʔ12th year, pig; num like1-litre-volume measuring container; sɛɲ1st day of the lunar month; ləs kʰɛʔ tə-sɔm2nd day of the lunar month; ntʰɨs kʰɛʔ ra-sɔm2nd year, ox; num krak muoi3rd year, tiger; num ʔa-vie4th year, rabbit; num ka5th year, dragon; num ʔa-zuoŋ6th year, snake; num si-ʔoɲ7th year, horse; num npruoŋ8th year, ram; num pʰeʔ9th year, monkey; num faʔa (bamboo) tube for blowing on a fire; npʰaɲ ŋuoa few, several; (few) kən ɲiauʔ; ra-luaia lifetime; ncʰua piece of cloth with straps for carrying a toddler on the

back; nɨɒʔa section of bamboo used as a container; (small) npʰəʔ

ʔɔʔ; (shorter) si-tʰuoi; (longer) ncʰɒa unit of dry measure for grain (=1 decaliter); kʰraa vertical bamboo flute; ncʰua while; kən ti vutabdomen; kɛɲ pauŋabstain from eating certain foods; tʰuosaccomplish, succeed; huac zuh; ʔuc zuhaccomplished; huac; ʔucaccumulate; ntʰuŋaccustomed to, have the habit of; mɨt; rianache, be painful; saiʔ; (of teeth from eating sour food);

saiʔ kɛ hraŋAdam’s apple; nkʰɔtadd; npʰuoʔ; naukadd (water), dilute; plɒmadmire, envy; kɔi/npʰaɲ ra-hɔmadult; pʰɨi tʰiŋadvantge, benefit; kaʔ/krɒŋ-mɔmadvise, counsel; klɛhaffectionate, intimate; ʔa-cʰaŋafraid, fear; hlatagain; npʰuoʔage; numagree on, arrange; huac nəʔ/ʔəhagree, consent; ɲiataim [v]; si-tɒŋ mɔmalcoholic beverage; plaialkali; ka-ʔatall of us; nkɔm mau; kʰu kaiʔ/pʰɨiall, everything; nkɔm mau/kʰu kaiʔalone; nɒŋalter; ʔa-tʰɨɒhaluminum; nprak

ancestors, forebears; taʔ-ntu zaʔ-luanand; mɨiangle [v]; met kaʔangry, take offence; si-kʰɨc ra-hɔm; npʰrus ra-hɔm; rau

ra-hɔmanimal fat, grease; la-ʔɔsanimal, beast; neʔ pʰreʔankle; ncʰɔŋ cʰuoŋ; (ankle bone) ŋai cʰuoŋanswer, reply; pɒk; (respond to calling) luosant; məc; (large, black sp.) cʰuosant-lion; nkrɨɲ məcanus; ka-taiʔ krɛanxious; kʰie ra-hɔmappearance, shape; kʰauʔ ncʰoŋapply (ointment); krɛʔ; pʰəarm; nplɛʔ (tɛʔ)armband; nple tɛʔarmpit; klɛcarmspan, fathom; tɔparrive; hɔc; (arrive for the first time) ləsarrogant, conceited; ʔa-mɨɒarrow; tʰe; (~ groove) nkʰuoŋ ʔak; (~ poison) ʔomashes; ɲuoʔask to come, summon; kɒkask (a question); maɲaskew, wry, slanting, too much weight on one side;

nkʰeɲ; hlaiassemble, muster [vt]; (n)kʰrɒmassess, estimate; ncʰai; si-pɒkastringent; krenat present; lai ʔienat the bottom of (a hill); ncʰuoŋ ra-ʔaŋaudit, check (accounts); sɔp kiaaunt (mother’s brother’s wife); mɨɒʔ/tʰiŋaunt (mother’s sister), (older than mother) tʰiŋ;

(younger than mother) mɨɒʔaunt (wife of father’s elder brother); tʰiŋaunt (wife of father’s younger brother); mɨɒʔawl; ntɔh; ncaihawn of wheat; ʔa-ŋəc (plɛʔ nkauʔ)ax; mɔibaa/bleat; npɛʔ; mɛʔbaby; kuan ŋababy food; mamback; si-ʔaŋ kʰɛʔ; kaʔ kʰɛʔback door; ʔa-vɨɒʔ liesback of hand; nprɨʔ tɛʔback of head; (ntɔŋ) npluokback up, retreat; me; me tə zauŋ; me tə ɲɨɒʔ; me kaʔ-kʰɛʔbad; lutbadger; nkʰɨsbag; həbald, bare; pak


baldhead; pa-pakbamboo; ʔɔ; (very strong sp., good for building houses)

ries; (a single ~) paŋ ʔɔʔbamboo basket; (large, fine-meshed) kʰra; (smaller)

lan; nkʰrɒŋbamboo bell; rɒhbamboo cluster; tʰɨɒk ʔɔʔbamboo flute; ncʰubamboo food steamer; hauŋbamboo knob; ncʰɔŋ; kɛɲ pauŋbamboo mat; vi ~ nkwibamboo partition in house; ntiaŋ si-tʰɨɒŋbamboo partridge; pʰrehbamboo rat; npəibamboo section; ncʰɔŋ; npʰəʔbamboo shoot; ŋɛm; (on the ground) pʰləŋ ʔɔʔbamboo strip; mabamboo or twig fence; si-paban, forbid, prohibit; ʔaŋ lətbanana; la-muos; (wild ~) paŋ hlaʔbang, strike; (with palm) kʰlap; (with fist) tʰup; (pat)

ntʰihbank (of river); plak klɒŋ; keh klɒŋbanyan; paŋ rɛʔBanzhe; pa-cʰəkbark [n]; hlɔʔ kʰauʔbark [v]; ruohbarren, sterile; nehbasket carried on back; lan; nkʰrɒŋbat; nplɨɒk; (bat sp.) ncʰɔs; nkʰakbe; mɔhbe at a location; ʔɔtbe broken (of a bowl); nkruaɲbe burnt (e.g. finger); haʔbe called/named; mɔh (ŋai)be complete; kʰupbe familiar with, know well; mɨt; (very much so) hliau;

hliube hooked; vɛc; vɔkbe left over, remain; prahbe on the other side of (river); ʔa-liapbe poisoned; ʔɔpbe one’s turn; hɔc (nah)be startled; hlatbead; pluaibeak; nkʰuoh sembeam; praŋ; (one of the two main horizontal beams)

nokbean; tʰobear; kresbear (fruit); plɛʔ (plɛʔ-kʰauʔ)beard; hac kap; (moustache, goatee) hac nkʰɨs; hac ntɔtbeat (drum); taihbeat up; ŋohbeat with fist; tʰupbeautiful; mɔm

beckon; nkʰebecome blocked; si-kiat; si-kɛ; kat; (clogged) ntʰɔʔ;

kʰən; nkʰən; si-kʰənbecome crazy; laɲ; hiɔtbecome curved/bent; vɒkbecome full/filled up; nuok; rehbecome loose (of ropes); npʰəcbecome mixed, blended; ʔa-nɛʔbecome torn apart (of a family); ncas ɲɨɒʔbed; nkʰruon; npɛbedbug; hoŋbee; (small sp.) hia; (sp. in the mountain areas produc-

ing honey) ʔa-ŋəʔbee larva; kuan hiabeehive; ɲɨɒʔ hiabeeswax; la-hauŋbeetle; si-rɛbefore, long ago; nɒ-nɒʔ; ncʰu ka(-nɒʔ)beg (for food); pua (pʰrɨɒʔ)beggar; pʰɨi pua; pa-puabelch, burp; nkruoʔbelieve, trust; ŋiat; (trust) kaiʔ ra-hɔmbell; si-pʰuok; *leɲbellows; səsbelly; ka-tʰubelly bend; mauʔ huat npruoŋbelow, under; (under) plak/kaʔ nkrəm; (river, moun-

tain) plak/kaʔ-sɛhbelt, girdle; mauʔ si-nubend; nkwɒkbend body; kɒʔbet; zuh ləʔbetel; pobetween; ʔa-liapbid somebody welcome, greet; ʔa-taih (tʰɨi)big, large; tʰiŋbigger, more [v]; nplɔsbind, tie up; (~ an animal) piauk; (~ an animal, ~ limbs)

ʔa-pauŋ; vien; (~ objects) nuatbird; sembird (crop-eating sp.); sem-sacbird (small sp.); rucbird sp.; sem suabird’s nest; kʰək sem; məm sembirthday; si-ŋeʔ kʰehbite; kʰet; (of a poisonous snake) tos; (of a bee) həcbitter; sɔŋ (ʔa-tah)black; loŋblack drongo; tiɲ tiablacksmith; cau mobladder; nplaɲblind; pʰlɨɒk; njet ŋaiblind person; pa-pʰlɨɒkblink, wink; cʰiap ŋaiblissful; mɔm pʰrɨɒʔ ɲum mɒkblister; lɨm (= pus)


block (wind); ntʰɨɒ; ʔa-tʰɨɒblock up, plug; tʰɔʔ=ntʰɨɒ [vt]; ntʰɔʔ=tʰɨɒ [vi]block view; ntʰɨɒ; ntiaŋblock [vt]; nkiat; nkɛ; (clogged) (n-)tʰɔʔ; kʰənblood; namblossom [vi]; prosblow; paɲ; npʰruo; npʰriasblow (as of wind); paɲ/klaŋ kəblow (~ one’s nose); hə mɨs tʰeʔblow (~ trumpet); paɲblue; si-ŋablunt, dull; nkʰuboar; lik ŋaboat, ship; rəboatman; cau pʰat rəbody; kaiʔbody filth; kɔm; riet; ka-məʔbody hair; hac huaboil; (generic) plɔk; (~ rice) kos ʔəp; (~ gruel) hrɔŋ; (~

something hard) nto; (~ over slow fire, simmer,stew) toŋ; (~ water); lɔk

boiled water; ra-ʔɔm lɔkbolt (a door); si-kaŋ ʔa-vɨɒʔbone; si-ʔaŋbook; lieboot; nten laŋbored; lu-lahbored, impatient; ʔesborrow; (~ what to be returned in kind) npa; (~ a tool)

viebothersome, disagreeable; aŋ sɔm zuoʔ; kʰuɲbottle; kɒŋbottle gourd; si-kɛc tʰuoŋboundary; məboundary line, demarcation line; məbowl; klɔŋbox; lɔŋbox, case; ziapboy friend; ʔa-meʔ fɛ; kʰun-mɨi-siambracelet; nple tɛʔbrag; pʰiubraid, plait; hac kianbrains; nkʰuobranch off; nkʰriesbranch, twig; kak kʰauʔbray; npʰrɨsbread; npləh; ka-pukbreak earth and come out (as of bamboo shoot); nkʰɨsbreak earth lumps; pʰəh; ncosbreak up, scatter; zuh…tʰuo; zuh…nkʰries; pʰu pʰrebreak up, end (of a meeting); rie; nkʰriesbreak, smash (a bowl); nkruaɲbreak, snap; nkwes; pɔt; npokbreast; təsbreath; npʰɔmbreathe; npʰɔm

brick; *cuaŋbridge; ʔa-pacbright; nplaŋ; rɨɒŋ; nplasbring; ʔa-pauʔbring back; vɨɒʔbroad bean; tʰo kʰauʔbroadcast (seeds); ruot; ruat; tʰɨɒʔ; mɒbroaden; kauŋ; nkʰuabroken, smashed; nkruaɲbroom; npesbrother; pʰoʔ ʔɛcbruise; ŋutbucket; suoŋbuckle up, button up; nkaŋ cahbuckwheat; ka-muŋbud; hlɒm prosbuffalo; krakbugs (including lice, ticks, fleas, and bedbugs); ʔas seʔ

ʔas nprɨɲbuild a fire; paɲ ŋuobuild by laying bricks, stones, etc.; (~ a wall) roʔ; (~ a

house) taɲ; zuhbulbul; zuo mɒk; (red-whiskered sp.) zuo liau; (yellow-

vented sp.) zuo pəbull; muoi mɛɲbullet; luk si-nietbullet shell; tʰuoŋ si-nietbully, treat roughly; ka-cʰecbumblebee; hia kresbumpy road; ca-lɒkbunch/bundle (of vegetable); nkwien; ncʰopBurmese; manburn; ra-ʔok; tɔkburn the grass on wasteland; kʰɨc/npʰrui maburn [vt]; kʰɨcburnt, scorched; haʔburnt rice stuck on bottom of pot; haʔ ʔɨpburr; rosburst, burst open (baloon, ripe fruit); npeh; (when rice,

etc. is popped) ʔa-tʰuosbury; ʔa-paɲbusy; kʰiebusy, noisy; ŋauŋ; nkʰəʔbutterfly; pʰuŋ pʰɨɒŋbuttocks; krɛbutton; nkaŋ cahbuy; cɒkcabbage; taiʔ pʰieɲcackle (of hens); ka-tɒtcalculate; sumcalculating; ʔa-kuascalf (young cattle); kuan muoicalf (of leg); nplɛʔ cʰuoŋcall together, convene; nkʰrɒmcan; pʰuncan hold; pʰun/kʰup ʔən


cane, rattan; nocannon; muokcapable; npraʔcapital, principal; nom mɨcareful; (attentive) kʰrim; (cautious) kʰuoicarp; kaʔ nplahcarpenter; cau cʰiʔcarry; (~ load, of a pack animal) taŋ; (~ money on one);

pɛɲ; (~ on back) pʰoʔ; (~ firewood with foreheadstrap) kʰuok; (without forehead strap) klɛc; (carrywith pole on shoulder) klɔm

carrying pole, shoulder pole; kʰauʔ nklɔmcartilage; si-ʔaŋ kruccarve, engrave; sɛccast iron; hriam ʔɛmcast light on; sancastrate; sɛhcat; miaucatch and take away (as of tiger); nkɛʔcatch cold; (ʔɛh) saiʔ pʰəhcatch fire, be on fire; haʔ; pʰruicatch fish by damming up creek; npoŋ kaʔcatch nothing; nprahcatch up with; kropcatch, capture; nkɛʔcaterpillar; kʰuoŋ hac; (black sp.) kʰuoŋ haʔ; (red, long-

haired sp.) kʰuoŋ tɒp; (small grey sp.) kʰuoŋ ŋɨɒʔ;(edible sp.) si-ŋie

cattle; krak muoicattle illness (kind); raucatty (=0.5 kg.); kincave in, sink; ntʰuoh; (landslide) nkʰrac; (foot sinking

in mud) pʰluoncave, hole; ka-taiʔcelebrate (New Year); vuocentipede; si-ʔoɲ ʔiachaff, bran; (coarse) kam kʰuot; (fine) kam pa-zuachange; tʰɨɒhchaotic, disordely, messy; tʰəh tiak; su-sec; kʰuŋ kʰancharacter, word; ŋai liecharcoal; ka-suascharge, sprint; pʰətchase after; ʔa-vaŋ; (~ around) nkwiachat; ʔa-pʰɨɒkchat, shoot the breeze; fɛ; ʔa-pʰɨɒkcheap; zɨɒcheek; si-paʔcherish; mɔʔcherry; kʰauʔ kochess; si-pɒkchest; ʔauk; naukchest, box, trunk; ʔa-ŋaihchestnut; plɛʔ tias; (small sp.) kʰauʔ toŋchew; pʰiem; pʰɨmchew, gnaw; kʰreɲ; (~ betel) si-cɛhchew up and feed; pʰiem

chick; kuan ʔia; (ʔia) macchicken; ʔiachicken coop; (basket for chicks) nkʰrɒŋ ʔia; ntaŋ ʔia;

luok ʔia; (hen) kʰək ʔiachicken feed; kʰuohchicken louse; mɛʔ ʔiachicken pen; luok-ʔia; ntaŋ ʔiachild; kuan ʔiat; kuan ɲomchin; kapChinese chestnut; paŋ li (< Chinese板栗)Chinese ink; məʔ (< Chinese墨)Chinese yam; hɔn mauʔchip (the rim); ka-vɛhchirp; nprieɲ; (of chicks) cip; (of mice) cicchisel [n]; ncʰɛcchisel, bore [v]; sɛc; tɔhchive; ka hɒʔchoke (on food); kʰɔmchoke (on water); la-hɔkchoose, select; sot; ruos; (~ good ones) ləkchop; nplak; (~ bones) nkam; kep; mok; (~ in two) lok;

(cut into small pieces) nkam; ŋɛ; (~ down) nkʰo;(~ small tree) tuas

chopper; ŋau; ŋoŋchopsticks; si-kiapchurn; ka-vɛ; kʰwitchurning rod; nkwit; nkwɛcicada; lu(k)-lɛt; (colored sp.) kɒicigarette, tobacco; supcircle, hover; nkʰwia; pai liuŋcivet; suaCL (day); si-ŋeʔCL (month); kʰɛʔCL (night); npʰuCL (year); numCL (of a single shoe); mauCL (of an ax); nplaʔCL (backload of firewood); npʰosCL (basketful of vegetable); lan/kʰraCL (of a bird); mauCL (of a bolt of cloth); npuaCL (of a bottle); kɒŋCL (of a bowl); klɔŋ/mauCL (of a bridge); nkɒŋCL (of a broom); mauCL (of a bucket); suoŋ/si-tʰuoiCL (of a bundle, parcel); nkʰɨɒCL (of a bundle, sheaf ); nkwien; pʰusCL (of length of dry field); npʰɒ maCL (of a drop of oil); ncɛhCL (of ears of maize); nkɒŋCL (of eggs); mauCL (of flags); nkɒŋ/nplahCL (of flocks); tʰɨCL (of flowers); nkɒŋCL (of forests); tʰɨɒk


CL (of garments); nplahCL (of grain of rice); sɔk; mauCL (of grass); nkɒŋCL (handful, with hands cupped); ntʰuomCL (of hats); mauCL (verbal classifier, times); ntɔmCL (of a knife); nkʰɨɒŋCL (lap, section of road); ntʰəhCL (of a leaf ); nplahCL (of a letter); nplahCL (of loads on animal’s back); laŋCL (of meals); ntɔmCL (of tobacco); kʰɨɒ; ntɔtCL (page); nplahCL (pair); nprɔmCL (of pants); mauCL (of a patch of field); nkwɨɒŋCL (of a pen); nkrɔŋ/mauCL (of a person); kaiʔCL (pile); nkroʔCL (of a puddle); ntʰuŋCL (of a river); tʰuohCL (of a rock, stone); mauCL (of a room); ncʰɛCL (of a rope); mau/nkɒŋCL (row of houses); hlaŋ; praŋCL (of a section of bamboo); ŋɛ; ncʰɔŋCL (sheet); nplahCL (of a song); mau; krɒŋ; cʰɨCL (of a square of cloth); nplahCL (stack of hay); nkɔmCL (step); ntʰɨɒŋCL (of a stick); mau; nkɒŋ; kʰauʔCL (of a string of beads); ncʰiesCL (of a stroke with knife); ntuasCL (of a team of oxen); nprɔmCL (of a team of people and horses); tʰɨCL (of a tree); nkɒŋ; mau; nkʰuoCL (of an utterance, sentence); npɒk; muɲclaw, talon; rasclean; si-ŋa(ʔ)clear (water); si-ŋa(ʔ)clear, lucid; si-klahclear/sunny; kɔc/viec/mɔm pʰreʔ; (become sunny again)

tɔh pʰreʔclever; hlak; hlak hɒʔ hlak siam; (in compound) pʰɨi

hlak pʰɨi hɛɲcliff; tu-tatclimb (mountain); hauk nkʰohclimb up (tree); haukclitoris; hlianclose (mouth) lightly; ɲiepclose (a book); ntʰuop; kʰlɒpclose (an umbrella); zip; ɲopclose (eye); zipclose (mouth); ɲep

close (the door); ncʰɔŋcloth; mancloth stretcher (in weaving); nplaʔ taɲclothes, garment; cahcloud; (ta-)ʔɔmcloudy/overcast; ka-ʔɔm/zɨm/ka-ma pʰreʔcluck (of hen); ka-tɒtclumsy, awkward; ʔa-vu; ntʰokcoax; npləc; ʔa-məɲ; ncəmcobweb; ɲɨɒʔ pʰrɨscock; ʔia ʔa-meʔcockscomb; nkʰui ʔiacoffin; lɒŋcold (weather, water); (weather) kuat; (water) si-kʰet;

(of boiled water) hlɔŋ; (feel freezing) ka-mieɲcollapse, cave in, fall down; (earth sunken) nkʰrac;

nklot; (wall, house) nkropcollar; si-ŋuok cahcollect (grain or clothes); kɔhcollide, run into, bump against; (into each other) ʔa-

kʰləh; ʔa-kʰlɨɲ; (ram against door) ntoŋ; si-tʰɨɲcomb; si-kah; (=comb [n]) si-katcombine; ʔa-nɛʔcome; hau kaʔ ʔiencome from, originate from; tom; nomcome loose; nkah; ntah; (completely untied)

npʰəc~npəc; (not yet completely untied) hluacome out; lih kaʔ ʔiəncome out (of the sun); lihcomfortable; ɲumcommend, praise; ʔa-mɨɒ; zuocommon cattle; muoicommon cold; saiʔ pʰəhcommon people; kuan kaicompare, compete; ʔa-lahcompensate; prɔcomplain to his superior; ŋauʔconnect, join; ʔa-tɔiconsult, discuss; sum; lie maɲ tʰeʔ mɔŋconverge (cf. roads); ʔa-kapcook [vt]; plɔk pʰrɨɒʔ; (~ rice) kos ʔəpcooked; (dried rice) run; (over-done) ɲɛh; (ready to

eat) seɲ; (main ingrediants of gruel) tʰehcooking stove, fireplace; npiaʔcool; npʰaɲ; hlɔŋ pʰreʔcopper; la-vuncoriander; hoŋcorner, angle; ntʰuokcorpse; pa-zum; (resp.) kaiʔ pa-zumcorsac fox; ncʰəscotton; pros ka-tʰiecotton tree (Bombax ceiba); krɒcough; ŋaukcount; ʔa-mencountry; ntʰuokcover (the mouth); ntʰuop nkʰɨs


cover up (objects); tʰuop; rup; (with hands) ntʰuopcover, cover with lid; tʰuopcovered with corpses and blood (of battle-grounds); ɲiəcow; muoi cʰaŋcow dung; ʔɛɲ muoicowshed, ox fence; luok (~ muoi)crab; ka-tam; (small sp.) ka-tam hramcrack (on ceiling); ntɔhcrack in two [vt]; nkuahcrack [vt]; ka-tʰohcramped, narrow; kɒpcrawl; mucricket; (large) ka-tʰuon; (small) si-kretcrisp, brittle; kʰreccrops; plɛʔ pʰrɨɒʔcross (a river); tʰɨɒŋcross (bridge); ntʰuo/hau nkuai ʔa-paccross, pass; luancrossbow; ʔɑk ʔom; (front part of ~) ntɔŋ ʔak; (~ bow)

moŋ ʔak; (~ hook) nkʰloc ʔak; (~ string) las ʔak;(~ stock) paŋ; (~ trigger) nkʰloc ʔak

crow; la-ʔakcrow [v]; (of a cock) ra-ʔoʔ; (of crows) la-ʔakcrowded; ʔa-kʰloʔcrowded, disorderly; su-sakcrown of head; kʰuan ntɔŋ; ka-pʰɨɒŋ ntɔŋcrupper-strap; mauʔ huat krɛ npruoŋcrush to pieces; nkruaɲcry, weep; (of a baby) ŋa; ziem; (~ loudly) rɨɒk; (~ bad-

temperedly) ŋɒh, si-keʔcry, yell, shout; kɒk; ka-tauʔcubit, length from elbow to hand; ncʰɔŋ tɛʔcuckoo; sem ʔəp pʰic; kuk kucucumber; la-kɛcuddle, embrace; ruom; (hold in bosom) tʰɨmcultivate, reclaim wasteland; hrɔmcunt lips (labium); hlɔʔ sɔk/pɛcup; lecupboard, cabinet; ɲɨɒŋcurious; rian ra-hɔmcurse; tuokcurved, crooked, bent; vɒkcut; (~ diagonally) npʰɨɒ; (~ downward) kʰlaʔ; (~ grass)

sɔh; (~ grass with sliding motion) vuok; rih; (~many trees) nta; (~ meat into slices or chucks) sɛ;set; (~ thatch) tuas; (~ rope) pias; (~ into sections)ŋɛ; kep; nje; (~ with scissors) kʰrep; (~ downbranch) klɛh; (~ in half ) mak; (~ off, sever) tuas/pias ntʰut; (~ a slit) pet; (~ or rip open) peh; (dis-enbowl) lɨɒh; (remove bark or unwanted parts oflog) hlah

cut in; tos nkʰɨscut/gouge out; kuaccymbals; cʰɛŋdagger; nkuandam up (a creek); npoŋ

damage, spoil; ([vi]) ləʔ; ([vt]) nkləʔdance; pɔi/pɒi; (~ around fire) nkrauhdandruff; ka-məʔdanger; ʔa-kʰɨɒʔdare; pʰundark; fɛcdaughter; kuan ʔa-pondaughter-in-law; kuan ʔɔŋdawn; nplas/rɨɒŋ pʰreʔday after tomorrow; ʔa-kauʔday before yesterday; si-ŋeʔ ʔuadaybreak; nplas pʰreʔdaytime; pʰun si-ŋeʔdeaf; hlətdeaf person; pa-hlətdecay (tooth); nkrec hraŋdeceive, cheat; npləcdeclivity; ncʰɨ; (~ on a barren hill) nciədecoct; (~ herbal medicine) hrɔŋ; (boil water) ŋo;

(reheat) si-ʔodeep; raiʔdeep hole in field, underground cave; ka-taiʔ pɔŋdeity; ʔa-zɨɒʔ; mucdelicious; ɲumdeposit, leave with; ntʰəh; cɔʔdescend; lihdeserve; pai lɒʔdestroy, exterminate; si-tec; si-tapdevil’s tongue; taiʔ nkahdew; cʰɨɒʔdiaper; hadibble; ʔa-pʰɨt; (its business end) ntɔŋ ʔa-pʰɨt; (stick)

nkrɔŋdie, dead; zumdie out (of fire); zət; (cause to die out) ncətdifficult; nodig or break through; ntɔh; (~ out, e.g. of hot ash) kuas;

(~ out with finger) kuac; (~ with hand or paw)pac; (of animals, ~ with hind legs) ras; (~ some-thing out with a tool, excavate) kauŋ; (~ withsnout, of pigs) kʰɨs; (~ out a tuber) luoh

dike, embankment; ntʰɨɒdirection, orientation; plakdirt, filth; kɔmdirty; npriedisappear, vanish; nkraidisheveled; zu-zahdislocate (a joint); ʔa-lucdisorderly; nkʰəndistinction, difference; ʔa-lahdisturb; zu-zahditch, gully; rədivide up family property & live separately; nkʰɨɒh ɲɨɒʔdivide/share (things); nkʰɨɒhdo; zuhdo business; zuh li


do not have; ʔaŋ kɔidoctor; pa-zuh ʔa-tahdodge; vehdog; sɔʔdon’t; pʰɔʔdonkey; ladoor; ʔa-vɨɒʔdoubt; kʰauʔ mɔhdove; ku-kɛdown, hair; hacdownstairs; nkrəm nkʰrɨmdownstream; ncʰuoŋ klɒŋdownwards; plak (ka-)sɛh; plak ka-sicdowry; kʰrəŋ ntasdoze off; tac ŋaidrag, lead (a cow) along; vɨɒʔ; (drag along with force)

tokdragon; ʔa-zuoŋDragon King (the god of rain); ʔa-zuoŋdragonfly; nkrɔŋ mɔidrain, strain; ncʰuodraw (bow); luotdraw (crossbow); vɛcdraw a picture; *huadraw out (sword), stretch; luotdraw water; kʰin/tauŋ/klɔm ra-ʔɔmdream; ʔa-muoʔdredge; pɔk; (with tool) vɛcdregs, sediment; la-haukdrench; ncʰəʔ/ntom nah hlɛʔdrift, float; (ca)-lɔidrill; (bore) tɔh; (auger) ncʰɛcdrink; ɲəʔ; (~ soup) si-rotdrive; (~ a car) pʰat; nkʰrə; (~ animals); (~ out to pas-

ture) nplɛh; (~ back to fold) nplɛcdrive in by pounding; tʰet; komdrive out, expel; nkʰrə; ʔa-vaŋdrop, fall; krəc; [caus] nkrəc; (of leaves) krəi~nkrəidrop by; vehdrop [v] (as of water); cu-cɛhdrum; kraɲdrunk; zocdry; si-ʔɔh; (of water drying up) hɛcdry [vt]; (~ by airing) nta; hɔk; (~ by fire) ka-ʔadry field; ma ruok; tʰaiʔ tidry season; lai rɔŋduck; tʰiedulap; tuŋ taidumb, mute; pa-ntʰɨɒdusk, twilight; vu vɨɒʔdust; ʔa-kə; (~ on ground) ka-tɛʔ npriedust off; pes; pu-pes; (~ lightly) puasdye; krɛʔdye [v]; ka-saiʔeach, every; kʰu kaiʔeagle; klaŋ

ear; la-hiaukear, spike; plɛʔ ŋɔʔearly; ntʰuok; (~ to arrive) kʰratearrings; npə (la-hiauk)earth, ground; ka-tɛʔ; (earth, globe) hak tɛʔearth lump; klɔn ka-tɛʔearthen jar; si-kʰoŋearthworm; ŋu; (large sp.) la-vunearwax; ʔɛɲ la-hiauk; ɲakeast; kaʔ lih si-ŋeʔeasy; zɨɒeat; ʔɛh; (~ rice) sɒm; (~ a meal) pʰrɨɒʔ; (~ something

juicy) pʰɨɒʔ; (~ melon seed) sepeaves; ncʰuo nprəʔ; (its short edge) ʔa-pʰus; (its long

edge) tʰus nprəʔedge, rim, margin; npɒ; (~ of a knife) luom viecedible; mɔm tʰeʔ ʔɛhegg; ka-tɔmegg shell; hlɔʔ ka-tɔmeggplant; mak kʰəeight; si-tɛʔeighteen; kau-si-tɛʔeighty; ʔa-tɛʔelapse, pass; luanelbow; ncʰu (tɛʔ)elder brother; ʔɛcelder sister; ʔɔelephant; ka-saŋeleven; kau-tʰeʔembrace, hug; ruomembroider; taɲ; cʰeɲempty; pʰɨɒempty out; tʰɔk; ŋɔŋempty the bowels; ʔɛɲ; muoŋenclose; nfɨɒenclosure; ʔa-vɨɒend, extremity; tʰusendure; nkɛʔ ra-hɔm; laŋ ra-hɔmenough; kʰup; nɔʔentangled; zu-zah; kʰuŋ-kʰənenter (a house); lec; haukenter a hole; lec nuoŋenvy; pɔ ra-hɔmepilepsy; saiʔ zum pʰierr, make a mistake; lutescape, run away; nprɨɒʔ tʰeʔ ʔa-vɨt; (cattle, horse) luanesophagus; krauŋ ɲəʔevening; (pʰun) npʰueverybody; kʰu-kaiʔ (kʰu pʰɨi); ti kaiʔ pʰɨieveryday; kʰu si-ŋeʔevil spirit, demon; pa-caihexchange; ʔa-lɔhexcrement; ʔɛɲexcuse, pretext; npləcexhale; npʰro npʰɔmexist; kɔi


exit; lih; (of mice) lusexpand, swell; plɒ; pleɲexpensive; noexplode; nkluasextinguish [vt]; ncətextinguished [vi]; ɲətextra, excessive; hauhextract; ntepeye; ŋaieye secretion; ɲak/ruoɲ ŋaieyebrow; hac kɛɲ-rɛeyelash; hac ŋaieyelid; hak ŋaiface; npʰuohfade (as of color); npahfaint; zum pʰifall (of rain); (lih) hlɛʔfall asleep; tʰiec; ɲum ʔɛcfall down, topple; nkrop; ncac; nkʰracfall off (hair); nkrɨcfall down; (generic) nkʰus; (tumble down) krəc; (slip

and ~) si-klə; (trip over something and ~) ʔa-vufall, autumn; lai plɛʔ pʰrɨɒʔfallow land; ma npreʔfan fire; npʰaɲ ŋuofan [n]; pa-zipfar edge (esp. of basking platform); zusfar, distant; raiʔfart; pʰɔmfat [adj]; npʰeɲ; kloɲfat meat; neʔ la-ʔɔsfather; (address) nəɲ; (reference) kəɲfather-in-law; pauʔfeather, plume; hacfeed, breast-feed; tɒʔ/krəɲ pʰəʔ; (~ other food) krəɲ; (~

chicken) tɒʔ…kʰuh; (~ other animals) tɒʔ…sɒmfeed [n]; ncʰɒmfeel bloated; puoŋ puoh; pleɲ ka-tʰufeel dizzy; pai liuŋ ntɔŋfeel strange; miufelt blanket; pʰroʔfemale (animal); mɨɒʔfemale child; (1st) zɛʔ; (2nd) ʔe; (3rd) ʔam; (4th) ʔɔk;

(5th) ʔip; (6th) ʔiat; (8th) ʔoiferment; hɔcfern; hlaʔ vɨɒʔfertilizer, manure; nkʰənfestival; lai ʔɛh npləhfever; saiʔ ka-luasfew, little; zɒmfierce, ferocious; pʰriaufifteen; kau-pʰuanfifty; ra-huanfig; (large sp.) kros; (small sp.) ka-tʰucfight; (between two people) ʔa-zuh; (one side stronger

than the other) ləh= lɨi; (a group of people) ɲaɲ

fight/vie for; ʔa-ciaʔfile; kʰan saŋfill, put into; (~ with food) pʰuk; (~ with water) prəkfill up (hollow); rɨɒ; ntanfilter/strain; si-kʰit; ncʰɨɒhfind; zuoʔfinger; nkian tɛʔ; (middle finger) nkian laŋ; (index fin-

ger) nkian cʰi; (little finger) nkian lehfingerprint; kʰuan tɛʔfingerspan; (tip of thumb to tip of middle finger) ntʰɨɒʔ;

(tip of thumb to tip of index finger) nkauŋfinish, be over; ʔucfire; ŋuofireplace rack; nkrɨɒʔfire-tongs; nkiapfirewood; kʰɛʔfirst; pa-ka; ntʰafirst day of the month; ləs kʰɛʔfish; met kaʔfishing rod; kʰauʔ metfish-poison; hrɛʔ; lɛʔfish-trap; nkʰrɒŋ kaʔfishy; si-ʔɔi kaʔ; ŋɛcfist; tɛʔ ncʰɔpfive; pʰuanflat (and shallow); ntapflat (of a ball or tire); tɒpflatland; npes priatflatten; ntiap; tapflattened bamboo used to make floor; ka-musflea; tiapflesh, muscle; hocflight (of steps); npɒŋfling, toss; si-vunflint; si-muoʔ ka-tuai; si-muʔ ŋuo tuaiflip (finger); tʰetfloat; si-liuŋflock; (of chickens) kaʔ; (~ of sheep) (n)tʰɨflood; ra-ʔɔm ruohfloor; nkʰrɨmflour; mɒŋflow; lihflower; prosflower sp.; pros krɒfluttered; su-sak ra-hɔmfly [n]; ruoifly [v]; poflying fox; hlaukfoam; ŋiafodder, horse feed; sɒm npruoŋ; ncʰɒm npruoŋfog, mist; (t-)ʔɔmfold, time; nap; sonfold one’s arms around chest; klaɲ tɛʔ; ruom tɛʔfold up (a quilt); niap~nep; puafollow; huat kʰɛʔfood; pa-ʔɛh; pʰrɨɒʔ


foodstuff, grain; pʰrɨɒʔfool, blockhead; pʰɨi ʔɒfoot; nkas (cʰuoŋ)foot (=1/3 meter); sɨɒkfor the first time; ləiforce, compel; nkʰrə; si-kʰətforehead; kɛɲ-rɛforehead strap; ntuaforeskin; ra-həmforest, jungle; (distant virgin forest) nɔŋ; (close to vil-

lages) ruok kʰauʔ; (close to village but more exten-sive) tʰɨɒk kʰauʔ

forget; pʰiforty; ra-pɔnfoundation (of house); nkwɨɒŋ ɲɨɒʔfour; pɔnfourteen; kau-pɔnfowl; sem-sai sem-sacfox; (also: wild dog) sɔʔ pʰreʔfragment, broken piece; npliasfragrant (smell); (ɲum) ŋəifreeze; tʰiec si-tapfresh; npʰəʔ; ŋəifriend; pʰuoʔ nkruomfrighten, scare; nkʰlatfrog; si-puan; (bull frog) nkrɨs; si-puan num; (small ~)

ka-nohfront; kaʔ kafront door, entrance door; ʔa-vɨɒʔ lauŋfrost; si-tapfrostbitten; zu zefruit; plɛʔfruit sp. (oval, tart-sweet); no nkɔsfruit sp. resembling a mango but tastes like a papaya;

ka-vakfry; tʰɨɒkfrying wok; kʰaŋ lefull; nuok; nɛhfull (from eating), sated; sakfully recover (from an illness); muai; (partially, able to

move about) vu-viesgadfly; prɒpgall bladder; nkʰɛɲgame (animal); neʔ poɲgap, crevice; ncʰɛ; ʔa-liapgarbage, rubbish; pa-npriegarden (of vegetables); ʔa-pʰɨmgarlic; ru hɒgaseous; inclined to break wind; tɔʔgather firewood; reʔ kʰɛʔ;(search for) sɔp kʰɛʔ; (cut dried

braches into smaller sections) kep kʰɛʔ; (cut downthe whole tree to dry) nkʰo kʰɛʔ

gather, assemble [vi]; ʔa-numgather/build up (of water); ntʰuŋ ra-ʔɔmgecko; nkɔigeld, castrate; sɛh

gem; si-rɛgenerous; si-rɨɒgerminate, sprout; pʰləŋgesticulate; nplas tɛʔ; zuok tɛʔget accidentally separated from and lose contact with;

(village dispersed because of war, disease) tʰuo;kʰrə; (a group of people) ru-rie

get close, approach; ʔa-tʰeʔget dark; vu-vɨɒʔ (pʰreʔ); fɛc (pʰreʔ); (sunset) klɛp si-ŋeʔget together, assemble; (n)kʰrɒmget up; kauhget, gain, fetch; pʰun tʰɨighost, spirit; si-caʔ; (invisible living in leaves) tʰoŋ-tʰoʔ;

(aparition) cʰɨɒgift, present; pa-sət; kʰrəŋ tɒʔginger; si-kiaŋgirl; kuan si-nuo ʔa-pongirl friend; ʔa-pon fɛ; laiʔ mɨi naŋgive; tɒʔgive birth to; kʰehgizzard; npleglans penis; ntɔŋ klɛʔglass; si-lɨɒŋglib; vaʔglutinous rice; ŋɔʔ pʰicgluttonous; ʔa-cʰoʔgnaw, nibble; kʰreɲ; (~ wood) kʰet; (~ hard) kʰiugo downstairs; lih kaʔ-sɛhgo out to work in the early morning; npʰəi~npʰɨəi;

məi~mɨəigo to market/a fair; lec lasgo to stool; muoŋgo to war, do battle; zuh/poɲ nieɲgo up, ascend; haukgo up/rise (of water level); huan (klɒŋ)go, leave; hau kaʔ ʔuagoat; pʰeʔgoiter; rɔhgold; sigong; ʔa-pʰɨɒŋgood; mɔmgood, well-behaved; tʰum; (tame) ŋegood-for-nothing; pʰɨi ləʔgoods, merchandise; pa-cʰus pa-ʔɛhgoose; hangore; ʔa-vusgossip; ʔa-pʰɨɒkgourd (gen.); npiugourd flute; npiauŋgourd ladle, wooden dipper; npʰukgovernment official; (ʔa-)mɨɒŋgrab, seize, catch; (grab) si-pʰingrader; ncʰəsgrain left unhusked in the mortar; ʔɛm nkauʔgranary; ɲɨɒʔ nkraukgranddaughter; kuan saiʔ ʔa-pon


grandfather; taʔgrandmother; zaʔgrandson; kuan saiʔ ʔa-meʔgrasp with the fingers of both hands; vihgrass; ripgrass sp.; makgraze; ŋɔm; liuŋgreasy, oily; la-ŋiecgreedy; tiŋ ra-hɔmgreen; si-ŋɨɒgrey; pəgrind; (~ flour) kʰrit; (~ with grader) səsgrinding stone; lɛɲgrip, handle (of cup); nkrɔŋgroan; ŋɨɒh; ŋiu; ŋəi; ŋɨəigroin; ʔa-liap ntʰɨɒŋgroove in crossbow; ntɒŋ ʔakgrope; pu-piugrope for fish; pɔkgrow; huan; (emerge out of earth) kʰuosgrow (a boil); ka-muatgrow up; huangrowl (of a tiger); ŋɒkgruel, porridge; kləm; (watery) hrɔŋgrunt (of a pig); ɲɛkguard, defend; (e.g. tend sheep) ŋɔm; kʰuonguess at; si-pɒkguest; ɲugums; ŋigun, rifle; si-nietgunpowder; ʔa-niegut (fish); lɨɒhhail; prɛhair; hac ntɔŋhair whorl; kʰuanhalf; plakhalter, bridle; kə npruoŋhammer; nkʰohhammer in (a nail); kom; tʰetHan Chinese; hɒʔhand; tɛʔhand down (to posterity); prah; ʔən ʔɛh; ʔa-liethandful (of rice); ncʰophandicapped; vɒkhandle, hilt; si-tʰoʔhang; vɔk; tachang (on the wall); (~ painting) kʰlaʔ; hlɔp; (~ mirror,

sword, bag, etc.) vɔk, piəhang down, droop; tak ta; pruŋ praŋ; pruŋ pʰreɲ;

(beautifully) ncʰɨɒhhappy and excited; nkʰəʔ; (nkʰəʔ) pʰɨthard; krɔhhard, laborious; si-tʰiephardworking; rianharvest, reap; vuokharvested but not replanted (as of fields); npreʔ

hat; mɒkhat made of bamboo strips; nɛʔhatch [vi]; nkwɛhhatch, incubate; (sit on egg) ka-num; (hatch [vi])

nkuahhate; si-ŋɨɒ/kʰuɲ ŋaihave, possess; kɔi; ʔənhave (eyes); kɔihave a fever; ra-ʔauh/kɔc kaiʔ; saiʔ hɔc; kɔc ntɔŋhave cramps; rən si-nɨɒk; tos kuan ʔiahave diarrhea; (saiʔ) pʰrəh; saiʔ vec; (saiʔ) si-kʰəthave goosebumps; ros kaiʔhave guessed right; rok (si-pɒk)have pins and needles; ka-mieɲhave sex; ʔa-pəthave stuffed nose; ntʰukhave taken hold of/gotten; huac tʰɨi; (have caught) huac

nkɛʔhay (of rice); nkaihhe; nɒh; (at SAL: ɲuom; (dist) ɲuom ʔuan; (prox) ɲuom

ʔien); (anaphoric) hahhead; ntɔŋhead-cloth, turban; (male) si-kruat; (female) kuŋ kɛɲheadman, chieftain; pʰɨi hraŋheadwaters; tʰuoh klɒŋheal (of a wound); muaiheap/stack; (stacks of hay) roʔ; (loose grass) nkom/

muoʔhear; mɔŋheart; ra-hɔm~hrɔmheavy; cʰenheel; nklɔc cʰuoŋheight; nkʰlauŋhelp; ʔa-zuɲhelper; npʰiʔhemp; kaiʔ-həchen; ʔia mɨɒʔhere; tʰoʔ ʔienhereafter, from now on; kʰɛʔ ʔiən; kʰɛʔ ʔuanhew (with jungle knife); mokheystack; nkaihhiccup; si-ʔɔʔ; nkʰwachide (something); mɔʔ; ([vi]) mɔʔ tʰeʔhide oneself; mɔʔ tʰeʔhigh building; ɲɨɒʔ hlauŋ ɲɨɒʔ tʰiŋhigh, tall; hlauŋhill; tʰuohire, emply; viehit, beat; zuh; (beat up) ləh/lɨi; pʰəh; (~ with thick

plank or log) tuai; (~ with small rod) tʰes; (~ withlog) pʰəh; (~ with knuckle) kʰuoh; (~ target) ŋəh;krɔʔ

hoe [n]; npʰraŋhoe up (weeds); kʰras; (with hoe) kʰruas; (with hands)

remhoe [v]; kʰruok; (~ horizontally) npʰuok; cauk


hold, grasp; si-pʰin; nkɛʔ; (~ hidden in the fist) nchɔphold danglingly in the mouth; kʰethold out hands to catch or receive something; tʰuoŋhold in mouth; mɨhold in the arms, hug; nɛɲ; tʰɨm; (hug) ruomhold one’s chin; tʰu kaphome; (nuoŋ) ɲɨɒʔhonest person; pʰɨi cəŋ; pʰɨi cɔkhonest, well-behaved; cɔk; pʰɨi cɔk pʰɨi rian/ncʰəshoney; ra-ʔɔm kɛɲ hiahoof; ŋemhook [n]; methook up [v]; (with a hook) ka-vɛc; (with other tools)

kuashope; ʔa-mɨɒhorizontal; nkɛ; kuŋ kɛhorn; roŋhorse; npruoŋ; (mare) npruoŋ cʰaŋ; (colt) kuan npruoŋhorse dung; ʔeɲ npruoŋhorse mane; hac npluokhorseshoe; si-tʰe cʰuoŋ npruoŋhospitable; ɲuhost; cau (ɲɨɒʔ)hot; (of weather) hlok; ra-ʔauh; (of water) kɔchot pepper, chili; ma(k)-kriəm; pʰret; pʰrɛthot, spicy; prɛʔhound; sɔʔ hɔhhouse; ɲɨɒʔhousehold; ɲɨɒʔ pʰɨihouse-pole; rɔŋ; (central~) rɔŋ tʰiŋhow; hlɒk muoʔ/ hlɒk pʰɒhhow many/much; mrɛʔ muoʔ (kaiʔ)howl (of a wolf ); npruohhuddle/curl up; rət; kɒk kɒm; rək rənhuman being; pʰɨihunchback; pʰɨi kɒʔhundred; kɛɲhungry; vuk vechunt; (alone) ncʰuom; (in a group) hɔh; (for a few days

in mountain) ŋɛchunt (for some time in the hills); kʰuon; ŋɛchunter; cau ncʰuom; pa-hɔhhuqin (a two-stringed bowed instrument); si-coŋhurriedly, hastily; kʰiehusband; ʔa-meʔhush-money; sumhusk; (separated from grain) kam; (still on grain); lɒŋhusk powder; mɒŋI; ʔəʔice; prɛidea, opinion; (pa-) ncʰemidiot; pʰɨi ntʰɔkidle, unoccupied; pʰɨɒif; kʰeɲignore; tʰaill/sick; saiʔ

immerse, submerge; ncʰəʔimpatient; ʔahin (the sky); nkuai ka-main a low voice; kʰrɛin ancient times; ncʰu kain shambles, ruined; hramin the future; kʰɛʔ ʔien saʔin the past; kaʔ ka nɒʔ; ncʰu kaincisor; hraŋ vuiincrease; npʰuoʔ; nauk (hon)industrious, hardworking; rian; kʰɨ; lom ŋeminfect; haukinhale; zuat npʰɔm tʰeʔinitially, in the beginning; lai ɲaiinjure/hurt; matinside; nuoŋinstall; ntɔkinterest; ru mɨinterrogative marker; hɔʔinterstice; ʔa-liapintestine; vecinvite; hakinvite (someone in a crowd of people secretively home

for a meal); kuasiron; hriamitch/tickle; ŋɨɒʔ; (when tickled) la-ŋɨc; la-ŋiecivory; hraŋ saŋjab, poke, stab; suat; (~ with great force) npluŋ; (prick

with needle) sətjackfruit; mak nunJanuary; kʰɛʔ tʰeʔJingpo; kʰaŋjob’s tears millet; si-pʰeʔjoint; si-ʔaŋ rucjoke, jest; ləɲjump, leap; (~ up, ~ up and down) ca-loŋ; (of a frog) ca-

pos; (~ over a ditch) pos; (~ while running) pʰuosjust now; nɔʔjustle; kʰuk kʰatkeep secret; mɔʔkeep, take care of; preʔkernel, pit; sɔkkettle, teapot; ka-tɒŋ lakey; ncəkkick; (with tip of foot) tʰet; (with entire surface of foot)

si-tonkidney; sɔk-len; sɔk-laʔkill; plaiʔ; (slit throat) ŋiu; (chicken, cut throat and

then singe off feather) tɔŋ; (butcher cattle) pʰəh;(butcher pig) suat

kill oneself; plaiʔ tʰeʔ zum; zum cakind [n]; ʃə; cʰɨkindle; tɒk; (switch on light) npʰluai təŋ/tiɲking; (ʔa-)mɨɒŋ zaŋkiss; ʔɒɲ; zuat nkʰɨs/si-pakitchen; ɲɨɒʔ pʰrɨɒʔ/sɒm


knead (dough); tʰɨc; pua; zuh; mianknee; (mus) nkruoŋkneel; ʔoŋ; kʰrɨk kʰrɨnknife; viec; (battle knife) viec nieɲ; (long ~) viec laŋ;

(small ~) nkuanknock; kʰohknow, recognize, know through learning; zuoŋknuckle; ncʰɔŋ tɛʔlack, want; cʰutlad, young chap; kuan si-nuo ʔa-meʔladder; npɒŋladle; (water) npʰuk; (for food) lak tʰohlag behind; ntʰaiLahu; koilake; ntʰuŋlamb; kuan pʰeʔlame person; pa-vɒkland, descend; krəc [vi]; nkrəc [vt]lap; nkuai npalarge intestines; vec tʰiŋlast month; kʰɛʔ kalast night; npʰu pa-kauʔlast year; num kauʔlate; liaŋlaugh, smile; nɒh; (without sound, sneer) ɲieslay (eggs); (lih) ka-tɔmlazy; ka-nɨɒh; ʔas seʔ ʔas nprɨɲlead; hraŋlead (metal); la-vunlead (the way), guide; ntok kraʔlead to; npləsleader; pʰɨi nkʰraŋleaf; hlaʔ kʰauʔleak; cʰiu; ruac;lean meat; hoclearn; nkʰɨleave, depart, set out; zuok; (leave, walk away, move

away, dodge) nkasleave (home) in anger; ŋɒhleave behind; pʰi; prahleave behind, push away, jilt; kʰənleave fallow; vaŋleave home; prah zauŋleech (land); nplɔmleft; kaʔ veʔleftover;-pʰrɨɒʔ hlɔŋ/hauhleg; cʰuoŋlegendary ancestor of the Wa; si-kaŋ lihlength of fist; ncʰɔpleopard; ʔa-vie si-ʔoɲ; ʔa-vie ka-suasleprosy; saiʔ nkreclet up (rain); hɛcletter; lie (tɒʔ ~ ʔa-pauʔ)level, flat; nkɛ; (obsolete) tʰuoŋlick, lap; letlid, cover; ntʰuop

lie; ɲiat pɔt tʰeʔ; (~ on one’s back) ʔɛc lup lak; (~ on one’sside) ʔɛc lup liap; (~ on one’s stomach) ʔɛc nkop;(~ down) ɲiat

lie (speak falsehood); pʰiulie scattered on the ground (of trees, corpses, etc.); nəilife line on palm; kraʔ tɛʔlife-span; ncʰulift (lids); faklift up, carry; zuok; nɛɲlight; kɔclight (a fire); tɒklight (weight); cʰauŋlight, lamp; *təŋlighten; ʔa-saslightning; ɲɨɒʔ cʰus kʰrəŋlike [+comp clause]; rian; mɨtlike, love; mɨt; mɔm/tʰum ra-hɔm..nah; rian…nah; sɔm

ʔɔt..mɨi; (like to do something) rian…nahlime; ra-ʔɔm si-muʔline (of wheat); lɒʔline up; ntia; (Indian file) ntia kʰɛʔ ka; ntia ncʰɔŋ;

(shoulder agaist shoulder) ntia ti plak; ntia kɒŋ kɛlip; hlɔʔ nkʰɨs; ntɔt nkʰɨslisten; ŋiatlitre; sɛɲlive coal; nkʰuoʔ ŋuolive, reside; ʔɔt; (move and live at a place permanently)

kət; (~ at a place temorarily) npanliver; ka-tɒmlivestock, domestic animal; kʰrəŋ ʔəiliving, alive; ʔɛmlizard; ka-luloach; kaʔ nkluoʔlobed Kudzuvine root; ra-hɛʔlock; suo (< Chinese鎖)locust, grasshopper; si-tʰulonely; ncʰɨ/npʰɒŋ ra-hɔmlong; laŋlong (time); ntʰuoklong ago; nɒʔlook like, resemble; hlɒk (ʔa-tʰu =identical)look up; ŋietloom; kʰrəŋ taɲloose, slack; ntah; hlua; (loosen) npʰlɒ; la-hɒloquat; (large sp.) kros; (small sp.) ka-tʰuclose (something); tiak; nkrai zuh; (~ a game, be

defeated) pʰək; (~ a finger/toe/limb) kʰoloud; luas; (of voice) lɔʔ tʰiŋloufah; tʰuoŋlouse; (body ~) npruɲ; (head ~) seʔlove, like; ʔauʔ; (~ a child, ~ to eat certain foods) mɨtlow; tʰemlower body; cʰuoŋlower head; ŋui/ʔoŋ/ntʰem ntɔŋlower lip; nkʰɨs sɛhlukewarm; si-ʔo


lunatic; pa-laɲ; pa-hiɔtlungs; ka-naumachete; pa-kɒm; ma-kɒm; (with curved blade) ŋaumaggot; nkrecmagpie; nprieɲmaize, corn; vuoŋmake (prepare food); (~ bread) zuh; (~ tea) ntom (la);

(~ cold dishes) samake a row/racket; rɨɒk; ʔa-caiʔmake friends; sɔp; zuh tʰeʔ mɔh (pʰuoʔ nkruom)make a mark; zuh niatmake way, give way, step aside; zak; nkas; nklɛhmake (something happen), cause; zuhmalaria; saiʔ prəhmale (animal); mɛɲmale child; (biggest) ʔai; (2nd) ɲi; (3rd) soi; (4th) sai;

(5th) ŋuoi; (6th) ŋuoʔ; (7th) sɛ; (8th) lokman; ʔa-meʔmanage, control; kʰam; prɛʔ; (watch over object) kiamane; hac npluokmanger; ntɒŋ sɒm npruoŋmango; pɛmantis; ʔak-sɔʔmany, much; hon; hlə; nɛmark, sign; maimarriage ceremony; pʰrɨɒʔ kən caŋmarrow; nkʰuomarry; kən caŋ; (~ a woman) tʰɨi; (~ a husband) hau

ɲɨɒʔmarten; kamat; npɛ; ka-ne; npɛ ka-nematch; ka-tuaimatter, affair; si-vaimeans, solution; krɒŋmeasles; tuŋ; pʰrɨsmeasure; hiatmeat; neʔmedicine; ʔa-tahmeet, come across; ʔa-taih; tɔh ŋaimelt, dissolve [vi]; liecmelt, dissolve [vt]; nkriak; nkliecmen’s sarong; kʰlaʔ tʰiŋmenses; kʰɛʔ nammeow; nprummerchant; pa-limess up; kʰuŋ kʰan; tʰu tʰiamessy, chaotic; su seʔmiddle; ka-piaŋ; npiaŋmidge; meɲ; (smaller sp.) mumidnight; ka-piaŋ sɔm/npʰumilk; ra-ʔɔm təsmillet; kʰɒʔmillstone; nkʰritmimic; tɔimince; məkmirror; si-lɨɒŋ

miss [vt]; mos ~ mus; ntʰut ra-hɔmmistake, error; lutmix (powder) with water; si-kaʔ; nfitmix [vt]; zuh ʔa-nɛʔ; (stir) si-kaʔ; ku-kaʔmolar; hraŋ kʰiemoldy; ʔamole (body part); mai ʔa-zɨɒʔ; mumole (animal); klɨmole cricket; ntʰɨ ʔɛɲmoney; mɨmonk; vatmonkey; faʔmonth; kʰɛʔmoo (of cattle calves) npɛʔ; (of female cattle) mɒh; (of

male cattle) npɒh; (of female buffalos) ŋɒiʔ; (ofmale buffalos) ʔɒiʔ

moon; kʰɛʔmore; ntɔmorning; pʰun ŋuopmortar; pɔmosquito; meɲ; (large sp.) praŋ; (~ larva) nkrecmoss; ʔɛɲ ʔakmother; (term of address) maʔ; (reference) mɨɒʔmother-in-law; tʰiŋmountain; nkɒŋ (ra-)ʔaŋ; nkʰuoŋ (ra-)ʔaŋ; (peak) tʰumountain cave; ka-taiʔ ra-ʔaŋmouse; kʰɨɒŋ; (~ sp.) nkʰuosmouth; nkʰɨs; ntɔt; (oral cavity) muoɲmove; ʔa-sɔh; luas; ʔa-tʰɨɒh; (~ objects closer to one-

self ) kuas; (~ house) tʰɨɒh/nkas ɲɨɒʔMowo莫窩 (village to the north of Banzhe); məŋ-ŋaumu (unit of area;= 667 square meters); kau kʰauʔmud; nkluoʔmuddle (the water); ku-kaʔ…si-kaumuddy pool; ləh; npʰiuŋmuddy, turbid; si-kaumulberry; kʰauʔ liasmulticolored; pʰrɨs; (as of chicken and clothes, black

and yellow) si-krakmung bean; ʔianmuntjac, barking deer; pɔsmushroom; tesmute; pʰɨi ʔɒnail (body part); ŋemnail, tack; si-tʰenaked; nkauŋnaked (as of mountain); tʰu-pakname; ŋainape; npluoknarrow; kɒp; klɒʔ; klɒpnasal mucus; mɨs; nkʰuo mɨsnauteous; si-rəɲnavel; ka-tʰeɲnear, close; tʰeʔneck; si-ŋuoknecklace; (pa-)naŋ


needle; ka-ɲiʔneigh; npʰros; npʰrɨs; rɨɒkneighbor; pʰuoʔ ɲɨɒʔnephew (brother’s son); kuan taŋnet; rupnet fish; rup kaʔnew; si-rauʔNew Year’s Day; num si-rauʔNew-Rice Festival; npʰoŋ ŋɔʔnews, message; lɔʔ ʔa-pauʔnext year; num saʔnight; npʰu; sɔmnimble; si-klahnine; si-tɛmnineteen; kau si-tɛmninety; ʔa-tɛmnipple; nkon təsnit; ka-tɔm seʔ/npruɲnod; ʔɨʔ ntɔŋ; ŋəh ntɔŋnoisy, make noise; nkʰəʔnoon; ka-piaŋ/(lai) ncʰoŋ si-ŋeʔnose; mɨsnose ridge; nkʰuoŋ mɨsnostril; ka-taiʔ mɨsnot at all; ʔaŋ tunot busy, idle; ŋiecnotify, inform; ŋauʔnumb; zum pʰi; (sore) ka-mieɲobverse; nkuaioccur, happen; kɔioffer (food, drink) respectfully; lusoffer, dedicate; sətoften; npraʔold, used; prɛm; cʰuoʔold lady; zaʔ kʰuot; kʰuot ʔa-ponold man; kʰuot ʔa-meʔ; taʔ kʰuotold, elderly; kʰuotolive; si-meon; (~ a roof ) nprəʔ ɲɨɒʔ; (~ a table) nkuai; (~ a wall)

nkuai (ntiaŋ)one; tʰeʔ; (in numerical phrases) ti ~ təone hundred and one; tə kɛɲ mɨi tə mauoneself; tʰeʔonion, scallion; ka numopen; (~ a door) pauh; (~ eyes) nplies; kʰu-kʰries; (~

mouth) ʔaŋ/vies nkʰɨs; (~ wide) vɨɒh nkʰɨs; (~ anumbrella) plas; nplas

open water conduit; ntʰuoh ra-ʔɔm; ntʰuŋ ra-ʔɔmoppose; ʔa-tʰɛ; (ʔa-tʰɛ) ʔa-tʰɨɒorange; mak ŋeorder, command; (request) nəʔ; nkʰrəorigin; tom; nomorphan; (kuan) ntɔiother; nplah heʔother side; lak; (turn over to the other side) ʔa-l(i)akother person(s); pʰɨi piauŋ; pʰɨi nplah

otter; pʰiʔout of order; ləʔoutside; nprauʔ; (of utensil) nkuai; (of house) klaŋ ka-

tɛʔover, above; plak lauŋovereat; si-tapoverflow, spill; rehowe (money); npaowl; plɒŋ plɒhoxhide string; mauʔ hakpack rack; laŋ/taŋ muoipad; ha; tʰompad, cushion; ha nkʰuoŋpaddle, row; paspaddy field; kaɲpaddy rice; ŋɔʔ kaɲpail (of bamboo); si-tʰuoipain, agony; saiʔpainting; *huapal, partner; pʰuoʔ haupalate; ntʰɨɒŋ hraŋ lauŋpalm; ka-tʰɨɒk tɛʔpalm tree; kʰruai; səkpancreas; la-vuotpangolin; ʔa-pʰuoʔpant, be out of breath; hə npʰɔmpants, trousers; kʰlaʔpapaya; si-vuokpaper; cɛparakeet, parrot; lepare/peel with a knife; (peel) kʰes; (to sharpen) npʰuac;

(twittle into round shape) ruon; (twittle into flatshape) tah

part company; nkʰriespass, exceed; luanpass, go by; hɔc…tʰoʔ/pʰɨɒ; (hau) prah…paste, glue; ɲu-ɲaʔ; hluop; kʰlɔppat (e.g. head); ntʰihpatch (clothing); ʔa-pʰluoʔpatient; pa-saiʔpave, lay; (~ road) ntʰien kraʔ; (~ bed) tʰom npɛpea; tʰo mauʔpeach; ka-tʰɨɒpeacock; kauŋpeanut; kʰrɨm ka-tɛʔpeck; tospeel off; ntak; (bark, leaves) ka-rəi; (old paint~) npaspen; nkrɔŋ liepen in, drive back to fold; nplɛcpenis; klɛʔpepper; si-ləʔperch, rest for the night; npanperch, light [v]; panpermit, allow; tɒʔpersimmon; kʰauʔ nkrɔŋ mɔipersist; kʰin


person with pock-marked face; pʰrɨs npʰuohpersonal enemy, antagonizer; pʰɨi kʰuon; pʰɨi si-ŋɨɒ ŋai;

pʰɨi ncʰuoʔperspire; ləs/lih/npʰrəs la-ʔaihpestle; nkriʔpestle/pound; taihphoto; cʰɨɒphysical strength; si-nɨɒk; npraʔpick up; sotpick up food with chopsticks; kiappickled bamboo shoot; ʔa-nɨɒʔpierce; suat ntɔhpig; lik; (piglet) kuan likpig dung; ʔɛɲ likpig feed, pigwash; sɒm likpigsty, hogpen; luok likpile/stack up; roʔ; nkɔppillar, house-pole; rɔŋ; (central) ruoŋ; rɔŋ praŋpillow; nkʰuoŋpine, pine torch; nkʰiʔpineapple; nkracpipe; lɒk suppiss, urinate; nɨm (nɨm)pit; ntʰuoh; (small pit made by cows stepping on it)

kʰlɒk; nkʰlɒk; nklɒkpit, stone; sɔkpitchfork; kʰauʔ pʰɔppitchfork (weapon); kʰauʔ npluŋpitiable, pitiful; cʰuoʔ pʰɔm; saiʔ ra-hɔmplace; tʰoʔplace, location; taŋ (cf. taŋ ɔt meʔ ‘place where you are’)place for hen to lay eggs; kʰək ʔiaplace frequented by animals or people; nkləhplacenta; hrəmplait; kianplane [n]; ncʰəsplane [v]; səsplank, board; tapplant [v]; (plant seedling) ncʰom; (by casting seeds)

ruotplant [n]; kʰauʔ ʔɔʔplant sp. with edible pith; kluŋplate, dish; ntʰɨɒŋplatform for drying grain; nkrasplay, amuse oneself; klianpleasant to the ears; ɲum/mɔm tʰeʔ ŋiatpleasant to the eyes, beautiful; ɲum/mɔm tʰeʔ kiaplough [n]; kʰauʔ tʰaiplough [v], till; sum; kʰruokploughshare; hriam tʰaipluck, pick; cɛc; (~ fruit) pɛhplum; plɛʔ hak ra-ʔaŋpocket; tʰɒŋpoint at/to/out; cʰipoint, tip; rupoison, toxin; ʔa-tah ʔɔp

poke (a sign into earth), insert; npluŋpolite, courteous; ʔa-tʰɨɒpond; ntʰuŋpool (money); ʔa-pʰənpoor; cʰa; hɔtpoor (land); (kʰru) kʰrecpop open; ʔa-tʰuospopped maize; vuoŋ npʰrosporcupine; nkɔspot, jar; si-kʰoŋ; (pots in general) ka-tɒŋ; (large iron

pot) kʰaŋpotato; ka-lenpound to pieces; npluoŋ; (emph) si-tecpound with force; nkluʔpound with pestle (first round); maʔpound with pestle (second round); sɒkpour into; rəkpour out; klop tiak; (pour out a little) nkreh; (~ water)

cʰitpour water on; səpregnant; ŋɛprepare, make ready to do something; prɛʔpress, squeeze; npiatpress, push down; ɲiap; (with palm or finger) zɨn; ɲiap

nah tɛʔ; (with something heavy) nkotpretend; ɲə (e.g. ɲə tʰeʔ ziem ‘pretend to weep’)price, wages; ŋuos; rɨsprick; suat; cəkprison; ɲɨɒʔ lɒʔ kaipromise, consent; ʔɨʔ; ŋiatprop, support; tʰuprotect; ŋɔmprotruding tooth; hraŋ nkɔp; hraŋ pʰriesprotruding, raised; npʰlen~nplen; tɔnproverb, saying; lɔʔ kʰuotprovoke, seek trouble; hakpry; viespubic hair; (of a male) hac klɛʔ; (of a female) hac sɔk/pɛpull (e.g. a quilt) over oneself; ʔɒmpull (trigger); kʰlucpull down (a house); zɨɒhpull open (drawer); pauhpull out (weeds, turnip); rɨc; *nplohpull, draw (sword); luotpull, tug, drag; kʰrutpulse, beat; ca-lɔhpumpkin; npiu numpuncture [vt]; tɔhpunish; zuh ləʔpupil (of eye); kuan ŋaipus; lɨmpush (grass) aside with both hands; viəspush, shove; cot; (topple) nən; (awake so.) ʔa-sɔhput (rice) into pot; taʔput (soil) on; ntʰien; kəmput away with care; cɔʔ


put hands on the hips, hands akimbo; ruom tɛʔput in (salt); taʔ; (~ round rim of pot) nkruoi/nkrəcput in order, arrange; ntiaput in order, tidy; prɛʔ kʰrimput into a container, pack; (into pocket, bag) ɲəh/nplec/

sɔm/ʔən nuoŋ; (into bowl/plate) ɲəh/ʔən nuoŋput on; ʔɒm; (~ pants, shoes, etc.) ʔɛh; cəp; (~ another

layer of clothing) npʰuoʔ ʔɒmput hand(s) on something for support; nkɛʔ kraʔput something somewhere; (put down) ntʰəh; (put

away carefully) ʔən/cɔʔ; (~ in container) sɔmput stopper in; tʰɔʔputtee; man huat (cʰuoŋ)python; klonquail; kʰɨtquake of earth; kla rɨmquarrel; ʔa-cɛquick, fast; cʰauŋ; npraʔ; (horse) cʰauŋquilt; pʰroʔquit (bad habit); tʰuosrabbit; morafter; si-ʔɔʔrain; hlɛʔrainbow; ʔa-zuoŋrainy season; lai rəʔraise, heave; zuokraise, keep; ʔəiraise (head); ŋietraise (tail); ncʰɔŋ; zuokrake; nkʰətrake (the fields); kʰot; ku-kaʔrake and spread (grain) for drying; ra(s)rake [v]; kʰotram, butt; (with bead) si-tʰɨɲ; (fight with horn) si-tʰɨt;

(with head tilted to one side) ʔa-vusramie; nkanramie bag; cʰərape; lɨtrapid; kua klɒŋreach for; cəsread; nkʰɨ; kiarecall, recollect; ncʰemrecall, remember; (think of, figure out) ntɔh ncʰem;

(recall) (zuoŋ…tʰeʔ) me ncʰemreceive; huac tʰɨirecently, lately; si-rauʔ ʔienrecognize; zuoŋred; lɛhred jungle fowl; ʔia pʰreʔreduce; zɒm; ntɛh; ([vt]) ntɛh; zuh zɒmrefine (iron); sah; mo; sɛcrefuse by making excuses; ʔa-tʰɨɒregret; ntʰɨɒh ra-hɔm; kles (ra-hɔm)reheat; si-ʔoreins; kə npruoŋ

relatives; pa-ɲɨɒʔ; (paternal relatives) ntaʔ ntʰuoŋ; (in-laws) tʰun

release, set free; npʰluai; npʰlarely on; si-tʰuoŋ; tʰuremember; (kʰən) niat; (kʰən) zuoŋremove, move out of the way; zakrepay; prɔ nparequest; maɲrescue, save; ʔa-cʰuoreserve (seeds); cɔʔ; ʔənresin; pʰɨs nkʰiʔrespective, individual, each; nɒŋrest; laiʔreturn; ʔiaŋ; (return halfway) mereturn (blow); tɒʔ tɛʔreturn [vt]; prɔreturn, retreat; ntʰəsreverse [adj]; nkrəmreverse [v]; (ʔa-)lak; (ʔa-)liakrhumatism; saiʔ kʰreɲribs; si-ʔaŋ praukrice; (rice plant) ŋɔʔ; (unhusked ~) ŋɔʔ (kaɲ); (husked

~) nkauʔ; (cooked ~) ʔəp; (non-glutinous ~) ŋoʔʔah; (crushed ~) muac; (early ~) ŋɔʔ ka-luas

rich; mi; zuoʔ; mierich person; pa-mi; pʰɨi ʔas mɛʔriddle; si-pɒkride (a horse); npʰokrift, crack, fissure; ntɔhright(side); ka-tɔmright away; kən ʔa-vutright, correct; rokring; nple nkianrinse (mouth); pʰakrinse, flush; si-kraripe; (of fruit) tʰɨm; (of crops) kaiʔrise, go up; (of the sun) lih; (of a flag) zuokrise/stand up; zuok (tʰeʔ cʰuoŋ); (get up from bed) kauhriver; klɒŋroad; kraʔroar; ŋɒk; npʰrɨs; nprɨhroast; (on live charcoal) tɔŋ; (over fire) karob; caʔrobber; pa-caʔrock; ra-ʔaŋrock, sway; zuŋ zaŋ; puk-plakrod with flat end for churning rice in the pot; nkwɛrod, stick; kʰauʔ; (thin rod) si-vat; si-vetroll; lu-liu; ([vt]) pa-liu; (~ something downhill) paŋ

liuroll up (cloth); puaroof; nprəʔ; (top rim) praŋ ɲɨɒʔ; (side roof ) vui hɒroof-top; si-taʔ ɲɨɒʔroot; res kʰauʔrope, string; mauʔrot; si-ʔom


rough, coarse; kʰat; npʰruɲ; npʰruoɲround, circular; pai vitrub (hands); puai tɛʔruin, render out of order; npləhruler; sɒkruminate; klɛɲ ɲiu tʰeʔ; ʔɛɲ le; (rare) pʰiem sɒm tʰeʔrun; ʔa-vɨt; tɔrust; hram; kramsacrifice [n]; hlaʔ tauhsad; saiʔ ra-hɔm; ntʰut ra-hɔm; cʰuoʔ ra-hɔmsaddle; taŋ npruoŋsafe and sound; mɔm ʔɔtsaliva; ɲiasalt; kʰissalty; sɔŋ kʰissambhar deer; caksand; macsap, juice; pʰɨssatiated; ʔassatisfy, meet (a condition); kʰupsave (something); prɛʔ; cɔʔsaw; npias; piasscabies; saiʔ ŋɨɒʔ; saiʔ pʰrəsscald/burn; (by boiling water) hlac; (by fire) tɒk; (by

hot metal, etc.) pʰietscale (of pangolin); nkʰluopscalp; hak ntɔŋscar; vum; nproʔ; nkuai matscarab; ntʰɨɒ ʔɛɲscent; si-ʔɔischool (of fish); mac kaʔscissors; nkʰrepscold; (with bad language) ka-cʰak; ka-cʰec; kluan;

(scold) ʔəh; ʔən; (~ each other) ʔa-mahscoop up; pʰukscorching (sun); klascratch (an itch against something); kuk-kat; kʰuk-kʰatscratch (an itch); pac; krem~krɛmscratch earth (as of fowl); rasscream; rɨɒk (si-rut)scrotum; klasearch, look for; kʰu-kʰras; kʰries; sɔpsecond; pa-rasecond male child; ɲisection (of bamboo); ncʰɔŋsee; zuoʔsee (doctor); (see doctor, see a patient) kia saiʔ; (see a

doctor) tʰɨi ʔɛh ʔa-tahsee off; tauseed; si-mɨɒseed of Chinese prickly ash; ʔa-cʰepseedling (of rice); ŋɔʔ luseep into, permeate; lecsell; cʰussemen; ŋɨɒŋsend (letters); ʔa-pauʔ

send, dispatch; tɒʔ..hau; (by force) nkʰrə; nəʔseparate [vi]; nkʰriesseparate [vt]; zuh…nkʰriesserow (Capricornis sumatraensis); kiasservant; cʰuoŋsesame; la-ŋɨɒʔset (of the sun); lec; klɛpset (trap); tauŋset on fire; npʰluai/kʰɨc ŋuoset out; zuokseven; ʔa-lesseventeen; kau ʔa-lesseventy; ʔa-nklessevere, fierce, sharp; npraʔsew; cʰeɲshadow; (=shade) npɔishady side; kaʔ ntʰɨɒ si-ŋeʔshake (as of limb in a fit of disease); ca-ruasshake body (to chase off bugs); ka-ruasshake head; vuk vat/(animals, child) pluas ntɔŋ tʰeʔshake, quake; ʔa-sɔh; zuŋ zaɲ; (quake with a lot of

noise) ʔa-lɒhshallow; tʰeʔ; tʰɔshank; ŋuoŋ; npʰəʔshard of earthern pot; ntʰɨɒŋshare [n]; punshare, portion, part; kroʔsharp; luomsharp (shooting); rəh; mɔm ʔiaŋsharp-pointed; ncʰuacshave; kʰrɨɒkshave (hairs), scrape; kʰət~kʰɔtsheath, scabbard; nkʰɨɒŋ viecshed (tears, blood); lih/ruac (ra-ʔɔm ŋai/nam)shed skin (snake); pəc si-ʔoɲ hak tʰeʔsheep; pʰeʔ (laŋ hac)sheep dung; ʔɛɲ pʰeʔsheepfold, sheep pen; luok-pʰeʔshell; ntʰuopshell, peel [vt]; passhepherd boy; kuan ŋɔmshin; nkʰuoŋ; nprəʔ ŋuoŋshiver, tremble; la-kʰuo; (shudder) ka-zuat; (shake

body intentionally to get rid of bugs) kruasshoe; nten (cʰuoŋ)shoot; poɲ; kʰluc (si-niet)shooting star; si-ʔoɲ poshort; ŋɛɲshoulder; si-plaŋshoulder bag; ʔa-mɨɲ klɛcshoulderblade; ruoŋshout, yell; rɨɒk; (call someone) kɒkshow; tɒʔ kiashrew (Apodemus sylvaticus); lohshrimp; ntaɲshrivel up, wither; krəi


shrivelled, shrunken; tɒp; fɛcshy, bashful; kʰiecsickle; si-vuokside; npɒside (of body); prauksideburns; hac si-paʔsieve, sifter; nkʰrəŋsift; kʰrəŋsilk; kəi luatsilk fabric; luatsilver; nkʰri; mɨsilver coin; mɨ hriamsilver grey (hair); krasilver pheasant; tuaising; ncʰauʔsing (cicada); viaŋsinge (food) in hot ash; pʰɔʔsinge (off hair); npʰruisink; ka-rəc; (~ on purpose) lecsister-in-law (elder brother’s wife); ʔɔsisters; pʰoʔ ʔɔsit; (posture) ŋuom pɔt; (~ down) ŋuomsit on egg; ka-numsix; lessixteen; kau lessixty; nklesskeleton; si-ʔaŋ kʰrecskilled; kətskim; fiuskin; hakskin [vt], strip bark; lɨt; takskirt; taiskull; si-ʔaŋ ntɔŋsky; ka-ma; (and earth) pʰreʔslanting, leaning; vɒk; si-viu; (miss) lusslap, clap; (slap) ntʰɨɒh, kʰlap; (clap) kʰlap tɛʔslave; cʰuoŋsleep; ʔɛcsleep with eyes half open; ʔɛc ʔiasleepy; ta(c) ŋaisleeve; ntɛʔ cahslice; pias; (on chopping board) setslingshot; mauʔ ʔa-tokslip off, become loose; npʰəcslippery; si-tah; ɲuslit on the side of skirt; npʰrak taislit open; si-rɛslope, acclivity; nkʰɔh; (steeper) npluoŋslough off; pəcslow; ŋiec; (of a horse) ŋɛ; (of a car) hau ŋiecslowly, carefully; kʰuoisluggish, too slow in action; ɲu-ɲiesly, cunning; lu(k)-liaksmall; ʔiatsmall intestines; vec ʔiatsmall of the back, back of waist; ɲuoŋ

smear; krɛʔsmegma; ʔasmell; hət; mətsmoke; mət (ŋuo)smoke (a cigarette); tɔtsmoke, fumigate; si-tɔʔ; nkrɔh; (to drive animals out of

den) plə; pləŋ; mətsmooth, glossy, sleek; si-tahsnack; npruansnail; loʔsnake; si-ʔoɲsnap (a thread) [vt]; rutsnap (of a thread) [vi]; ntʰutsnap (of something stiff ) [vi]; poksnap, break; (by holding both ends) ves; (by holding

one end) pok; (break branch from tree) lehsnare, trap; nkiap; (long, of bamboo) kʰɨɒsnatch; tɔc; si-pʰutsneeze; ŋuassniff; hətsnore; nkʰraksnot; (dry) mɛʔ mɨs; (snot) nkʰuo mɨs, mɨs; (nasal

mucus) ra-ʔɔm mɨssnow; si-tapsoak, steep; ntomsoap; ʔa-tah si-taiʔsob; si-cok; (choking with emotion, weep but no sound

comes out) ziem la-ʔətsock, stocking; nkʰuatsoft; pa-zua; cuasoil, earth; ka-tɛʔsoldier; cʰau; lensolid, sturdy; kaiʔsolidify/congeal; run; klɔnsome; kən ɲiauʔson; kuan ʔa-meʔsong; ncʰauʔson-in-law; kuan ʔɔisoot; pɒŋ (ka-tɒŋ)sore, boil; ka-muatsorghum; ka-sɒŋsoul, spirit; ka-mɨɒŋ; ka-pʰəʔsound; lɔʔsoup; ra-ʔɔm hrəpsour; nɨɒʔsow; lik mɨɒʔsow again (at places where broadcast seeds fail to grow

up); pʰumsoy bean; kʰrɨmspacious, commodious; vɨɒhsparrow; sacspeak; ʔəh (sai); ʔa-kahspear; pʰlesspear fish; con kaʔspear-trap; ncʰuaspeech, words; lɔʔ


spend night; krɔh; pan; nkʰɛɲspheric; ca-lukspider; prɨsspin; kian/ka-liaŋ kəispindle; nplaʔ taɲspine, backbone; si-krɒŋ; si-ʔaŋ krɒŋspit; (spit out) pʰeh; (~ spit) npʰec; (~ sputum) nkʰaksplash, sprinkle; ka-lop; (pour out downward) npʰɨɒhsplashing sound; vasplit open, rend; (clothing at seams) ntak; (wall) ka-

tʰohsplit up (bamboo); (into halves) lok; (into strips) pʰɨɒkspoon; ncaukspout, burst forth; ca-loŋ; ca-posspread (blanket) on the ground; tʰom; nies; lasspread out [vi]; ru-riespring; lai roŋspring (water); ra-ʔɔm nɔŋsprinkle, spray; ncʰəʔsprout, shoot; pʰləŋspur; nkʰluoc tuai ʔiasputum; nkʰaksquare, rectangular; kʰlap; ntɒpsquat; cʰuok-cʰuosqueeze (for milk); npiatsquirrel; laistable, horse fence; luok-npruoŋstallion; npruoŋ mɛɲstamp (foot); si-ton/ca-ruas cʰuoŋ; (less forcibly) ncʰəhstand; cʰoŋ; (~ up) zuokstar; sem-ʔoɲstare; nple; nplinstart, begin; tom; (~ to work) lihstartle, disturb; nkʰlatstay behind; kətstay motionless; mɒkstay temporarily at a place; npansteal; nprɨɒʔsteam [n]; npʰauŋ ra-ʔɔmsteam [v]; hauŋsteamer; paŋ hauŋsteelyard, scales; ncʰɨɒŋsteep, precipitous; nkʰoh; (steep and wide) rɨɒhstep across; tʰɨɒŋstep on, trample, stamp; cʰic; (~ loose earth) nkrauhstepfather; kəɲ; pauʔ; kəɲ kʰɛʔstepmother; mɨɒʔ (kʰɛʔ)stick, paste [vt]; kʰlopstick down; kʰlaʔ; hlɔpstick in; tʰɔʔstick into, stab; suat; npluŋstick to [vi]; klapsticky, glutinous; pʰicsting; həcsting [n]; ʔa-ŋɨcstingy; ʔa-pʰen; ven

stinking, smelly; si-ʔɔi; si-ʔom; (fishy) ŋɛcstir, mix; kʰwit; kwɛ; (~ liquid) ku-kaʔ; (~ rice on a

basking basket) nkrɛhstir-fried maize; vuoŋ tʰɨɒkstirrup; ncʰanstomach; plaʔstone; si-muoʔstool, bench; ŋɔt; nkʰuoŋstop, cease; laiʔstorey; nkraukstory; npɨnstraight; nplɒŋ; rəhstraighten; nplɒŋstrangle, choke; ruotstrangle, rein in; mian; (~ one’s neck) ruot si-ŋuok; (rein

in) tokstraw or palm-bark rain cape; cah kʰruai; cah səkstrawberry; hak ra-ʔaŋstreet; (kra) lasstretch oneself; luot ɲuoistretch out (arm); tɒʔ; pʰla tɛʔ; (reach for something)

pʰla/zuok tɛʔstrike (match); tuaistrike (of thunderbolt); (tos) ʔa-sasstrike down with fist; tʰuopstring (of musical inst.); lasstring bean; ʔa-pʰie mauʔstroke, touch; (gently) si-pə; (caress) (pu)-piu; (touch)

piu; (touch invol.) mɔŋstrong; (~ nation, healthy and of great physical strenth)

npraʔ; (tall and powerful-looking) ku-klih kʰauʔstrong (as of liquor); npraʔstrong (as of tea); sɔŋstruggle; ca-ruas (zum); (pu-)pluasstuffy; la-ʔətstumble over; si-tʰəhstump of tree; nom; (unburnt portion from a fire) ŋustupid; ʔɒ; ʔɒ la-vɨɒʔ ʔɒ koistutterer; klɛsubside (of a swelling); ntep; tɒp; ntɛh; fɛcsuck; (suck juice while eating fruit, smoke) zuat; (with

straw, smoke) tɔt; (~ milk) pəʔsuckle [vi]; pʰəʔsuffer losses (in business); nai; ləʔsugar; nam ʔɒisugarcane; la-meʔsuitable; lət; ʔa-pʰiep; kʰupsummer; lai rəʔsun; si-ŋeʔsunbathe; cʰu; si-ʔo; hɔksunflower; prɛh ʔaksunflower seed; sɔk prɛh-ʔaksunken, dented; ntʰuohsunny side; kaʔ san si-ŋeʔsuona; hrauŋ


support; ʔa-zuok; (support with one’s hands) tok; (helpto stand up) zuok; (raise) ruoʔ

surname, family name; ntʰuoŋsurroundings; nprauʔswallow; mɨcswallow [n]; si-vecswear, vow; ŋauʔ muc ʔa-zɨɒʔ mɔŋsweat; la-ʔaihsweep; pessweet; tɛswell; ʔuasswelling, bump; ʔuasswim; lui; (of fish swim around) lu-lieswing, sway; pu-pɔi; (leaves/flag in wind) pu-poi; ([vt])

vuk-vattable; pʰəntaboo; tʰuostadpole; ka-lətael (=50 grams); ruoŋTai; siamtail; si-taʔtake; tʰɨi; (hold) nkɛʔtake care of (children); pʰoʔtake out of container; haihtake off (clothes, hats); pəc; (cf. come off ) npʰəc ~ npəctake off (handle); kɔhtake out, draw; luottame (animal); ŋetangerine, orange; mak-cok; (large sp.) mak-ŋetap lightly with rod; tʰestapeworm; vuk vastares; riptaro; krauʔ; (different sp.) krauʔ num; krauʔ hɒʔtartar; ʔɛɲ hraŋtaste, try the flavor of; cʰimtasteless, bland; npectasty, delicious; ɲum tʰeʔ ʔɛhtattered; lɨʔ; mraɲtea; lateach; ntok; nkʰɨteach, admonish; tɔmtear up, rip; cias; res; nkriastears; ra-ʔɔm ŋaitease, play prank on; ləɲtell; ŋauʔ mɔŋtell (a story); ʔa-pʰɨɒktemple; ɲɨɒʔ mucten; kauten cents; *coʔten thousand; vaŋtender; pa-zuatendon, sinew; si-nɨɒktense, tight, taut; sat; kaiʔ; (clothing) kʰɔmtermite; nkrɨɲtesticle; klatether; si-kaŋ

that; ʔua; ʔuah; (gen) ʔuan; (that on the same level) tiat;(those on the same level) ntɛh; (that down there)sic; (that up there) luoŋ; (yon) ʔua ʔua; ʔuah ʔuahʔuah; (gen) ʔuan ʔuan; (that on the same level)tiat tiat; (those on the same level) ntɛh ntɛh; (thatdown there) síc sic; (that up there) luoŋ luoŋ

that (way), (like) that; hlɒk ʔuathat side, there; kaʔ ʔuathatch grass; plɔŋ; (wide-leafed sp.) tʰɨɒʔthatch-grass mat (used for roof ); ka-tiapthe beginning of a month; lai ntʰɨs kʰɛʔthe end of a month; lai ʔiat kʰɛʔthe lower part of, lower reaches; kaʔ sɛhthe middle of a month; ka-piaŋ kʰɛʔthe upper part of, upper reaches; kaʔ lauŋthen, afterwards; kaʔ kʰɛʔ; pʰun kʰɛʔ; npʰuoʔ kʰɛʔ ʔiənthere; (generic) tʰoʔ/kaʔ ʔua; (on the same level) kaʔ/

tʰoʔ ntɛh; (down there) kaʔ/tʰoʔ sic; tʰoʔ-luoŋ; (upthere) kaʔ lauŋ

these; heʔ ʔienthey; heʔthey two; haʔthick (as of books); pʰuthick (in diameter); tʰiŋthick (of liquid foods); pʰicthief; pa-nprɨɒʔthigh; npathin; kʰruoʔ; kʰrɒpthin, sparce; cʰiu; cʰu(ŋ)-cʰɨɒŋthin (e.g. book); hrɛthin (in diameter); ʔiatthin (of body); kʰruoʔ; (become thin) kʰɨm kʰruoʔthing; kʰrəŋthink; ncʰemthirsty; hɔt; (emph) si-ʔɔh krauŋthirteen; kau-(la-)uaithirty; ŋuaithis; ʔien; ʔiə; ʔiəhthis (way), (like) this; hlɒk ʔienthis side, here; kaʔ ʔienthis year; num ʔienthorn; katthose; heʔ ʔuathou; meʔthousand; hrɛɲthread; kəithread (a needle); cʰiesthree; luai ~ la-ʔuaithree days ago; si-ŋeʔ ʔua nɒʔthree days from now; ʔa-kɛcthree-stringed instrument; si-coŋ hɒʔthresh grain; (the event) tʰɨc; (the particular action)

puatthreshing staff (with curved and flatten end); npuatthreshold; ntʰɨɒŋ (ʔa-) vɨɒʔthroat; krauŋ


throw out (one’s chest); ɲat ʔaukthrow out sidewise; ncʰəi; ncəithrow, hurl, toss; vun; (~ at) tɛɲ; (~ a spear) pʰuos; (~

out something unwanted) tiak; (~ or toss up) ca-loŋ

thrush (Garrulax canorus); cʰathrust; suatthumb; nkon; nkian tʰiŋthunder; ka-numtick; (buffalo ~) seʔ krak; (large cattle ~) tɒp; (dog ~)

npaʔtickle; la-ŋɨcticklish; hlat la-ŋɨctidy, orderly; si-ɲaʔ~si-ŋaʔtie (knot); nkaŋ; ʔa-zɒktiger; ʔa-vietight (of shoes); kʰɔmtightly-woven (fabric), dense; pʰutime; lai muoʔtime before daybreak; ka nplas pʰreʔtimid, cowardly; hlat sɔʔtinea; saiʔ həctinker (pans); ʔa-pʰluoʔtip, sharp end; rutired; rɨ; tʰəʔtit; ntɔŋ təs; nkontoad; ruoktobacco ash; ɲiu suptoday; ra-ʔien ~ rientomb, grave; ʔa-mɨctomorrow; pa-saʔtomorrow night; npʰu pa-saʔtongue; ntaktonight; npʰu nɛh; npʰu ra-ʔientoo, exceedingly; luantool; kʰrəŋ ntɛʔtooth; hraŋ; (incisor) hraŋ ncʰɔŋ; (canine) hraŋ kap;

(molar) hraŋ nkʰiʔ/tʰiŋtopple [vt]; zɨɒh; (tree) zuh nkroptorch; nkʰiʔ; nkʰəiʔtorn; nkrestortoise, turtle; rɨstough; kʰuot; vɒŋtrace, track; si-krɒʔ; (animal track) nkas; krɒŋtransplant (rice seedlings), insert; ncʰomtrap; ntəmtrap fish; nkʰrɒŋ kaʔtrap, pitfall; ka-taiʔ kauŋtreasured object, treasure; si-rɛtree; kʰauʔ; paŋ kʰauʔtree sp.; hraʔtrickle; nchutrigger; nkʰluctrivet; npʰaiʔ hriamtrough; (for water) ntʰoŋ ra-ʔɔm; (for pigwash) ntɒŋ

sɒm lik

true, real; roktrunk (of a tree); ruoŋ kʰauʔtry, attempt; zuh tʰeʔ kiatuberculosis; hratuck, lead by hand; tokturn, spin [vt]; (e.g. ~ a millstone) ʔa-liaŋ; (cause to

spin) ka-liaŋ; (~ something small) ʔa-zetturn (a corner); (ʔa-)vɒkturn (clothing) inside out, or the reverse; (ʔa-)lakturn (page); fakturn around; ʔa-liak (kaiʔ)turn head; (turn body) ʔa-liak ntɔŋ; plak/ʔaliak kaiʔ;

nkʰe; plakturn over (in bed); (ʔa-)liak; (ʔa-)tʰɨɒh; (ʔa-)lak; (toss

and turn) ʔa-liak ʔa-lɛturn, hand over, consign; prɛʔturnip; taiʔ ka-lauʔtwelve; kau ratwenty; ŋatwist; kliaŋ; puai; si-vet; ʔa-zet; (~ hands) puk pec tɛʔ;

(pinch and twist) si-kliattwo; ra ~ ra-ʔaugly; cʰuoʔumbrella; nɛʔ hɒʔ; nɛʔ zɔŋuncle; (father’s elder brother) tʰiŋ; (father’s younger

brother) kəɲ; (mother’s brother/father’s sister’shusband/mother’s sister’s husband) pauʔ

unclog; (water pipe, toilet) pas ra-ʔɔm; (pipe) cəkuncooked, raw; ʔɛmunder; nkrəmunderstand; si-klah; zuoŋunited; nkrumunload burden and rest; tahunripe (fruit); kʰokunseam; (~ clothes) zɨɒh; (~ seam) luot; (~ quilt) tʰɔkuntie, undo; kah; pəc; (n)tahupper back; nkʰuokupper body; kaiʔupper lip; nkʰɨs lauŋupper part of dry field; kɛɲuproot; luoh; (pull up grass) rɨcupstairs; nkuai nkʰrɨmupstream; kaʔ tʰuoh klɒŋupward; ka-lauŋ; ka-nkluoŋupwards; plak lauŋurge, hurry, speed up; ra-ʔan; naukurine; nɨmuse; ntɛʔ; (instrument) ʔɛhuse or lean on (a walking stick); nkʰiʔ kʰauʔ nkʰiʔused, old; prɛm; cʰuoʔuseful; kɔi pa-ntɛʔuterus; ɲɨɒʔ nkuanuvula; ɲen liatvalley; ntɒŋ; ntʰuohvegetable; taiʔvegetable oil; la-man


vein; si-nɨɒkvertical; ncʰɔŋvery; kʰietvicinity; nprauʔvillage; zauŋviolate, breach; ʔa-lakvisit; lɔŋvisit around and gossip; fɛvoice, sound; loʔvomit; kʰuoʔvulva, vagina; sɔk; pɛwaist; ɲuoiwait; ŋɔm; ncʰunwake up; fah; (recover conscious-ness or waken up by

noise, etc.) si-tʰeh; (stay awake, stay up) hɛɲwake up [vt]; ʔa-sɔh; zu-zahwalk; hau nah cʰuoŋ tʰeʔwalk around something; nkʰwewalk in cirles around something; nkʰwiawalk with body bent; kʰɨiwall; ntiaŋwalnut; kʰauʔ mak-manwant [+comp clause]; som; sɔŋwant, need; som; (taking a complement clause) saŋwar, battle; nieɲwarehouse, storehouse; ɲɨɒʔ nkrauk; ɲɨɒʔ krauwarm; si-ʔo pʰreʔwarm oneself by (a fire); cʰu ŋuowash; (~ part of body) kʰoc; (~ clothing) si-taiʔ; (bathe)

həm; (~ something hard, with brush or scrubber)pʰak; (~ hair, rice, meat, vegetable) si-kra; (~ byrubbing, rice, a lot of vegetables, etc.) npac; (~ byrubbing) tʰɨc

wash away (e.g. bridge by flood); taswasp; (low, cone-shaped hives) ka-pʰuoʔ; (large, in

unground holes) ʔɒŋ; (round hives in bushes)prɛh ʔak; (black head, grey body, builds cone-shaped hives in high trees) ka-ʔaɲ; (in under-ground holes) hia-ka-tɛʔ; (lives in tree-holes) hiakʰauʔ

waste time; npʰlawaste [vt]; hiap; (on purpose) naiwatch, look; kiawatch over fire; rumwater; ra-ʔɔm ~ rɔmwater, sprinkle, irrigate; ncʰəʔwater snail; si-ŋeʔwatery/thin (porridge); tʰeh; si-tec; hrɔŋ; plu-plaɲwave; ʔa-zaɲ ra-ʔɔmwave, wield; vuk-vatwax; ɲuwe; [excl, pl]; ziʔ; [incl, pl] ʔeʔ; [excl, du] zaʔ; [incl,

du]; ʔaʔweak; kʰraup kʰauʔweapon; kʰrəŋ poɲ nieɲ

wear; (~ a sword at hip) si-kiap; (~ with strap on shoul-der or across chest) klɛc; (~ around neck) naŋ; (~bracelets) nple; (~ pants, rings, bracelets) ʔɛh; (~earrings) (n)cʰies; ʔɛh; (~ hats) cəp; ʔɛh; (~ tur-bans, of a woman) huat kuŋ-kɛɲ; (~ turbans, of aman) huat si-kruat

weasel; tauweather; pʰreʔweave, knit; taɲ; (~ a basket, a shoulder bag) taɲ; vokwedge; nklaʔweigh; cʰɨɒŋweight unit (=0.1 tael); tʰeweld, solder; ʔa-tɔiwell; ntʰuŋ ra-ʔɔmwelt; si-krɔkwest; kaʔ klɛp si-ŋeʔwet; cʰəʔ; hlənwhat; pʰɒh ~ pʰɔhwheat; plɛʔ nkauʔwheat straw; nkɒŋwheel; ʔa-liaŋwhen; lai muoʔwhere; tʰoʔ muoʔwhet, sharpen; klɛɲwhip; mauʔ si-vat/si-vetwhip, thrash; si-vat; si-vetwhirlpool; klɒŋ kwitwhirlwind; kə pai liuŋwhistle; nchuacwhite; pʰieɲwhite (of egg); kʰuat ka-tɔm ʔiawhite grub; muwho; pʰɨiwide, broad; vɨɒhwidow; mɨɒʔ ntɔi; mɨɒʔ miewidower; ʔa-meʔ ntɔiwidth of finger; nplah; nkianwife; ʔa-muɲwild boar; pʰrieswild dog, dhole; npruokwild goose; ʔa-kaiʔwillow; si-kliuwin; pʰeʔ; pɛwind; kəwind (thread onto a keel); muwindow; ʔa-vɨɒʔ rɨɒŋwindpipe; krauŋ npʰɔmwine jar; lewine lees; ka-cʰɨɒhwine yeast; ʔa-sɛʔwing; procwinnow; kʰɨmwinnowing basket; npiawinter; lai kuatwinter gourd; npiu pɔ


wipe (the table); (with soft instruments) ʔuat; (withhard instruments) kat

wipe away, erase; ʔuat tiakwire, electric cord; mauʔ hriamwitch, sorcerer; pa-ncʰaiwithdraw, take out; (from pocket, bag) luot; (from

drawer, boxes) tʰɨiwither; (n)ta; krəi; (~ slightly) fɛcwithhold the facts, conceal; mɔʔwizard, sorcerer; pa-ncʰaiwoman; ʔa-ponwomb; ɲɨɒʔ nkuanwood ear; tes krucwood, log; kʰauʔ; (log) kʰauʔ cʰiʔ; kʰrəŋ ɲɨɒʔwood-borer; ka-muatwooden tray; *pʰəŋ; (platter) tʰuok kʰauʔwoodpecker; nkɒk; sem tos kʰauʔwool, fleece; hac pʰeʔwork/labor; zuh si-vaiworm; (caterpillar) kʰuoŋ; vɨɒk; kʰuoŋ muworn through/torn; ncias; (at seams) nkres; (worn out)

ntɔh; ləʔworry; ʔa-kʰɨɒʔ ra-hɔmworry, be anxious; fɨɒ ŋaiwound; taŋ matwound [v]; matwrap; kʰɨɒ

wrinkle; ʔa-vɔm hak rɛ; rak run; (on forehead) kaɲ hakrɛ

wrinkled, creased; ʔa-vɒm; mom memwrist; ncʰɔŋ/npʰəʔ tɛʔwrist pulse; si-nɨɒkwrite; seswrong; lutXimeng; məŋ-kʰayam; hɔn; (yam sp.) kʰaiʔyawn; fapyear; numyear after next; num ʔa-kɛcyear before last; num kayellow; si-ŋiuyen; zenyesterday; pa-kauʔyield; tɒʔyoke; kʰauʔ kʰuokyolk; kʰuan ka-tɔmyou [sg]; meʔyou [pl]; peʔyou [du]; paʔyoung; si-nuoyounger brother; pʰoʔ ʔa-meʔyounger sister; pʰoʔ ʔa-ponyuan (= Chinese dollar); vaŋ

Author’s address

Jackson T.-S. SunInstitute of LinguisticsAcademia SinicaNo. 128, Sec. 2, Academia RoadNangang District, Taipei City 11529Taiwan, [email protected]

Publication history

Date received: 16 April 2018Date accepted: 27 July 2018


mailto:[email protected]

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Synchronic and diachronic phonology of Lavïa - Ingenta ...

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