Svetimosios kalbos:

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Svetimosios kalbos:teorija ir praktika

Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas

Vilnius, 1997

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Svetimosios kalbos: teorija ir praktika �97Straipsniø rinkinys svetimøjø kalbø dëstytojams ir mokytojamsLeidþiamas kartà per metus

Leidþia Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas

Redakcinë kolegija:Prof. habil. dr. A. Gudavièius,prof. habil. dr. A. Jacikevièius,prof. habil. dr. J. Jurkënas,prof. habil. dr. I. Musteikienë,prof. habil. dr. K. Þuperka,doc. dr. E. Brazauskienë,doc. dr. D. Sabromienë (ats. redaktorë),doc. dr. S. Steponavièienë,doc. dr. Z. Tarvydienë.

Redakcijos adresas:VPU Slavistikos fakultetas, Studentø 39, 2034 Vilnius

ISBN 9986-869-23-4

UDK 800Sv32

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TURINYS

TEKSTO VIENTISUMAS IR SVETIMØJØ KALBØ MOKYMASBUITKIENË J. .............................................................................................. 7

BÛDVARDÞIØ ELIATYVO GRADACIJA IR JØ SINONIMAI ITALØ,PRANCÛZØ, RUSØ IR LIETUVIØ KALBOSEVAIÐNORAS A. ........................................................................................... 12

KALBOS KULTÛROS ASPEKTAS MOKANT RUSØ KALBOS KAIPSVETIMOSIOS LIETUVOJEÞARKOVA A. ............................................................................................... 21

KAI KURIE PRIJUNGIAMOJO SUDËTINIO JUNGTUKO DARYBOSKLAUSIMAI, JO FUNKCIJOS SUDËTINIAMEPRIJUNGIAMAJAME SAKINYJE IR PRANCÛZØ KALBOSDËSTYMAS NEFILOLOGINIUOSE FAKULTETUOSEÞVIRINSKA V. ............................................................................................. 28

RUSØ KALBOS INTONACIJOS FUNKCIONALUMAS (LYGINANT SULIETUVIØ KALBA)KUNDROTAS G. ......................................................................................... 36

LAISVOJO DAIKTAVARDINIO ÞODÞIØ JUNGINIO SINTAKSINËSEMANTIKANORUÐAITIENË V. .................................................................................... 41

MOKYMAS SUPRASTI TEKSTÀ IÐ KLAUSOSRËKSNIENË A. ........................................................................................... 53

VERTIMAS KAIP DALYKØ INTEGRAVIMO PRIEMONËSABROMIENË D. ....................................................................................... 59

TESTAI KAIP ÞINIØ KONTROLËS PRIEMONË RUSØ KALBOSPAMOKOSESINOÈKINA B. ............................................................................................ 64

BÛDVARDÞIØ ASOCIJACIJØ LAUKAI ANGLØ IR LIETUVIØKALBOSESTEPONAVIÈIENË S. ................................................................................ 70

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PROFESINIO-PEDAGOGINIO BENDRADARBIAVIMO ASPEKTASRENGIANT SVETIMØJØ KALBØ MOKYTOJUSÈEÈET T. .................................................................................................... 77

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TURINYS

CONTENTS

INHALT

TABLE DES MATIERES

ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ

TEXT COHERENCE AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHINGJ. BUITKIENË .............................................................................................. 7

ÃÐÀÄÀÖÈÈ ÝËßÒÈÂÀ ÏÐÈËÀÃÀÒÅËÜÍÛÕ È ÈÕÑÈÍÎÍÈÌÛ Â ÈÒÀËÜßÍÑÊÎÌ, ÔÐÀÍÖÓÇÑÊÎÌ,ÐÓÑÑÊÎÌ È ËÈÒÎÂÑÊÎÌ ßÇÛÊÀÕÀ. ÂÀÉØÍÎÐÀÑ ............................................................. 12

ÀÑÏÅÊÒ ÊÓËÜÒÓÐÛ ÐÅ×È ÏÐÈ ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈÈ ÐÓÑÑÊÎÌÓßÇÛÊÓ ÊÀÊ ÈÍÎÑÒÐÀÍÍÎÌÓ Â ËÈÒÂÅÀ. ÆÀÐÊÎÂÀ .................................................................. 21

ÍÅÊÎÒÎÐÛÅ ÂÎÏÐÎÑÛ ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈßÏÎÄ×ÈÍÈÒÅËÜÍÎÃÎ ÑÎÑÒÀÂÍÎÃÎ ÑÎÞÇÀ, ÅÃÎÔÓÍÊÖÈÈ Â ÑËÎÆÍÎÏÎÄ×ÈÍÅÍÍÎÌÏÐÅÄËÎÆÅÍÈÈ È ÏÐÅÏÎÄÀÂÀÍÈÅ ÔÐÀÍÖÓÇÊÎÃÎßÇÛÊÀ ÍÀ ÍÅÔÈËÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÔÀÊÓËÜÒÅÒÀÕÂ. ÆÂÈÐÈÍÑÊÀ............................................................. 28

ÔÓÍÊÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÀß ÍÀÃÐÓÇÊÀ ÐÓÑÑÊÎÉ ÈÍÒÎÍÀÖÈÈ(Â ÑÎÏÎÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈÈ Ñ ËÈÒÎÂÑÊÎÉ)Ã. ÊÓÍÄÐÎÒÀÑ............................................................... 36

ÑÈÍÒÀÊÑÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÑÅÌÀÍÒÈÊÀ Â ÑÂÎÁÎÄÍÎÌÑÓÁÑÒÀÍÒÈÂÍÎÌ ÑËÎÂÎÑÎÅÒÀÍÈÈÂ. ÍÎÐÓØÀÉÒÅÍÅ ........................................................ 41

ON TEACHING LISTENING COMPREHENSIONA. RËKSNIENË ........................................................................................... 53

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ÏÅÐÅÂÎÄ ÊÀÊ ÑÐÅÄÑÒÂÎ ÏÐÅÄÌÅÒÍÎÉ ÈÍÒÅÃÐÀÖÈÈÄ. ÑÀÁÐÎÌÅÍÅ ............................................................. 59

ÒÅÑÒ ÊÀÊ ÑÐÅÄÑÒÂÎ ÊÎÍÒÐÎËß ÍÀ ÓÐÎÊÅÐÓÑÑÊÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀÁ. ÑÈÍÎ×ÊÈÍÀ ............................................................. 64

ADJECTIVES: ASSOCIATIVE FIELDS IN ENGLISH ANDLITHUANIANS. STEPONAVIÈIENË ................................................................................ 70

ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈÅ ÏÐÎÔÅÑÑÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎ - ÏÅÄÀÃÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÎÌÓÎÁÙÅÍÈÞ ÁÓÄÓÙÈÕ Ó×ÈÒÅËÅÉ ÈÍÎÑÒÐÀÍÍÎÃÎßÇÛÊÀÒ. ×Å×ÅÒ ........................................................................ 77

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TEXT COHERENCE AND FOREIGN

LANGUAGE TEACHING

J. BUITKIENË

In this article I would like to dwell upon similarities and differences of someaspects of cohesion in Lithuanian and English texts. Cohesion and cohesive de-vices are a part of discourse competence which, in its turn, is a part of communica-tive competence.

When we speak about text we speak about text coherence and cohesion. Coher-ence is the feeling that a text hangs together, that it makes sense. It is ensured bymany factors such as constraints on communication, communicative acts, etc. Co-hesion is ensured by different cohesive devices, realized by formal language sys-tem. Therefore in learning / teaching process both linguistic and extralinguisticfactors should be taken into consideration. This presupposes that we need moretools than the formal language system can propose. Therefore in communicationvery important are extralinguistic factors: social relationship between the sender ofthe message and its receiver, shared knowledge concerning given situation, dis-course type, its structure, etc.

In language usage we almost always have some sort of knowledge about thesenders and the receivers of the discourse, otherwise we would not know how toorient ourselves in a certain situation. Such spoken discourse �It is dark� may changeits meaning under the change of the sender and the receiver. If we are visiting ourfriend, it might mean �It is time to go home�; if we work in the garden, it mightmean a suggestion to stop working; in the classroom it might be an order to switchon the light.

Apart from that we also need to have a certain degree of shared knowledge withthe receiver about the object we discuss if we want to accomplish successful com-munication. Discourse which underestimates the degree of existing knowledgebecomes boring; discourse which overestimates it becomes incomprehensible.Therefore students should be tought the skills of adding or removing informationaccording to the change of the receivers. Then students should be acquainted withthe discourse type they are to process or produce, its structure, etc.

Most of these extralinguistic factors are discussed and analyzed in Lithuanianschools and universities during the native language classes. Nevertheless, therewill always be cases when the first language skills are lacking or undeveloped and

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teachers might find the need to make up for such shortcomings. The teacher�s taskwould be to emphasize them, to draw his students attention to them once more, andtake these factors into account while preparing and giving students different for-eign language tasks.

Students are also acquainted with different types and ways of cohesion andcohesive devices, they have heard about anaphora and cataphora, antecedent, rep-etition, etc. During their Lithuanian language classes they analyze texts and func-tioning of cohesive devices. But these text analysis or producing skills cannot betransferred from their first language into the second one automatically because ofthe differences in the syntactic structure of both languages in the first place. Mostof the cohesive devices are the same in two languages, but their distributional pat-tern is not the same in all cases.

It is already acknowledged that cohesion in English and Lithuanian like in manyother languages is created by four main ways: reference, ellipses / substitution,conjunction, and lexical organization (McCarthy, 1991, 35). Two aspects of cohe-sion, reference and ellipses / substitution, will be outlined here.

In many languages reference is realized by personal pronouns, demonstratives,comparatives and the definite article. So in the first place the Lithuanian languagelacks articles as cohesive devices and this factor might present some interest forthe comparative analysis of both languages and for the teaching / learning process.In English texts the definite article looks back in the text (anaphoric reference) orrefers to shared worlds outside of the text (exophoric reference). What is more, inanaphoric reference cases the article is usually followed by semantically akin lexi-cal item, thus the ties between two text items become stronger (e. g. protestantism- the new religion), it is of double nature, while in Lithuanian we have only alexical tie. Some Lithuanian linguists claim that in many cases demonstrative pro-nouns (esp. �tas�, �ta�, sometimes �ðitas�, �ðita�) acquire the meaning of the defi-nite article and can fulfil functions characteristic to those of the definite article.And if we compare the original and its translation, we can witness certain correla-tion between the English articles and Lithuanian demonstrative pronouns (e. g. �atrading salesman� - �kaþkoks komivojaþierius�, �a customer� - �kaþkokia moteris�),while the definite article is rendered by �tas�, �ta�.

Sometimes in English texts the definite article in exophoric usage refers not tothe immediate context but to what is assumed by the speaker / writer to be a part ofa shared world, either in terms of knowledge or experience. But if learners lack thisknowledge, then difficulties arise in understanding this text and in rendering it intotheir native language. In such cases translators look for some supplementary lexi-cal means in Lithuanian to substitute for the exophoric function of the definite

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article.Let us look at a text from J. Avyþius novel and its translation into English:(1) Akvilë, nulipusi nuo dviraèio, ëjo grindiniu kartu su Bergmanais. (...)

Akinamai balta bliuzë ir trys geltonos ðeðiakampës þvaigþdës kopë á kalnà kylanèiagatve. Saulëje blykèiojo dviraèio nikelis, o gal ir ðukos, juodame plaukø aukse.Gediminas slinko ið paskos kaip permuðtas ðuo, bijodamas ir norëdamas, kad jiatsigræþtø. (...) Ties baþnyèia iððoko á turgaus aikðtæ ir iðsiþiojo apstulbæs: þydaidingo, tartum þemë bûtø visus prarijusi, o mergina akinamai balta bliuze stovëjoprie parduotuvës durø ir kalbëjo su kaþkokiu vyriðkiu (Avyþius, 10).

(2) Akvile, leading her bicycle along, was walking in the middle of the roadwith the Bergmans. (...) The snow-white blouse and the three yellow six-pointedstars were going uphill along the road. The sun caught flashes in the nickel-platedparts of the bicycle and something in the girl�s hair - a comb, perhaps? Gediminasplodded behind like a whipped dog, now hoping, now fearing that she would turnround. (...) He stopped near the church and gaped in astonishment: the Bergmanshad vanished, as if the earth had swallowed them up, and a strange girl in a whiteblouse stood chatting with a man at the door of a shop (Avyþius, 12).

In the Lithuanian text we see no linguistic markers indicating the change of theparticipant, i. e. we understand that the first nomination �Akvilë� and the last one�mergina� refer to one and the same person. Only the following text clarifies thesituation. In the English variant the change in the participant line is indicated bythe indefinite article, which introduces a new person. The attribute �strange� onlyreinforces the meaning of the article.

Thus Lithuanian demonstratives cannot equal to the English articles in boththeir meaning and functions. The definite article reinforces cohesion of text ele-ments in English, therefore in Lithuanian we must look for supplementary meansto achieve similar effect.

Looking back in texts to find the referent of a pronoun have long been commonin the first and second language teaching. Pronouns are universally used in mostlanguages, English and Lithuanian included, but their distributional pattern is dif-ferent. Numerous linguistic examples prove that English texts show a very highdegree of frequency in the usage of personal pronouns while in Lithuanian textspronouns are avoided whenever possible. Instead, we see the omission of a pro-noun (�zero� nomination) or pronouns are replaced by lexical items what can beillustrated by the below given example:

(3) He called out, but no more answer. He stepped in. He knocked at a door, butagain there was no answer. He turned the handle and entered. The stench thatassailed him turned him horribly sick. He put his handkerchief to his nose and

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forced himself to go in (Maugham, 211).(4) Daktaras kelis kartus ðûktelëjo, bet niekas neatsiliepë. Áëjo á verandà.

Pasibeldë, bet irgi niekas neatsakë. Pasukæs rankenà, jis pravërë duris. Nuouþplûdusio tvaiko jam pasidarë bloga. Su nosine jis uþsidengë nosá ir prisivertæsáëjo á vidø (Moemas, 179).

Possessive pronouns also present some interest in the sphere of comparativeanalysis of Lithuanian and English texts. They are in a certain relationship not onlywith their antecedent but also with the lexical items they modify. The closer lexicalitems are related semantically, the lower is the relevance of possessive pronouns.Compare the following texts:

(5) She was a woman of thirty-seven, rather tall, and plump, without being fat;she was not pretty, but her face was pleasing, chiefly, perhaps, on account of herkind brown eyes. Her skin was rather sallow. Her dark hair was elaborately dressed(Maugham, 33).

(6) Ji buvo kokiø trisdeðimt septyniø metø moteris, aukðtoka ir apkûni, betnenutukus; groþiu nepasiþymëjo, bet veidà turëjo patrauklø - turbût, dël ðvelniørudø akiø. Ji buvo tamsaus gymio, rûpestingai suðukuotais plaukais (Moemas, 16).

(7) The later Victorians were plumper and more complacent than their fathershad been (...). Their society was stable. Their inventive genius was everywhereacknowledged. The superiority of their arms seemed to have been permanentlyestablished by their twin victories of Trafalgar and Waterloo (Morris, 117).

In the first case, the lexical items �she - face - eyes - skin - hair� retain semanticlinks in any other situation, while the following set �Victorians - society - inven-tive genius - superiority of arms�, taken isolated from the given situation, shows nosematic relationship. The relevance of possessive pronouns is higher in the secondcase because they help to hold together those lexical items which otherwise belongto different semantic fields. Lithuanian equivalents of the English possessive pro-nouns could be personal pronouns in the possesive case. The way they are used ascohesive elements is the same as in English with the exception that the Lithuanianlanguage avoids them in the cases where semantic relations between lexical itemsare close (text 6).

Ellipsis / substitution is a relationship involving the omission of some lexicalitem of a verbal or nominal group which is presupposed in the text or a placeholdingelement is inserted to signal the gap. Ellipsis as a notion is a universal feature oflanguages, but the grammatical options, which realise it in text, may vary mark-edly. Thus ellipsis of both verbal and nominal groups is characteristic of both lan-guages but the pattern of its distribution is different and it does not follow set rules.We have cases where instances of ellipsis coincide in both languages, but there are

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also extreme cases where in one language we have ellipsis stretching through sev-eral text items while in the other language lexical repetition is predominant. Com-pare the following examples:

(8) �Hah! So that is why the police have been opening my letters!��Only twice, Miss Doubkow. I didn�t do it; they did it. Remember, I represent

a private person.� (Wilder, 71).(9) - Cha! Ðtai kodël policija tikrina mano laiðkus.- Tik porà kartø, mis Dubkova. Að to nedariau, kiti tikrino (Vailderis, 68).In the English variant the verbal group �have been opening� is omitted after

�twice�, and in the following text it is substituted by the auxiliary �do�. In Lithuanianthe omission coincides, but the following text reveals only one substitute �nedariau�,followed by lexical repetition �tikrino�. The following example illustrates the ex-treme case whena Lithuanian text uses only lexical repetition instead of ellipsis /substitution of a verbal group:

(10) �Dr. Gillies didn�t believe a word of it,�she said.�I did.I believed everyword of it. And so did my father. I couldn�t walk straight if I didn�t� (Wilder, 25).

(11) - Daktaras Gilis pats netiki në vienu savo pasakytu þodþiu, - tarë ji. - O aðtikiu. Að tikiu kiekvienu jo þodþiu. Taip tikëjo ir mano tëvas. Að negalëèiau þengtitiesiai, jeigu netikëèiau (Vailderis, 19).

Similar pattern is observed in the case of the omission and substitution of anominal group. If in English we have, e. g. �We have said that the hopeful foundnourishment in marvels. Such, for her, was Ashley�s rescue.�, so in the Lithuanianvariant we read �Jau minëjome, kad mintantieji viltimi randa sau pelno stebuklin-guose reiðkiniuose. Toks reiðkinys jai buvo Aðlio iðgelbëjimas�. The above pre-sented and other analysed material shows that the type of ellipsis, where the miss-ing element is retrievable verbotim from the surrouding text, functions more orless adequately in both languages. We can witness some distributional pattern dif-ferences when ellipsis in followed by substitution. It happens so because Englishpossesses a great variety of substitution forms at nominal and verbal levels (�one�,�do�, �so/not�, �some�, etc.). These items are not easily and directly translatable toother languages. Some common, everyday substitutions should be learnt idiomati-cally. As ellipsis is more typical of spoken language, students should be encour-aged to a more widely use of this type of text cohesion.

Thus, in teaching students to comprehend and produce foreign language texts,it is very important to emphasize the existing differences of cohesive devices in thefirst and second languages, as well as to estimate the relevance of extralinguisticfactors.

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REZIUME

TEKSTO VIENTISUMAS IR UÞSIENIO KALBØMOKYMAS

Teksto elementø ryðio bûdai yra universalûs, taèiau ne visose kalbose jie yrarealizuojami tomis paèiomis priemonëmis. Todël ðiame straipsnyje bandomapanagrinëti kai kuriuos ryðio priemoniø skirtumus anglø ir lietuviø kalbø tekstuose.Akcentuojama, kad tampri lingvistiniø bei ekstralingvistiniø faktoriø sàveikapalengvina teksto suvokimà ir produkavimà.

REFERENCESMcCharthy, 1991 - McCharthy M. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. -

Cambridge University Press, 1991.Avyþius - Avyþius J. Sodybø tuðtëjimo metas. Vilnius: Vaga, 1973.Avyþius - Avyþius J. The Lost Home. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1974.Maugham - Maugham S. The Moon and Sixpence. Moscow: Progress Publishers,

1973.Moemas - Moemas S. Mënulis ir skatikas. Vilnius: Vaga, 1964.Morris - Morris J. Pax Britannica. Harmondsworth, 1979.Vailderis - Vailderis T. Aðtuntoji diena. Vilnius: Vaga, 1978.Wilder - Wilder T. The Eight Day. York: Harper and Row, 1967.

ÃÐÀÄÀÖÈÈ ÝËßÒÈÂÀ ÏÐÈËÀ-

ÃÀÒÅËÜÍÛÕ È ÈÕ ÑÈÍÎÍÈÌÛÿ Â

ÈÒÀËÜßÍÑÊÎÌ, ÔÐÀÍÖÓÇÑÊÎÌ,

ÐÓÑÑÊÎÌ È ËÈÒÎÂÑÊÎÌ ßÇÛÊÀÕ

À. ÂÀÉØÍÎÐÀÑ

1. ÎÁÙÈÅ ÑÂÅÄÅÍÈß1.1. Â êàòåãîðèè ïðèëàãàòåëüíîãî, ýëÿòèâ êàê â èòàëüÿíñêîì è

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ôðàíöóçñêîì ÿçûêàõ, òàê è â ðóññêîì è ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ çàíèìàåòâèäíîå ïîëîæåíèå. Âûäåëÿÿñü èç ñèñòåìû ñòåïåíåé ñðàâíåíèÿ ñâîèìáåçîòíîñèòåëüíûì õàðàêòåðîì è ÿâëÿÿñü âàæíûì çâåíîì â êàòåãîðèèñòåïåíåé êà÷åñòâåííîãî ïðèçíàêà, îí âûðàæàåò î÷åíü âûñîêóþ,÷ðåçìåðíóþ, ïðåäåëüíóþ, íàèâûñøóþ è áåçãðàíè÷íóþ åãî ñòåïåíè.

1.2. Â äàííîé ñòàòüå áîëüøîé èíòåðåñ ïðåäñòàâëÿåò âûÿñíåíèåõàðàêòåðíûõ ÷åðò ñåìàíòèêè ïðèçíàêà ïðåäìåòà, ëèöà èëè ÿâëåíèÿïðè ñîïîñòàâëåíèè ãåíåòè÷åñêè ðîäñòâåííûõ èòàëüÿíñêîãî èôðàíöóçñêîãî ÿçûêîâ ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, è ðóññêîãî è ëèòîâñêîãî,ïðèíàäëåæàùèõ ê èíûì ÿçûêîâûì ãðóïïàì ñ äðóãîé, à òàêæå âîïðîñ îñõîäñòâå è ðàçëè÷èÿõ â ñòðóêòóðíî-ñåìàíòè÷åñêîì ïëàíå â âûðàæåíèèêàòåãîðèè ýëÿòèâà1 â âûøå íàçâàííûõ ÿçûêàõ. Ïîñêîëüêó ñðåäñòâàâûðàæåíèÿ ýëÿòèâà èìåþò îáùèå ÷åðòû âî âñåõ ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêàõ,ñóùåñòâóþò ïðåäïîñûëêè äëÿ èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïàðàëëåëüíûõìîðôîëîãè÷åñêèõ è ëåêñèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ â öåëÿõ âûÿñíåíèÿîáùèõ ÷åðò è ðàçëè÷èé. Äàííîå ñîïîñòàâëåíèå äëÿ âûÿâëåíèÿñèíîíèìè÷åñêèõ åäèíèö ýëÿòèâà áóäåò ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü óñòàíîâëåíèþçàêîíîìåðíîñòåé ëåêñèêî-ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêîãî è ãðàììàòè÷åñêîãî ñòðîÿäàííûõ ÿçûêîâ íà ñîâðåìåííîì ýòàïå èõ ðàçâèòèÿ.

1.3. Ñî÷åòàÿñü ñ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè èëè îáðàçóÿ öåëîñòíûå ëåêñåìûïðè ïîìîùè ìîðôåì, óñèëèòåëüíûå ýëåìåíòû (ìîðôåìû è ôîðìàíòû)âûïîëíÿþò îäèíàêîâóþ ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêóþ ôóíêöèþ óñèëåíèÿ,íàõîäÿñü â îäíîì ñåìàíòè÷åñêîì ïîëå, îñíîâàííîì íà îáùåì çíà÷åíèèýëÿòèâíîé ñòåïåíè èíòåíñèâíîñòè. Òåì æå ñàìûì ýëÿòèâíûå ñðåäñòâàóñèëèâàþò ïðèçíàê, ñîäåðæàùèéñÿ ó ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî ïðèëàãàòåëüíîãî,áåç ñðàâíåíèÿ ñ äðóãèìè ïðåäìåòàìè (ýëÿòèâíîå çíà÷åíèå çäåñüîïðåäåëÿåòñÿ â ñðàâíåíèè ñ íîðìîé â îäíîì è òîì æå ïðåäìåòå).Ýëÿòèâíûå ôîðìû, îáðàçîâàííûå ïðè ïîìîùè óñèëèòåëüíûõ ìîðôåìè ôîðìàíòîâ, ñîîòíîñÿòñÿ ìåæäó ñîáîé êàê ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå âàðèàíòû,îáúåäèíåííûå îáùèì ïîíÿòèåì ýëÿòèâà âî âñåì åãî ìíîãîîáðàçèè è

1 Â äàëüíåéøåì íàìè áóäóò ââîäèòüñÿ ñîêðàùåíèÿ: ÈÏ - ñî÷åòàíèÿ íàðå÷èé-èíòåíñèôèêàòîðîâ ñ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè, Ï - ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå, ñîäåðæàùèå çíà÷åíèåýëÿòèâà, ÓÑÊ - óñòîé÷èâûå ñðàâíèòåëüíûå êîíñòðóêöèè, Ð - ðåäóïëèêàöèÿ, À -àïïîçèöèîííûå ñðåäñòâà (â îáîèõ ðîìàíñêèõ ÿçûêàõ), Ñ - ñóôôèêñû, Ïð - ïðåôèêñû,ÑÊ - óñòîé÷èâûå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå êîíñòðóêöèè, ÊÐÑ - ôîðìû êîìïàðàòèâà è ðåëÿòèâíîãîñóïåðëÿòèâà â ôóíêöèè ýëÿòèâà, ÈÏÏÑ - ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå ñëåäñòâèÿ, ââîäèìîåèíòåíñèôèêàòîðàìè â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûì (â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå - ìåñòîèìåííî-ñîîòíîñèòåëüíûå ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñëåäñâèÿ), È - íàðå÷èÿ-èíòåíñèôèêàòîðû, Ä - äîìèíàíòà.

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ñîñòàâëÿþò íåçàìêíóòûå ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå ðÿäû.1.4. Ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü ê îïðåäåëåííîé ñòåïåíè èíòåíñèôèêàöèè

óñòàíàâëèâàåòñÿ ïî òèïàì çíà÷åíèÿ ñòåïåíè êà÷åñòâà è ïî ñòåïåíèóñèëåíèÿ â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ïîíÿòèÿìè ëîãèêè, îòðàæàþùèìèîáúåêòèâíóþ äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòü. Ýëÿòèâ íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ìîíîëèòíîé,åäèíîîáðàçíîé ñèñòåìîé èíòåíñèôèêàöèè. Â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ãðàäàöèåéêà÷åñòâåííîãî ïðèçíàêà íàìè âûäåëåíû ïÿòü ñòåïåíåé êà÷åñòâà, ÷òîèìååò ñîîòíîøåíèå ñ ëîãè÷åñêèìè ïîíÿòèÿìè, ñâÿçàííûìè ñ ñåìàíòèêîé.

Â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ áûëè ñäåëàíû ïîïûòêè âûäåëåíèÿ òðåõ ñòåïåíåé(È. À. Äîçà, 1947, 137, Æ.-Ê. Øåâàëüå è Ê. Á. Áåíâåíèñò, 1973, 199 èÏ. Òåêàâ÷è÷, 1972, 210). Îäíàêî äàííûå ãðàäàöèè, ïðîâåäåííûå ýòèìèëèíãâèñòàìè, íå èìåþò ÷åòêî âûðàæåííîãî õàðàêòåðà è âêëþ÷àþò ëèøüíåñêîëüêî È. Èññëåäîâàòåëü ýëÿòèâà ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà Ë. Ê. Øïàê (1977,18) ïðåäëîæèëà ÷åòûðå ñòåïåíè ãðàäàöèè. Èíòåíñèôèêàòîðû, êîòîðûåñëóæàò àâòîðó ïðèíöèïîì ãðàäàöèé, íå î÷åíü òî÷íî âûðàæàþò èõñòåïåíè. Ïðèíöèïîì ãðàäàöèé2 çäåñü ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñîäåðæàíèå çíà÷åíèÿÈ, ñâÿçàííûå ñ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèìè ëîãè÷åñêèìè ïîíÿòèÿìè. Ïðåäïî-ëàãàåìàÿ íèæå ñõåìà ãðàäàöèé ïîñòðîåíà íà ëîãè÷åñêîì çíà÷åíèèóñèëåíèÿ êà÷åñòâà. Ïðèâîäèìûå â àâòîðåôåðàòå Ë. Ê. Øïàê È íåÿâëÿþòñÿ ýëÿòèâíûìè ñèíèíèìàìè áåçãðàíè÷íîé ñòåïåíè êà÷åñòâà.Íèêòî èç èññëåäîâàòåëåé íàìè èññëåäóåìûõ ÿçûêîâ íå ââåë â äàííóþñõåìó êëàññèôèêàöèè äðóãèõ ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ ñóïåðëÿòèâà èëèýëÿòèâà (Ð, ÓÑÊ, À, ÊÐÑ è äð.), à îãðàíè÷èâàëèñü êëàññèôèêàöèåéÈ. Íå ðàñïðåäåëåíû ïî ñòåïåíÿì êà÷åñòâà Ïð ýëÿòèâíîãî ðÿäà âèòàëüÿíñêîì, ôðàíöóçñêîì, ðóññêîì è ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ.

2. ÃÐÀÄÀÖÈÈ ÝËßÒÈÂÀÑîäåðæàíèå ãðàäàöèé âûÿâëÿåòñÿ ïóòåì çíà÷åíèÿ È, íàèáîëåå

îò÷åòëèâî âûðàæåííîå â òîì-òî. Íàìè ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ ñëåäóþùàÿ ãðàäàöèÿêà÷åñòâåííîãî ïðèçíàêà â ñèñòåìå ýëÿòèâà äëÿ ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêîâ, ïîòîìó÷òî íàáëþäåíèÿ ïîêàçàëè ñõîäñòâî è ñîâïàäåíèÿ ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿýëÿòèâà.

2.1. Î÷åíü âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíü êà÷åñòâà. Ä äàííîé ñòåïåíè êà÷åñòâà

2 Ìåæäó ïðî÷èì, òåðìèí �âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíü�, ñîäåðæàùèé ïîíÿòèÿ �áîëüøîé�, �ñèëüíûé�,�êðàñèâûé�, è ò.ï., íå èìååò ñóïåðëÿòèâíîãî (ýëÿòèâíîãî) çíà÷åíèÿ, ô äàííûåïðèëàãàòåëüíûå áåç ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî óñèëåíèÿ íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ ýëÿòèâàìè, õîòÿ îíèâûðàæàþò îïðåäåëåííóþ ñòåïåíü â ãðàäàöèÿõ èíòåíñèâíîñòè, ò.å. â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòèÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè, ñîäåðæàùèìè óñèëåíèå.

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óñèëèòåëÿìè ïðèëàãàòåëüíîãî ÿâëÿþòñÿ È molto // très // î÷åíü // labai,êîòîðûå â âèäó èõ ïîëíîé äåñåìàíòèçàöèè, aáñòðàêòíîñòè íàèáîëååîò÷åòëèâî âûðàæàþò ñàìóþ íèçêóþ ñòåïåíü â ãðàäàöèîííîé øêàëåýëÿòèâà.

2.2. Ñòåïåíü ïðåâûøåíèÿ ìåðû, îáúåìà êà÷åñòâà. Âòîðàÿ ñòåïåíüîáëàäàåò äîâîëüíî ÷åòêèì ïðèçíàêîì óñèëåíèÿ, êîòîðûé èìååò ñâîèãðàíèöû. Ñðåäñòâà âûðàæåíèÿ ýëÿòèâà äàííîé ñòåïåíè âûðàæàþòñòåïåíü èíòåíñèâíîñòè, íàõîäÿùóþñÿ íèæå áåçãðàíè÷íîé ñòåïåíèêà÷åñòâà, òàê êàê åé ñâîéñòâåííî ïðåâûøåíèå ñòåïåíè �äîñòàòî÷íî� ñîïðåäåëåííûì ëèìèòîì, ïðåäåëîì, ò.å. ñåìà íå îòëè÷àåòñÿ áåçãðàíè÷íûìõàðàêòåðîì. Ýëÿòèâû ýòîé ñòåïåíè ÿâëÿþòñÿ òàêæå ìåíåå ýôôåêòèâíûìñðåäñòâîì óñèëåíèÿ, ÷åì ýëÿòèâû ñàìîé âûñøåé ñòåïåíè. Ä äàííîéñòåïåíè ýëÿòèâíîé ôîðìû ÿâëÿþòñÿ íàðå÷èÿ troppo // trop // ñëèøêîì //per daug.

2.3. Ïðåäåëüíî âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíü êà÷åñòâà. Ïðåäåëüíî âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíüêà÷åñòâà ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ïîíÿòèþ ïîëíîòû êà÷åñòâà, åãî çàâåðøåííîñòèäî ïðåäåëà, íî íå íàðóøóò åãî. Ä äàííîãî óðîâíÿ ãðàäàöèè êà÷åñòâàÿâëÿþòñÿ È tutto // tout à fait // ñîâñåì (âïîëíå) // visiðkai.

2.4. Ñàìàÿ âûñøàÿ, íàèâûñøàÿ ñòåïåíü êà÷åñòâà. Â ñèñòåìå ãðàäàöèé÷åòâåðòàÿ ñòåïåíü âûäåëÿåòñÿ óñëîâíî - ýòî îñîáàÿ ñòåïåíü. Ñâîèìçíà÷åíèåì îíà ÿâëÿåòñÿ áëèçêîé òðåòüåé ñòåïåíè, òàê êàê ñåìà Ä �ñàìûéâûñøèé� íå ñèëüíî îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ñåìû Ä òðåòüåé ñòåïåíè �ñîâñåì� -òàê èëè èíà÷å îíà ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ïîíÿòèþ ïîëíîòû ìåðû, îáúåìà.Óñèëåíèå â ÷åòâåðòîé ñòåïåíè êà÷åñòâà äîâîäèòñÿ äî ìàêñèìàëüíîñòè,íàèâûñøåé òî÷êè â øêàëå ãðàäàöèè, îíà âêëþ÷àåò áîãàòûé ñïåêòðñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ ýëÿòèâà: îò È supremamente, favolosamente, sommamenteè äð. + ïðèëàãàòåëüíîå, ïðîãðåññèðóþùåé Ð, ÓÑÊ ñ î÷åíü ñèëüíûì,ýôôåêòèâíûì îáúåêòîì ñðàâíåíèÿ, ÊÐÑ òàêæå ñ î÷åíü ñèëüíûìèêîððåëÿòàìè-óòî÷íèòåëÿìè èëè ýòàëîíàìè ñðàâíåíèÿ, ôîðì èìïëèöèò-íîãî, ðåëÿòèâíîãî ñóïåðëÿòèâíîãî äî ôîðìû íà -issimo // -issime // -åéøèé, àéøèé // -iausias. Ä ýòîé ñòåïåíè èíòåíñèôèêàöèè ÿâëÿþòñÿíàðå÷èÿ supremamente // suprêmement // â âûñøåé ñòåïåíè // labiausiai.

2.5. Áåçãðàíè÷íàÿ, áåñïðåäåëüíàÿ ñòåïåíü êà÷åñòâà. Êàê âòîðàÿ, òàêè ïÿòàÿ áåçãðàíè÷íàÿ ñòåïåíü ÿâëÿåòñÿ îãðàíè÷åííîé â îòíîøåíèèñðåäñòâ åå âûðàæåíèÿ. Â îñíîâíîì ýòî È èëè ëåêñè÷åñêèå ñðåäñòâà,èìåþùèå îòðèöàòåëüíîå çíà÷åíèå. Ä äàííîãî óðîâíÿ ÿâëÿþòñÿ Èinfinitamente // infiniment // áåñêîíå÷íî // be galo. Â óñòíîé ðàçãîâîðíîéðå÷è èõ ñèíîíèìû, íàïðèìåð: bellissimo // bellissime // áîëüøóùèé-

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ïðåáîëüøóùèé // gerø geriausias (â ôðàíö. ÿçûêå îíè îòñóòñòâóþò),êîòîðûå ÿâëÿþòñÿ æèâîé êàòåãîðèåé.

3. CÈÍÎÍÈÌÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÐßÄÛ ÝËßÒÈÂÀ3.1. Ðàññìîòðåííûå âûøå ñòåïåíè ãðàäàöèè ýëÿòèâà èìåþò

ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå ðÿäû â èññëåäóåìûõ íàìè ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêàõ.Ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå ýëÿòèâíûå ôîðìû òàêæå êàê è âñÿêèå ñèíîíèìû íåÿâëÿþòñÿ àáñîëþòíî îäíîçíà÷íûìè, òàê êàê îíè îòëè÷àþòñÿ äðóã îòäðóãà ïî äîïîëíèòåëüíûì ñìûñëîâûì èëè âûðàçèòåëüíûì îòòåíêàì,ïî ýìîöèîíàëüíîé îêðàñêå. Ýëÿòèâíûå ñèíîíèìû ñîîòíîñÿòñÿ ìåæäóñîáîé ñåìàíòè÷åñêîé îáùíîñòüþ çíà÷åíèÿ, à òàêæå îáùíîñòüþ ïîíÿòèÿñîîòâåòñòâóþùåé ýëÿòèâíîé ñòåïåíè è âõîäÿò â îïðåäåëåííûéñèíîíèìè÷åñêèé ðÿä.

3.2. Íåò åäèíîãî ìíåíèÿ â ñàìîì îïðåäåëåíèè ñèíîíèìà: áîëüøèíñòâîèññëåäîâàòåëåé ñ÷èòàåò, ÷òî ñèíîíèìû èìåþò ñèñòåìíûé õàðàêòåð.À. Ï. Åâãåíüåâà (1964, 9) ïîëàãàåò, ÷òî ñèíîíèìàìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñëîâà,áëèçêèå èëè òîæäåñòâåííûå ïî çíà÷åíèþ, íî îòëè÷àþùèåñÿ äðóã îòäðóãà îòòåíêàìè çíà÷åíèé (áëèçêèå), ëèáî ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîé îêðàñêîé(òîæäåñòâåííûå), ëèáî îáîèìè ýòèìè ïðèçíàêàìè. Èìåÿ â âèäó òîòôàêò, ÷òî ñèíîíèìèÿ ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ íà âñå óðîâíè ÿçûêà, Î. Ñ. Àõìà-íîâà (1969) äàåò åé ñëåäóþùåå îïðåäåëåíèå: �Ñèíîíèìèÿ (ñèíîíèìèêà)- ñîâïàäåíèå ïî îñíîâíîìó çíà÷åíèþ (îáû÷íî ïðè ñîõðàíåíèè ðàçëè÷èéâ îòòåíêàõ è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîé õàðàêòåðèñòèêå) ñëîâ, ìîðôåì,êîíñòðóêöèé, ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêèõ åäèíèö è ò.ä.� Ìíîãèå ëèíãâèñòûîïðåäåëÿþò ñèíîíèìû ïî ïðèçíàêó âçàèìîçàìåíÿåìîñòè. Ôóíêöèÿçàìåùåíèÿ ñèíîíèìàìè ñîñòîèò â âûáîðå è ñîïîñòàâëåíèè îïðåäåëåííûõñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ ýëÿòèâà â �÷èñòîì� âèäå èëè ñ äîïîëíèòåëüíûìèýêñïðåññèâíî-ýìîöèîíàëüíûìè îòòåíêàìè (ñ ôàìèëüÿðíî-èðîíè÷åñêèìè,ïðåíåáðåæèòåëüíûìè, óíè÷èæèòåëüíûìè îòòåíêàìè, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû,è îòòåíêàìè ýìîöèîíàëüíîé îöåíêè - âîñõèùåíèÿ, óäîâîëüñòâèÿ è ò.ï.,ñ äðóãîé). Â îñíîâó îïðåäåëåíèÿ ñèíîíèìîâ Ø. Áàëëè (1961, 179)ïîëîæèë ìåòîä èäåíòèôèêàöèè, ñîïîñòàâëåíèÿ ýêñïðåññèâíûõ èíåéòðàëüíûõ ýëåìåíòîâ ÿçûêà. Îäíèì èç êðèòåðèåâ çäåñü øâåéöàðñêèéëèíãâèñò ñ÷èòàë çàìåíû è ïîäñòàâêè â îäíîì ñèíîíèìè÷åñêîì ðÿäó,÷òî îáíàðóæèâàåò êàê áëèçîñòü ñîïîñòàâëÿåìûõ åäèíèö, òàê è îñîáûåîòòåíêè. Â íàøåì èññëåäîâàíèè ñèíîíèìû õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ, ñ îäíîéñòîðîíû, îáùíîñòüþ çíà÷åíèÿ, ñ äðóãîé - ðàçëè÷èÿìè âíóòðè ýòîéñåìàíòè÷åñêîé îáùíîñòè, ÷òî ïîçâîëÿåò ñèíîíèìàì âçàèìîçàìåíÿòüñÿ

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â ðå÷è, ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ ïðè ýòîì íåêîòîðûå âòîðîñòåïåííûå ÷åðòû îáúåêòà.3.3. Ïðèíöèïû, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðûì âîçìîæíî îáúåäèíåíèå ýëÿòèâíûõ

ôîðì â ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå ðÿäû ñîîòâåòñâóþùèõ óðîâíåé â øêàëåèíòåíñèâíîñòè, ñîîòâåòñòâóþò ðàññìîòðåííûì íàìè îïðåäåëåíèÿìñèíîíèìè÷åñêîãî ðÿäà, ó÷èòûâàÿ ïðè ýòîì ñòåïåíü èõ èíòåíñèâíîñòè.Ñòèëèñòè÷åñêàÿ îêðàñêà ñëîâ-ñèíîíèìîâ ñòàíîâèòñÿ î÷åâèäíîé íà ôîíåíåéòðàëüíîãî â ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîì îòíîøåíèè ñëîâà, â êà÷åñòâå êîòîðîãîâûñòóïàåò îáû÷íî äîìèíàíòà ñèíîíèìè÷åñêîãî ðÿäà. Â áîëüøèíñòâåñëó÷àåâ ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèé ñïåêòð ñèíîíèìèè ìîæíî íàçâàòü ñïåêòðîìýêñïðåññèâíî-ýìîöèîíàëüíûõ îêðàñîê. Ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèå ðàçëè÷èÿñèíîíèìîâ îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ ñôåðîé èõ óïîòðåáëåíèÿ, ïðåæäå âñåãî òîìóèëè èíîìó ôóíêöèîíàëüíîìó ñòèëþ, íàïð.: terribilmente buono,perfettamente noioso, diabolicamente rapido, frescone // terriblement confortable(fin), rudement bon // äüÿâîëüñêè ñ÷àñòëèâ, áîëüíî äîáðûé, óæàñàþùåòàëàíòëèâûé, óæàñíî íåñêëàäíûé // baisiai geras, velniðkai skubusóïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â õóäîæåñòâåííîì ñòèëå ðå÷è, íî íèêîãäà íå óïîòðåá-ëÿþòñÿ â íàó÷íîì ñòèëå, â òåêñòå ðåêëàìû. Ýòè ðàçëè÷èÿ îïðåäåëÿþòñÿòàêæå ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñî ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîé íåéòðàëüíîñòüþ äîìèíèíòûñèíîíèìè÷åñêîãî ðÿäà, ïðåäñòàâëÿþùåé îáùåóïîòðåáèòåëüíûå ñðåäñòâàýëÿòèâà (molto, troppo, tutto, infinitamente // très, trop, tout à fait, infiniment //î÷åíü, ñëèøêîì, ñîâñåì, áåñêîíå÷íî è ò.ä. // labai, visai, per daug, begal).Èñïîëüçîâàíèå ñèíîíèìîâ â ðàçëè÷íûõ ôóíêöèîíàëüíûõ ñòèëÿõíåîäèíàêîâî: â îäíèõ èìåþòñÿ áîëüøèå âîçìîæíîñòè â îáðàçîâàíèè èèñïîëüçîâàíèè ñèíîíèìèè (õóäîæåñòâåííûé, ïóáëèöèñòè÷åñêèé ñòèëè,äèàëîã â õóäîæåñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå, ðåêëàìíûé âàðèàíò ÿçûêîâ), âäðóãèõ ýòè âîçìîæíîñòè âåñüìà îãðàíè÷åíû (îôèöèàëüíî-äåëîâîé èíàó÷íûé ñòèëü). Ýòî ñâÿçàíî ñ çàäà÷àìè îáùåíèÿ â òîé èëè èíîé ñôåðåè ñ äðóãèìè ýêñòðàëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè ôàêòîðàìè.

3.4. Èòàê äëÿ íàó÷íîãî è îôèöèàëüíî-äåëîâîãî ñòèëÿ ðå÷è õàðàêòåðíîñòðåìëåíèå ê ïðåäåëüíîé òî÷íîñòè è îáúåêòèâíîñòè â âûðàæåíèèýëÿòèâíîé ñòåïåíè èíòåíñèâíîñòè.

3.5. Íàèáîëåå øèðîêî ñèíîíèìèÿ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â ýñòåòè÷åñêîé ñôåðåîáùåíèÿ - â õóäîæåñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå. Õóäîæåñòâåííàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà(÷àñòè÷íî è ïóáëèöèñòèêà) íå òîëüêî âáèðàåò â ñåáÿ âñå áîãàòñâàñèíîíèìèè ýëÿòèâíûõ ôîðì â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ, ñîâåðøåíñòâóåò ååñåìàíòèêî-ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèå ñâîéñòâà, ðàñøèðÿåò åå óïîòðåáëåíèå â ðå÷è,íî è îáîãàùàåò îáùåÿçûêîâóþ ñèíîíèìèêó âñå íîâûìè ýëåìåíòàìèäàííîé ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêîé êàòåãîðèè. Íàïð.: un prezzo astronomico

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(=) altissimo3 // à (un) prix astronomique = fabuleux // àñòðîíîìè÷åñêàÿ öåíà(=) âûñî÷àéøàÿ // pasakiðka kaina (=) aukðèiausia kaina; fantasticamente ricco(=) ricchissimo // fantastiquement riche (=) richissime (=) riche comme Crésus //ôàíòàñòè÷åñêè áîãàòûé (=) áîãàòåéøèéá (=) áîãàòûé êàê Êðåç // pasakiðkaiturtingas (=) turtingiausias (=) bagotas kaip ðuo kudlotas. Íåïîëíûìè èëèïîëíûìè ýêâèâàëåíòàìè âî âñåõ òðåõ ÿçûêàõ ÿâëÿþòñÿ ÓÑÊ: morbidocome (la) neve (=) tutto (molto) // mou comme du coton = mou comme édredon // ìÿãêèé êàê ñíåã (ïóõ) = êàê âîñê ìÿã÷àéøèé // minkðtas kaip pûkas(vilna, plunksna, teðla) (=) minkðèiausias.

3.6. Êðîìå ÷èñòî ëåêñè÷åñêîé ñèíîíèìèè è ñèíîíèìèè ñëîâîñî-÷åòàíèé òèïà È + îïîðíîå ñëîâî, íàìè èññëåäîâàííûì ÿçûêaì ñâîéñòâåí-íà ñèíîíèìèÿ ôðàçåîëîãèçìîâ è çàñòûâøèõ ÑÊ. Áîëüøèíñòâî ëèíãâèñ-òîâ (Ø. Áàëëè, Â. Â. Âèíîãðàäîâ è äð.) ñ÷èòàåò, ÷òî â ñåìàíòè÷åñêîìîòíîøåíèè ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêèå åäèíèöû (â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ÓÑÊ) îáîçíà-÷àþò åäèíîå ïîíÿòèå òàê æå, êàê è îòäåëüíûå ñëîâà, ïîýòîìó îíè ÿâëÿþò-ñÿ ñèíîíèìàìè ñëîâ. Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, âî âñåõ ÿçûêàõ ñóùåñòâóåò ñåìàíòè-÷åñêàÿ áëèçîñòü ñî ñëîâàìè êàê ó ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé È + ïðèëàãàòåëüíîå,ðàçíûõ ÑÊ, À, Ð è äð., òàê è ó ÓÑÊ (ñì. âûøå ïðèâåäåííûå ïðèìåðû).

3.7. Ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàííûå ñèíîíèìû - ôîðìû ðàçíûõ ñòåïåíåéãðàäàöèè ýëÿòèâà â ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêàõ ÷àñòî îáíàðóæèâàþò ñõîäñòâî êàêâ ãðóïïå È (èíîãäà îíè èìåþò òå æå ñàìûå ñåìû è òó æå ñàìóþ ñòåïåíüèíòåíñèâíîñòè, íàïð. - ôàíòàñòè÷åñêè áîãàòûé, èëè îáëàäàþòñïîñîáíîñòüþ ñî÷åòàòüñÿ ñ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ- terribilmente bello = terriblement beau = óæàñíî êðàñèâûé = baisiai graþus;è îáà ðîìàíñêèå ÿçûêà äîïóñêàþò âîçìîæíîñòü ñî÷åòàíèé È ïîëîæè-òåëüíîé ñåìàíòèêè ñ îïîðíûì ñëîâîì îòðèöàòåëüíîé îöåíêè, íàïð.:perfettamente brutto = pàrfaitement laid), òàê è ãðóïïå ÓÑÊ, �÷èñòî�ëåêñè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ è äð., íàïð.: vecchio come il mondo = vieux comme lemonde = ñòàðûé êàê ìèð = senas kaip pasaulis.

Ñóùåñòâóåò öåëûé ðÿä ðàçëè÷èé. Òàê, ëèøü äëÿ ôðàíöóçñêîãî ÿçûêà(â ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è) õàðàêòåðíà ãðóïïà È íà -ment: rudement joli,vachement intéressant, bigrement bon, salement bon, scandaleusement éclatant,ãäå È íåãàòèâíîé ñåìàíòèêè ñî÷åòàåòñÿ ñ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè ïîëîæè-òåëüíîé îöåíêè. Ïîä âëèÿíèåì ôðàíöóçñêîãî ÿçûêà èòàëüÿíñêèé ÿçûêíà÷àë óïîòðåáëÿòü ñî÷åòàíèÿ È ïîëîæèòåëüíîé îöåíêè ñ îïîðíûìñëîâîì îòðèöàòåëüíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ: perfettamente stupido (disperato). Â3 Â äàëüíåéøåì çíàêîì (=) áóäóò îáîçíà÷àòüñÿ áëèçêèå ñèíîíèìû, à = òîæäåñòâåííûåñèíîíèìû.

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ðóññêîì è ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå, îáîçíà÷àþùèåîòðèöàòåëüíóþ õàðàêòåðèñòèêó, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå ìîãóò ñî÷åòàòüñÿ ñ È.Òàêæå ðóññêîìó è ëèòîâñêîìó ÿçûêàì íå ñâîéñòâåííî àïïîçèöèîííîåñðåäñòâî âûðàæåíèÿ ýëÿòèâà - nuovo fiammante // ivre-mort // ìåðòâåöêèïüÿí // mirtinai girtas (áóêâ.)

3.8. Êðîìå âûøåóêàçàííîé ñèíîíèìèè, êàê èòàëüÿíñêîìó èôðàíöóçñêîìó, òàê è ðóññêîìó è ëèòîâñêîìó ÿçûêàì ñâîéñòâåííàñèíîíèìèÿ åäèíèö è äðóãèõ óðîâíåé: ìîðôîëîãè÷åñêîãî èñèíòàêñè÷åñêîãî. Äëÿ èòàëüÿíñêîãî, ðóññêîãî è ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêîâõàðàêòåðíî óïîòðåáëåíèå ýëÿòèâíîé ôîðìû íà -issimo // -åéøèé, -àéøèé// -iausias, êîòîðàÿ ñïîñîáñòâóåò èñïîëüçîâàíèþ åå â êà÷åñòâå áëèçêèõñèíîíèìîâ ïðè îïðåäåëåíèè êà÷åñòâà îäíîãî è òîãî æå ñàìîãî ëèöàèëè ÿâëåíèÿ, ò.å. óïîòðåáëåíèþ íåñêîëüêèõ ýïèòåòîâ â îäíîé ñèíòàãìå.Íàïðèìåð: un uomo dottissimo (=)coltissimo // un homme doctissime (=)suprêmement instruit // ó÷åíåéøèé (=) âûñîêîîáðàçîâàííûé ÷åëîâåê //mokyèiausias þmogus. Âî ôðàíöóçñêîì ÿçûêå ôîðìà íà -issime ïî÷òè íåóïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ. Îíà ìîæåò èìåòü îöåíî÷íîå (íåãàòèâíîå) çíà÷åíèå(äîïîëíèòåëüíûå óíè÷èæèòåëüíûå, èðîíè÷åñêèå îòòåíêè), íàïð.,�l�illustrissime� ville de Berdit-cheff (Maurois, 1965, 550). Â ôóíêöèèýëÿòèâíîãî ýïèòåòà ïðåäìåòà ìîãóò âûñòóïàòü ôîðìû íà -issimo // -issime// -åéøèé, -àéøèé // -iausias è ïðèëàãàòåëüíîå, ñîäåðæàùåå ýëÿòèâíîåçíà÷åíèå, à òàêæå ñî÷åòàíèå È ñ îïîðíûì ñëîâîì. Ïðèâîäèìûåñîîòâåòñòâóþùèå ôîðìû ýëÿòèâà ÿâëÿþòñÿ áëèçêèìè ñèíîíèìàìè âäàííûõ ÿçûêàõ. Íàïð.: un affresco di Luca Giordano bellissimo (=) meraviglio-samente bello // une fresque bellissime (=) merveilleusement belle // êðàñèâåéøàÿ(=) ÷óäåñíî êðàñèâàÿ ôðåñêà // graþiausia (=) nuostabiai graþi freska.

3.9. Â ñèíîíèìè÷åñêèå ðÿäû ýëÿòèâà âõîäÿò òàêæå Ïð. Â ñîïîñòà-âèòåëüíîì ïëàíå ïðèâîäèìûå ïðèìåðû ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñèíîíèìàìè âî âñåõ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêàõ. Íàïð.: i raggruppamenti arcireazionari = ultrareazionari (=)reazionarissimi, altissimamente reazionari) // les groupuscules archiréaction-naires=ultraréactionnaires // àðõèðåàêöèîííûå (óëüòðàðåàêöèîííûå) ãðóï-ïèðîâêè // ultrareakcingos grupuotës.

Ñåìàíòè÷åñêèìè ñèíîíèìàìè â ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíîì ïëàíå ìîãóò áûòüòàêæå è Ð è ÑÊ. Ýêâèâàëåíòàìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ: vecchio vecchio // vieux, vieux// ñòàðûé-ñòàðûé // senas senas è äð. ÑÊ bagnato sino alle ossa = bagnatofradicio ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñåìàíòè÷åñêèìè ôðàíöóçñêèì trempé jusqu�aux os (=)comme une soupe, ðóññêèõ ïðîìîêøèé äî êîñòåé, ñîâñåì ïðîìîêøèé èëèòîâñêèõ permirkæs iki ausø, suðlapæs iki siûlo galo.

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RIASSUNTO

I GRADI DELL�ELATIVO DI AGGETTIVI E I LOROSINONIMI IN ITALIANO, FRANCESE, RUSSO E LITUANO

Elativo non è un sistema monolitico d�intensificazione. Esso ha cinque gradiche si distinguono secondo i criteri: il senso di una forma e la sua intensificazione.Le dominanti sono: molto, troppo, tutto, la forma con suffisso - issimo einfinitamente. Questa classificazione è subordinata a certe condizioni in alcunicasi perché i gradi di una forma dell�elativo dipendono dal contesto.

Le forme dell�elativo possono fare le veci di un grado come i sinonimi identicie affini. Nella maggior parte dei casi l�elativo qui è una categoria lessicogrammaticale universale e tutti i tre gruppi delle lingue coincidono nei riguardisemantici cioè hanno le loro correlazioni.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀÀõìàíîâà, 1969 - Àõìàíîâà Î. Ñ. Ñëîâàðü ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ òåðìèíîâ.

Ìîñêâà, 1969.Áàëëè, 1961 - Áàëëè Ø. Ôðàíöóçñêàÿ ñòèëèñòèêà. Ìîñêâà, 1961.Øåâàëüå, 1964 - Chevalier J.-C., Benveniste C.-B. Grammaire Larousse du

français contemporain. Paris, 1964.Äîçà, 1947 - Dauzat A. Grammaire raisonnée de la langue française. Lyon, 1947.Åâãåíüåâà, 1964 - Åâãåíüåâà À. Ï. Ïðîåêò ñëîâàðÿ ñèíîíèìîâ. Ìîñêâà,

1964.Maurois, 1967 - Maurois A. Prométhée ou la vie de Balzac. Paris, 1967.Øïàê, 1977 - Øïàê Ë. Ê. Ðàçâèòèå ïðåâîñõîäíîé ñòåïåíè è

ôîðìèðîâàíèå åå ñåìàíòè÷åñêîãî ïîëÿ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå XVIII-XX ââ. Àâòîðåô. êàíä. äèññ. Ëåíèíãðàä, 1977.

Òåêàâ÷è÷, 1972 - Tekavèiè P. La grammatica storica dell�italiano. Bologna,1972, vol.2.

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ÀÑÏÅÊÒ ÊÓËÜÒÓÐÛ ÐÅ×È ÏÐÈ

ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈÈ ÐÓÑÑÊÎÌÓ ßÇÛÊÓ ÊÀÊ

ÈÍÎÑÒÐÀÍÍÎÌÓ Â ËÈÒÂÅ

À. ÆÀÐÊÎÂÀ

Ðóññêèé ÿçûê â Ëèòâå èìååò ñòàòóñ îäíîãî èç èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ,íàðÿäó ñ èçó÷àåìûìè â ëèòîâñêèõ øêîëàõ è âóçàõ àíãëèéñêèì, íåìåöêèìè ôðàíöóçñêèì ÿçûêàìè. Ó÷åáíèêè è ó÷åáíûå ïîñîáèÿ ïî ðóññêîìóÿçûêó äîëæíû ñîäåðæàòü ìàòåðèàë, íàïðàâëåííûé íà ðàçâèòèåêóëüòóðû ðå÷è.

×òî âõîäèò â àñïåêò êóëüòóðû ðå÷è ïðè îáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêóêàê èíîñòðàííîìó?

Âî-ïåðâûõ, ñîáëþäåíèå íîðì ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãîÿçûêà, òî åñòü ïðàâèëüíîñòü ðå÷è; âî-âòîðûõ, óìåíèå îáùàòüñÿ â ðàçíûõñèòóàöèÿõ, ïîäáèðàÿ íàèáîëåå ïîäõîäÿùèå ñëîâà, îáîðîòû,ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå êîíñòðóêöèè; â-òðåòüèõ, çíàíèå ïðàâèë è ôîðìóëðóññêîãî ðå÷åâîãî ýòèêåòà; â-÷åòâåðòûõ, ó÷åò íàöèîíàëüíîé ñïåöèôèêèðóññêîé ðå÷è - ÿçûêà - êóëüòóðû; â-ïÿòûõ, çíàíèå îñíîâ ðèòîðèêè.

Êóëüòóðà ðå÷è òåñíî ñâÿçàíà ñ ïîíÿòèåì ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà.�Ëèòåðàòóðíûé ÿçûê - ôîðìà îáùåíàðîäíîãî ÿçûêà, ïîíèìàåìàÿãîâîðÿùèìè íà òîì èëè èíîì ÿçûêå êàê îáðàçöîâàÿ� (Ðóññêèé ÿçûê.Ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ, 1979, ñ. 131). Äëÿ ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà õàðàêòåðíàîáùåîáÿçàòåëüíîñòü íîðì è çàêðåïëåíèå èõ â ñëîâàðÿõ, ãðàììàòèêàõ,ñïðàâî÷íèêàõ.

Ïîâûøåíèþ êóëüòóðû ðå÷è ïðè îáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàêèíîñòðàííîìó â Ëèòâå ñïîñîáñòâóþò óïðàæíåíèÿ, íàïðàâëåííûå: 1) íàîâëàäåíèå íîðìàìè ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà(îðôîýïè÷åñêèìè, ëåêñè÷åñêèìè, ìîðôîëîãè÷åñêèìè, ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèìè)è 2) íà ïðåîäîëåíèå èíòåðôåðåíöèè ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêà, òî åñòü íàâûðàáîòêó ïðàâèëüíîñòè è òî÷íîñòè ðóññêîé ðå÷è.

Òðóäíîñòè îâëàäåíèÿ íîðìàìè ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãîÿçûêà ìîæíî îáúÿñíèòü ïðè÷èíàìè êàê ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî, òàê èíåëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà: 1) èçìåí÷èâîñòüþ ñàìèõ íîðì, ÷òîñâÿçàíî ñ åñòåñòâåííûì ðàçâèòèåì ÿçûêà (ïîäðîáíåå ñì.: Ãîðáà÷åâè÷,

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1989); 2) ñóæåíèåì ðóññêîÿçû÷íîé ñðåäû â Ëèòâå, îãðàíè÷åííûìôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèåì ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â ïå÷àòè, íà ðàäèî è òåëåâèäåíèè;3) îãðàíè÷åíèÿìè â ïðåïîäàâàíèè ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà êàê èíîñòðàííîãî âøêîëàõ è âóçàõ Ëèòâû, ÷òî ñâÿçàíî ñ ïîëèòèêîé óñèëåííîãî èçó÷åíèÿçàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêèõ ÿçûêîâ; 4) è, íàêîíåö, èíòåðôåðåíöèåé ëèòîâñêîãîÿçûêà.

Èíòåðôåðåíöèÿ ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêà â ðóññêîé ðå÷è ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ âíàðóøåíèÿõ íîðì ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà íà âñåõÿçûêîâûõ óðîâíÿõ. Èíòåðôåðåíòíûå ÿâëåíèÿ èçó÷åíû è îïèñàíû âìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ (íàïðèìåð, Êóëüòóðà ðóññêîé ðå÷è...,1985; Ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ èíòåðôåðåíöèÿ..., 1990).

Ñîáëþäåíèå íîðì ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêàîãðàíè÷åíî èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ðåãèîíàëèçìîâ, ïðèäàþùèõ ðóññêîé ðå÷èâ Ëèòâå ìåñòíûé êîëîðèò. Íàïðèìåð, èñïîëüçîâàíèå ñëîâà �ïðîäåêàí�âìåñòî ïðèíÿòîãî â Ðîññèè �çàìäåêàíà�. �Ñóùåñòâîâàíèå ÷àñòèëèòîâñêèõ ðåãèîíàëèçìîâ (àíòðîïîíèìû, òîïîíèìû, ýòíîãðàôèçìû)ñëåäóåò ïðèçíàòü êîììóíèêàòèâíî îïðàâäàííûì. Èçìåíåíèå æåñåìàíòèêè ðóññêèõ ÿçûêîâûõ åäèíèö âñëåäñòâèå èíòåðôåðåíöèè ìîæåòìåøàòü âçàèìîïîíèìàíèþ è òðåáóåò îñîáîãî âíèìàíèÿ ñïåöèàëèñòîâïî êóëüòóðå ðå÷è� (Ñèíî÷êèíà, 1989, ñ. 82).

Ïðeïÿòñòâèÿ â ïîíèìàíèè ðóññêîé ðå÷è ëèòîâöàìè îáóñëîâëåíûíàöèîíàëüíûì õàðàêòåðîì ÿçûêîâ è êóëüòóð, ÷òî ìîæåò áûòü ñâÿçàíî:1) ñ ðàçíîé ñèìâîëèêîé ñëîâ (íàïð., äóá ó ðóññêèõ - ñèìâîë òóïîãî,êðåïêîëîáîãî ÷åëîâåêà, à ó ëèòîâöåâ äóá - ñèìâîë êðåïîñòè,ìóæåñòâåííîñòè, ëó÷øèé êîìïëèìåíò ìóæ÷èíå); 2) ñ ðàçíîé ðîäîâîéïðèíàäëåæíîñòüþ ñëîâ (ó ðóññêèõ ñëîâî �áåðåçà� - æåíñêîãî ðîäà,àññîöèèðóåòñÿ ñ ìîëîäîé äåâóøêîé; ó ëèòîâöåâ ýòî ñëîâî ìóæñêîãîðîäà, àññîöèèðóåòñÿ ñ ìîëîäûì ïàðíåì); 3) ñ ðàçíûì èäåîëîãî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèì îñìûñëåíèåì ñëîâ. Íàïðèìåð, ñëîâî �Ìîñêâà� äëÿðóññêèõ è ëèòîâöåâ - ýòî ñòîëèöà Ðîññèè, öåíòð ðóññêîé êóëüòóðû. Âíåäàâíåì ïðîøëîì äëÿ ëèòîâöåâ ñëîâî �Ìîñêâà� àññîöèèðîâàëîñü ñ÷óæäûì èäåîëîãè÷åñêèì âëèÿíèåì, ÷òî îòðàçèëîñü â èñïîëüçîâàíèè âëèòîâñêîé ïå÷àòè ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ �ðóêà Ìîñêâû�.

Íàðóøåíèÿ íîðì ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà â ðóññêîé ðå÷è æèòåëåé Ëèòâûñâÿçàíû íå òîëüêî ñ èíòåðôåðåíöèåé ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêà, íî è ñ íåêîòîðûìâëèÿíèåì äðóãèõ ñëàâÿíñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. Èíòåðôåðåíòíûå ÿâëåíèÿ âðóññêîé ðå÷è ïîëÿêîâ, áåëîðóñîâ, óêðàèíöåâ, ïðîæèâàþùèõ â Ëèòâå,îáíàðóæèâàþòñÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî â îáëàñòè ñëîâåñíîãî óäàðåíèÿ è ìîãóò

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áûòü âûçâàíû ïðÿìûì ïåðåíåñåíèåì íåðóññêîãî óäàðåíèÿ â ðóññêóþðå÷ü (ñð.: ñä�àëà - èç ïîëüñêîãî - ñäàë�à - â ðóññêîì), à òàêæå ðàçíîéñòåïåíüþ ïîäâèæíîñòè óäàðåíèÿ â ðóññêîì è äðóãèõ ñëàâÿíñêèõ ÿçûêàõ(ñð.: â áåëîðóññêîì - âñòàòü íà í�îãè - â ðóññêîì - âñòàòü í�à íîãè).Îäíàêî ÷èñëåííîñòü íåðóññêîãî ñëàâÿíñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â Ëèòâåíåâåëèêà, ïîýòîìó îñíîâíàÿ ïðè÷èíà îøèáîê â ðóññêîé ðå÷è ïðèîáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàê èíîñòðàííîìó - ýòî èíòåðôåðåíöèÿëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêà.

×èñòîòó ðóññêîé ðå÷è â Ëèòâå ñíèæàåò èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïðîñòîðå÷íûõýëåìåíòîâ - èìååòñÿ â âèäó êàê íåëèòåðàòóðíîå ïðîñòîðå÷èå, òàê èíåóìåñòíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ïðîñòîðå÷èÿ. Âëèÿíèåïðîñòîðå÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ äîñòàòî÷íî ñèëüíî, ïîýòîìó âîçíèêàþùèåîøèáêè ñ òðóäîì ïîääàþòñÿ èñïðàâëåíèþ (íàïð., �ñðåäñòâ�à� âìåñòî�ñð�åäñòâà�, �èõíèé� âìåñòî �èõ� è äð.). Ëèòîâñêèå øêîëüíèêè èñòóäåíòû ÷àñòî êîïèðóþò â ðå÷è ïðîñòîðå÷íûå ñëîâà è ôîðìû è ñ÷èòàþòèõ ïðàâèëüíûìè íà òîì îñíîâàíèè, ÷òî �òàê ãîâîðÿò íà óëèöàõ�. Äëÿïðåîäîëåíèÿ îøèáîê òàêîãî òèïà íåîáõîäèìî îçíàêîìèòü ó÷àùèõñÿ ñíîðìàìè ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà è çàêðåïèòüïðàâèëüíûé âàðèàíò ïîâòîðÿþùèìèñÿ óïðàæíåíèÿìè.

Óìåíèå îáùàòüñÿ â ðàçíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ, ïîäáèðàÿ íàèáîëååïîäõîäÿùèå ñëîâà, îáîðîòû, ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå êîíñòðóêöèè, ñâÿçàíî ñîçíàíèåì ðàçâåòâëåííîé ôóíêöèîíàëüíî-ñòèëåâîé ñèñòåìû ðóññêîãîëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîé äèôôåðåíöèàöèåé ñðåäñòââûðàæåíèÿ.

Ôóíêöèîíàëüíûé ïîäõîä ê ïðåïîäàâàíèþ êóëüòóðû ðóññêîé ðå÷è ââóçå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â âûäåëåíèè ñôåð îáùåíèÿ, ïîäñòèëåé è æàíðîâ,àêòèâíîå âëàäåíèå êîòîðûìè íåîáõîäèìî ñòóäåíòàì. Ó ñòóäåíòîâ, äëÿêîòîðûõ ðóññêèé ÿçûê ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñïåöèàëüíîñòüþ, ýòî, ïðåæäå âñåãî,æàíðû íàó÷íîãî ñòèëÿ. Ñòóäåíòû äîëæíû çíàòü îñîáåííîñòè ïîñòðîåíèÿóñòíîé è ïèñüìåííîé íàó÷íîé ðå÷è (ïðàâèëà íàïèñàíèÿ êóðñîâîé,äèïëîìíîé è ìàãèñòåðñêîé ðàáîò).

Øêîëüíèêè è ñòóäåíòû, èçó÷àþùèå ðóññêèé ÿçûê êàê èíîñòðàííûé,äîëæíû îâëàäåòü ëèòåðàòóðíîé ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷üþ. Åñëè ðàçãîâîðíàÿðå÷ü ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà îñâàèâàåòñÿ äåòüìè ñ ìëàäåí÷åñòâà â ñåìüå, òîðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è íåðîäíîãî ÿçûêà ñëåäóåò îáó÷àòü, òàê êàê ýòîôóíêöèîíàëüíûé ñòèëü ðóññêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà ñî ñâîåé îñîáîéñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìîé, ðå÷åâûìè øòàìïàìè, ëåêñèêîé, ôðàçåîëîãèåé,ñëîâîîáðàçîâàòåëüíûìè è ìîðôîëîãè÷åñêèìè ñðåäñòâàìè.

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�Ðàçãîâîðíàÿ ðå÷ü çàíèìàåò íåîäèíàêîâîå ïîëîæåíèå â ðàçíûõÿçûêàõ, ìåñòî åå â ñèñòåìå êàæäîãî îáùåíàðîäíîãî ÿçûêà ñïåöèôè÷íîòàê æå, êàê ñïåöèôè÷åí êðóã åå íîñèòåëåé� (Çåìñêàÿ, Êèòàéãîðîäñêàÿ,Øèðÿåâ, 1981, ñ.22).

Â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå ðàçãîâîðíàÿ ðå÷ü â ñèñòåìå ôóíêöèîíàëüíûõ ñòèëåéçàíèìàåò îñîáîå ïîëîæåíèå - ýòî ðàçâèòàÿ ñèñòåìà, ïðîòèâîñòîÿùàÿêíèæíûì ñòèëÿì. Êóëüòóðà ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è òðåáóåò ñîáëþäåíèÿ íîðìðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà. Íàïðèìåð, äîïóñòèìà ñèëüíàÿðåäóêöèÿ, íî íåäîïóñòèìî íåëèòåðàòóðíîå ïðîèçíîøåíèå çâóêîâ �ã�,�÷�, �ø�, �æ�. Âàæíî íàó÷èòü ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåíèþ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû,ðàçãîâîðíîãî êíèæíîìó, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, îòãðàíè÷åíèþ ðàçãîâîðíîéðå÷è ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà îò íåëèòåðàòóðíûõ ïðîñòîðå÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ,æàðãîííûõ è ãðóáûõ ñëîâ.

Ëèòîâñêèå øêîëüíèêè è ñòóäåíòû, èçó÷àþùèå ðóññêèé ÿçûê êàêèíîñòðàííûé, äîëæíû çíàòü ñïåöèôèêó ðóññêîé ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è,âêëþ÷àÿ âëàäåíèå ðàçãîâîðíûìè êëèøå è ôîðìóëàìè ðóññêîãî ðå÷åâîãîýòèêåòà.

Êîãäà ìû ãîâîðèì î ôîðìóëàõ ðóññêîãî ðå÷åâîãî ýòèêåòà, òî ïðåæäåâñåãî èìååì â âèäó ôîðìóëû ïðèâåòñòâèÿ-ïðîùàíèÿ, ñ êîòîðûõíà÷èíàåòñÿ îáó÷åíèå ëþáîìó èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó. Ïðàâèëà ðå÷åâîãîïîâåäåíèÿ - íàöèîíàëüíî ñïåöèôè÷íûå è ñîöèàëüíî çàêðåïëåííûåñòåðåîòèïû îáùåíèÿ. Îíè ïîçâîëÿþò âûáðàòü ôîðìû îáùåíèÿ íà òû èâû; îáðàùåíèå ïî èìåíè â ïîëíîé èëè óìåíüøèòåëüíîé ôîðìå èëè ïîèìåíè-îò÷åñòâó, óìåñòíûå â äàííîé ñèòóàöèè; ôîðìóëû èçâèíåíèÿ èáëàãîäàðíîñòè, ïîçäðàâëåíèÿ è ïîæåëàíèÿ. Ðå÷åâîé ýòèêåò ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿâ ñàìûõ îáèõîäíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ: óìåíèå âûðàçèòü ïðîñüáó, ñîãëàñèå,ðàçðåøåíèå, îòêàç, ñîâåò, ïðåäëîæåíèå, óòåøåíèå, ñî÷óâñòâèå,êîìïëèìåíò, îäîáðåíèå.

Íà ìàòåðèàëå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà ýòèêåòó ïîñâÿùåíû ðàáîòû Àêèøèíîéè Ôîðìàíîâñêîé (Àêèøèíà, Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ, 1983). Åñòü ñïðàâî÷íèêèïî ðå÷åâîìó ýòèêåòó, âêëþ÷àþùèå, íàïðèìåð, ðóññêî-àíãëèéñêèåñîîòâåòñòâèÿ (Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ, Øåâöîâà, 1990). Àêòóàëüíûì ÿâëÿåòñÿñîçäàíèå òàêèõ ðàáîò ïî îòäåëüíûì òåìàì ðå÷åâîãî ýòèêåòà íà ìàòåðèàëåðóññêî-ëèòîâñêèõ ñîîòâåòñòâèé.

Êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ïîâåäåíèå â ðàçëè÷íûõ êóëüòóðàõ è ÿçûêàõðàçëè÷íî. Ðàçëè÷èå, ïî Å. Ì. Âåðåùàãèíó, ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ñèòóàöèÿõ,òàêòèêàõ è êëèøèðîâàííûõ ðåïëèêàõ. (Âåðåùàãèí, Êîñòîìàðîâ, 1990).Èçó÷åíèå èõ äàåò ïîíèìàíèå íàðîäíîé ïñèõîëîãèè. Â ïðåîáðàçîâàííîì

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âèäå òðàäèöèîííûå ïîâåäåí÷åñêèå ñèòóàöèè ïðîäîëæàþò ñóùåñòâîâàòüâ íàñëåäñòâåííîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè è â ÿçûêå, â ÷àñòíîñòè, âïîñëîâèöàõ, ïîãîâîðêàõ, ôðàçåîëîãèçìàõ, óñòîé÷èâûõ ñî÷åòàíèÿõ.(Íàïð.: Ïîìíè äåíü ñóááîòíèé: èäè â áàíþ. Ïðèñòàë êàê áàííûé ëèñò.Ðóññêàÿ áàíÿ). Èíòåðåñíûé ìàòåðèàë äëÿ àíàëèçà ñîäåðæèò èõóäîæåñòâåííàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà íà èñòîðè÷åñêèå òåìû (íàïð., ðîìàíÀ. Òîëñòîãî �Ïåòð I�).

Àñïåêò êóëüòóðû ðå÷è ïðè îáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàêèíîñòðàííîìó âêëþ÷àåò îçíàêîìëåíèå ñ íàöèîíàëüíîé ñïåöèôèêîé ðå÷è- ÿçûêà - êóëüòóðû.

Ñâÿçü êóëüòóðû ðå÷è - ÿçûêà - êóëüòóðû è âàæíîñòü ó÷åòà èõ ïðèîáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàê èíîñòðàííîìó â Ëèòâå ÿñíî âèäíà íàïðèìåðå èìåíîâàíèÿ ïî èìåíè-îò÷åñòâó. Çíàêîìñòâî ñ èñòîðèåéâõîæäåíèÿ â æèçíü è ÿçûê ðóññêèõ ëþäåé îò÷åñòâ (íàïð., Óñïåíñêèé,1962, ñ. 472-497) ïîìîæåò ëèòîâöàì ïðåîäîëåòü âîñïðèÿòèå äîáàâëåíèÿîò÷åñòâà ê èìåíè êàê êàêîãî-òî ëèøíåãî ïðèäàòêà è âûðàáîòàòüïðèâû÷êó îáðàùàòüñÿ ê ðóññêîìó ó÷èòåëþ èëè ïðåïîäàâàòåëþ ïî èìåíèè îò÷åñòâó, à íå ïî íàçâàíèþ ïðîôåññèè.

Ïðè îáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàê èíîñòðàííîìó âàæåíëèíãâîñòðàíîâåä÷åñêèé ïîäõîä,1 òî åñòü çíàêîìñòâî ñ Ðîññèåé ïðèïîìîùè ïîäáîðà òåêñòîâ î ñòðàíå, ÷åðåç èçó÷åíèå íàöèîíàëüíîîêðàøåííîé ëåêñèêè, çíàêîìñòâî ñ ðóññêèìè èìåíàìè, òî åñòü èìåíàìè,øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûìè â Ðîññèè (íàïð.: Ñóñëîâà, Ñóïåðàíñêàÿ,1991), à òàêæå ïî ïðîèñõîæäåíèþ ÿâëÿþùèìèñÿ ðóññêèìè (Âåðà,Íàäåæäà, Áîðèñ, Âëàäèìèð - �âëàäåþùèé ìèðîì�). Ïî ìíåíèþèññëåäîâàòåëåé, â ðóññêîé êóëüòóðíîé òðàäèöèè èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî âàæíóþðîëü èãðàåò ñòåïåíü èíòèìíîñòè ëè÷íûõ îòíîøåíèé (Âåæáèöêàÿ, 1996),÷òî ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â èñïîëüçîâàíèè ðàçíûõ ôîðì ðóññêèõ ëè÷íûõ èìåí(íàïð., Ëþäìèëà, Ëþäà, Ëþäî÷êà, Ëþäîê, Ëþäî÷åê, Ëþäêà) âñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ñèëîé èñïûòûâàåìîãî ê íîñèòåëþ äàííîãî èìåíè ÷óâñòâàè ñîñòîÿíèåì îòíîøåíèé ìåæäó íèì è àäðåñàòîì íà ìîìåíò ðå÷è.

Ñâÿçü ÿçûêà è êóëüòóðû ðàñêðûâàþò êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà, ïîçâîëÿþùèåóâèäåòü â ñëîâå ñòðàíèöû èñòîðèè íàðîäà è îòðàæåíèå òåêóùåé æèçíè.2

Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà åñòü â êàæäîì ÿçûêå. Íåñìîòðÿ íà ñâîþìàëî÷èñëåííîñòü, îíè ïîìîãàþò ðàñêðûòü äóõ êóëüòóðû ñòðàíûèçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà. Íàïðèìåð, ïî Òðóáà÷åâó, êëþ÷åâûì ñëîâîì äëÿ1 Î ëèíãâîñòðàíîâåäåíèè ñì.: (Âåðåùàãèí, Êîñòîìàðîâ, 1990).2 Î êëþ÷åâûõ ñëîâàõ ïîäðîáíåå ñì.: (Òðóáà÷àåâ, 1990).

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ñëàâÿíñêîé êóëüòóðû ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñëîâî �ñâîé� (�Çíàé ñâîé ðîä è ÿçûê�),êîòîðîå âõîäèò â ïåðâûå òðè äåñÿòêà íàèáîëåå ÷àñòîòíûõ ñëîâ â ðóññêîìÿçûêå. Äëÿ ðóññêîé êóëüòóðû êëþ÷åâûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñëîâî �äóøà�,âõîäÿùåå âî ìíîãèå ðóññêèå ôðàçåîëîãèçìû, ïîñëîâèöû, ïîãîâîðêè.

Àñïåêò êóëüòóðû ðå÷è ïðè îáó÷åíèè ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàêèíîñòðàííîìó ïîäðàçóìåâàåò çíàêîìñòâî ñ îñíîâàìè ðèòîðèêè - íàóêèî ñïîñîáàõ ïîñòðîåíèÿ óáåäèòåëüíîé è âûðàçèòåëüíîé ðå÷è. Ðèòîðèêàçàðîäèëàñü â Äðåâíåé Ãðåöèè. Àðèñòîòåëü îòìåòèë, ÷òî ðèòîðèêà íîñèòõàðàêòåð âñåîáùíîñòè è îäèíàêîâî íåîáõîäèìà êàê â äåëàõ, êàñàþùèõñÿîáûäåííûõ ïîòðåáíîñòåé æèçíè îòäåëüíîãî ÷åëîâåêà, òàê è â äåëàõãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî çíà÷åíèÿ (Àíòè÷íûå ðèòîðèêè, 1978).

Ïîíÿòèå î ñòèëå è ñîäåðæàíèè õîðîøåé ðå÷è, åå îñíîâíûõ êà÷åñòâàõìåíÿëîñü â ðàçëè÷íûå ýïîõè, íî èíòåðåñ ê èñêóññòâó ðå÷è âñåãäàîñòàâàëñÿ íåèçìåííûì. Â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå òåðìèíó �ðèòîðèêà�ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ñëîâî �êðàñíîðå÷èå�, êîòîðîå èìååò çíà÷åíèå �äàð ðå÷è,ñïîñîáíîñòü, óìåíèå èçëàãàòü ìûñëè êðàñèâî è óáåäèòåëüíî, âíåçàâèñèìîñòè îò óñòíîé èëè ïèñüìåííîé ôîðìû âîïëîùåíèÿ ðå÷è�(Ãðàóäèíà, Ìèñüêåâè÷, 1989, ñ.Ç).

Öåëü îáó÷åíèÿ ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàê èíîñòðàííîìó â øêîëå è â âóçå -îáó÷åíèå óñòíîé ðå÷è, äèàëîãè÷åñêîé è ìîíîëîãè÷åñêîé, à òàêæåçíàêîìñòâî ñî ñïåöèôèêîé ðóññêîé ïóáëè÷íîé ðå÷è, ñîöèàëüíî-áûòîâûìêðàñíîðå÷èåì. Ê ñîæàëåíèþ, ðàçðàáîòêà ìåòîäè÷åñêèõ ðóêîâîäñòâ ïîïðàêòèêå ðóññêîãî êðàñíîðå÷èÿ - åùå íå ðåøåííàÿ çàäà÷à.

Â ìàå 1991 ãîäà â Ìîñêâå ñîñòîÿëàñü íàó÷íàÿ êîíôåðåíöèÿ - �Ðóññêèéÿçûê è ñîâðåìåííîñòü. Ïðîáëåìû è ïåðñïåêòèâû ðàçâèòèÿ ðóñèñòèêè�/Ðóññêèé ÿçûê è ñîâðåìåííîñòü, 1991/, íà êîòîðîé áûëè âûäåëåíûîñíîâíûå íàïðàâëåíèÿ â ñîâðåìåííîé ðóñèñòèêå, è ïåðâûì ñðåäè íèõáûëî íàçâàíî: �ßçûê è êóëüòóðà. Êóëüòóðà ðå÷è�. Ýòî ïîçâîëÿåòíàäåÿòüñÿ, ÷òî àñïåêò êóëüòóðû ðå÷è íàéäåò îòðàæåíèå ïðè îáó÷åíèèðóññêîìó ÿçûêó êàê èíîñòðàííîìó â Ëèòâå.

SUMMARY

ASPECT OF THE SPEECH CULTURE IN TEACHING OFRUSSIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN LITHUANIA

Russian is studied and used as a foreign language nowadays in Lithuania likeEnglich, German or French. This article shows what the aspect of the speech cul-ture consists of in teaching Russian as a foreign language:

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1) Competence of speaking the correct Russian language;2) Competence of association in various situations;3) Knowledge of rules and formulas of Russian speech etiquette;4) Knowledge of national particularities of Russian speech, language and

culture;5) Knowledge of the basics of rhetoric.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀÀêèøèíà, Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ, 1983 - Àêèøèíà À.À., Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ Í.È.

Ðóññêèé ðå÷åâîé ýòèêåò. Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà, 1983.Àíòè÷íûå ðèòîðèêè, 1978. - Àíòè÷íûå ðèòîðèêè. Ì.: Èçä-âî

Ìîñêîâñêîãî óí-òà, 1978.Âåæáèöêàÿ, 1996 - Âåæáèöêàÿ À. ßçûê. Êóëüòóðà. Ïîçíàíèå. Ì.:

Ðóññêèå ñëîâàðè, 1996.Âåðåùàãèí, Êîñòîìàðîâ, 1990 - Âåðåùàãèí Å.Ì., Êîñòîìàðîâ Â.Ã.

ßçûê è êóëüòóðà. Ëèíãâîñòðàíîâåäåíèå â ïðåïîäàâàíèè ðóññêîãîÿçûêà êàê èíîñòðàííîãî. Ì.: Ðóññêèé ÿçûê, 1990.

Ãîðáà÷åâè÷, 1989 - Ãîðáà÷åâè÷ Ê.Ñ. Íîðìû ñîâðåìåííîãî ðóññêîãîëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà Ì.: Ïðîñâåùåíèå, 1989.

Ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ èíòåðôåðåíöèÿ, 1990 - Ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ èíòåðôåðåíöèÿâ óñëîâèÿõ íàöèîíàëüíî-ðóññêîãî äâóÿçû÷èÿ. Ì.: Íàóêà, 1990.

Ãðàóäèíà, Ìèñüêåâè÷, 1989 - Ãðàóäèíà Ë.Ê., Ìèñüêåâè÷ Ã.È. Òåîðèÿè ïðàêòèêà ðóññêîãî êðàñíîðå÷èÿ, Ì.: Íàóêà, 1989.

Çåìñêàÿ, Êèòàéãîðîäñêàÿ, Øèðÿåâ, 1981 - Çåìñêàÿ Å.À.,Êèòàéãîðîäñêàÿ Ì.Â., Øèðÿåâ Å.Í. Ðóññêàÿ ðàçãîâîðíàÿ ðå÷ü:Îáùèå âîïðîñû. Ñëîâîîáðàçîâàíèå. Ñèíòàêñèñ. Ì.: Íàóêà, 1981.

Êóëüòóðà ðóññêîé ðå÷è, 1985 - Êóëüòóðà ðóññêîé ðå÷è â óñëîâèÿõíàöèîíàëüíî-ðóññêîãî äâóÿçû÷èÿ (Ïðîáëåìû ëåêñèêè). Ì.:Íàóêà, 1985.

Ðóññêèé ÿçûê è ñîâðåìåííîñòü, 1991 - Ðóññêèé ÿçûê è ñîâðåìåííîñòü.Ïðîáëåìû è ïåðñïåêòèâû ðàçâèòèÿ ðóñèñòèêè. Äîêëàäû. ×.I Ì.,1991.

Ðóññêèé ÿçûê. Ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ, 1979 - Ðóññêèé ÿçûê. Ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ.Ì.: Ñîâåòñêàÿ ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ, 1979.

Ñèíî÷êèíà, 1989 - Ñèíî÷êèíà Á.Ì. Î íåêîòîðûõ ðåãèîíàëüíûõ îñî-áåííîñòÿõ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â Ëèòâå (Kalbotyra. 1989, No 40/2).

Ñóñëîâà, Ñóïåðàíñêàÿ, 1991 - Ñóñëîâà À.Â., Ñóïåðàíñêàÿ À.Â. Îðóññêèõ èìåíàõ. Ë.: Ëåíèçäàò, 1991.

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Òðóáà÷åâ, 1990 - Òðóáà÷åâ Î.Í. Ýòíîãåíåç è êóëüòóðà äðåâíåéøèõñëàâÿí. Ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Ì.: Íàóêà, 1991.

Óñïåíñêèé, 1962 - Óñïåíñêèé Ë.Â. Ñëîâî î ñëîâàõ. Òû è òâîå èìÿ. Ë.:Ëåíèçäàò, 1962.

Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ, Øåâöîâà, 1990 - Ôîðìàíîâñêàÿ Í.È., Øåâöîâà Ñ.Â.Ðå÷åâîé ýòèêåò. Ðóññêî-àíãëèéñêèå ñîîòâåòñòâèÿ. Ñïðàâî÷íèê.Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà, 1990.

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ÔÀÊÓËÜÒÅÒÀÕ

Â. ÆÂÈÐÈÍÑÊÀ

Öåëü íàñòîÿùåé ñòàòüè - îõàðàêòåðèçîâàòü ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçûêàê ñðåäñòâà ñìûñëîâîé è ñòðóêòóðíîé ñâÿçè ÷àñòåé ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííîãîïðåäëîæåíèÿ (ÑÏÏ) ñ ïðèäàòî÷íûìè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûìè ïðåäëîæå-íèÿìè, òåíäåíöèè ðàçâèòèÿ ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ ñîâðåìåííîãî ôðàíöóçêîãîÿçûêà òèïà �à condition que�, �en sorte que�, �dans la mesure où�, à òàêæåêîñíóòüñÿ ïðîáëåìû èçó÷åíèÿ òàêèõ ÑÏÏ.

Èçó÷åíèå ÑÏÏ ñ ïðèäàòî÷íûìè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûìè íåîòäåëèìîîò ïðîáëåìû ïîä÷èíèòåëüíîãî ñîþçà. Âðÿä ëè ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî âîôðàíöóçêîé ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðå ÷åòêî îïðåäåëÿþòñÿïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçû. Ýòî âèäíî õîòÿ áû ïî òîìó, ÷òî ýòè ñîþçû

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îäèíàêîâî òåðìèëîãè÷åñêè íå îïðåäåëåíû. Æ.Êîðòý (J.Cortès) èÔ.Êîðáëýí (F.Corblin) èõ íàçûâàþò êîííåêòîðàìè, Ë.Òåíüåð (L.Tesnière) -òðàíñëÿòèâàìè, Ì.Ãðåâèñ (M.Grevisse) Ê.Ñàíôýëüä (Kr.Sandfeld)Ð.Ë.Âàãíåð è Æ.Ïèøîí (R.L.Wagner et J.Pichon) è äð. - ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûìèñîþçàìè (èëè ðå÷åíèÿìè), Æ.-Ê.Êîðáåé (J.-C.Corbeil) - øàðíèpàìè.

Ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûé ñîþç - ñîñòàâíàÿ ÷àñòü ãðóïïû êîííåêòîðîâ. Òåðìèí�êîííåêòîð� ïîÿâèëñÿ â ñîâðåìåííîé ëèíãâèñòèêå áëàãîäàðÿñòðóêòóðíîé (äåñêðèïòèâíîé) ëèíãâèñòèêå, ãäå îí îáîçíà÷àåòñÿ êàêîïåðàòîð, ñïîñîáíûé èç äâóõ åäèíèö îáðàçîâàòü îäíó òðàíñôîð-ìèðîâàííóþ ôðàçó - ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííîå ïðåäëîæåíèå. Íàïðèìåð: Ilfait froid. Je fais du feu - Je fais du feu, sìl fait froid.

Â ãðóïïó êîííåêòîðîâ íåêîòîðûìè ëèíãâèñòàìè - Ïîòüå (P.Pottier1962) âêëþ÷àþòñÿ íå òîëüêî ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå è ñî÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçû,íî è îòíîñèòåëüíûå ìåñòîèìåíèÿ, íåêîòîðûå íàðå÷èÿ.

Èòàê Ë.Òåíüåð (L.Tesnière, 1959) îïðåäåëÿåò ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçûêàê íåïîëíîçíà÷íûå ñëîâà, ôóíêöèÿ êîòîðûõ ñîñòîèò â èçìåíåíèèêàòåãîðèè ïîëíîçíà÷íûõ ñëîâ. Ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçû - òðàíñëÿòèâû -ÿâëÿþòñÿ ýëåìåíòàìè âíóòðèÿäåðíûìè, â îòëè÷èè îò þíêòèâîâ -ñî÷èíèòåëüíûõ ñîþçîâ, ÿâëÿþùèõñÿ ìåæÿäåðíûìè ýëåìåíòàìè, àñîñòàâíûå ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçû - äâîéíûå òðàíñëÿòèâû èëèòðàíñëÿòèâíûå ðå÷åíèÿ.

Êàê çàìå÷àåò Ë.Òåíüåð (L.Tesnière, 1959, p. 37) ïîä êîííåêöèåéïîäðàçóìåâàþò àññèìåòðèþ, èåðàðõèþ, çàâèñèìîñòü. Â ïðèíöèïå,êàæäàÿ êîííåêöèÿ ê âûøåñòîÿùåìó ýëåìåíòó ïðèñîåäèíÿåò íèæåñ-òîÿùèé ýëåìåíò, íî îäèí óïðàâëÿåìûé ýëåìåíò çàâèñèò òîëüêî îò îäíîãîóïðàâëÿþùåãî ýëåìåíòà.

Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî íåêîòîðûå èññïåäîâàòåëè êàê Ê.Òîãåáþ,Ê.Áþðî (K.Togeby, 1965, K.Bureau, 1978) ïðè àíàëèçå ÑÏÏ îòãðàíè÷è-âàþòñÿ îò ïîä÷èíèòåëüíîãî ñîþçà. Æ.Ãåðìàí (J.Herman, 1963) â ñâîåéðàáîòå íå èññëåäóåò ñîñòàâíûõ ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûõ ñîþçîâ, íî óêàçûâàåò,÷òî ïîä ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûì ñîþçîì ïîíèìàåò âñÿêîå ñëîâî, ñïîñîáíîåââîäèòü ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêè è îêêàçèîíàëüíî.

Ïîä òåðìèíîì êîííåêòîð ìû ïîíèìàåì ñîþçíîå (÷àñòî ïîëèñå-ìàíòè÷åñêîå) ñëîâî èëè ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêóþ åäèíèöó, âûïîëíÿþùóþôóíêöèþ ñâÿçè ìåæäó ïðåäëîæåíèÿìè. Íàõîäÿñü íà ñòûêå äâó÷ïðåäëîæåíèé êîííåêòîðû óñòàíàâëèâàþò ðàçíûå òèïû îòíîøåíèé.

Ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûé ñîþç - ãëàâíûé ñòðîåâîé ýëåìåíò ÑÏÏ. Ñâÿçüñòðóêòóðû ÑÏÏ ñ åãî çíà÷åíèåì ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ôóíêöèè ïîä÷èíè-

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òåëüíîãî ñîþçà: ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû ñîþç êàê ñëîâî îïðåäåëåííîãî ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêîãî êëàññà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïîñòîÿííûé ýëåìåíòïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ - ýòî åãî ñòðóêòóðíûé ïðèçíàê. Ñ äðóãîéñòîðîíû, ôóíêöèÿ ñîþçà ñîñòîèò â îñóùåñòâëåíèè ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé èñåìàíòè÷åñêîé ñâÿçè ìåæäó êîìïîíåíòàìè ÑÏÏ.

Îáðàçîâàíèå ñîñòàâíûõ ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûõ ñîþçîâ íà èìåííîé îñíîâåîñóùåñòâëÿëîñü ïîä âëèÿíèåì êíèæíîé, äåëîâîé è íàó÷íîé ðå÷è èïðåäîïðåäåëåíî ïåðåäàòü áîëåå òîíêèå îòòåíêè çíà÷åíèé ïðèäàòî÷íûõ÷àñòåé â ÑÏÏ. Ýòîò ïðîöåññ äèôôåðåíöèàöèè ñïîñîáîâ âûðàæåíèÿñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ çíà÷åíèé âûçûâàåò ïîÿâëåíèå ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ, êàêíîâûõ ñðåäñòâ ñâÿçè. À.Ìåéå (A.Meillet, 1921) îòìå÷àåò, ÷òî âî âñåõÿçûêàõ íàáëþäàåòñÿ ïåðåõîä çíà÷èòåëüíûõ ñëîâ â ðîëü ñîþçîâ.Îáðàçîâàíèå ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ íà èìåííîé îñíîâå âûñòóïàåò êàêðåçóëüòàò äèàëåêòè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ äâóõ ïðîòèâèòåëüíûõôàêòîðîâ, äåéñòâóþùèõ â ÿçûêå: I) ôàêòîðà àíàëèçà, ïðîÿâëÿþùåãîñÿâ èñòîðè÷åñêîì ðàçâèòèè ôðàíöóçñêîãî ÿçûêà è ñòèìóëèðóþùåãîðàçâèòèå ãðàììàòè÷åñêîé îìîíèìèè (que - îòíîñèòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìåíèåè que - ñîþç); 2) ôàêòîðà ñèíòåçà ïðîäîëæàþùåãî ðàçâèâàòüñÿ âìîðôîëîãè÷åñêîé ñòðóêòóðå ôðàíöóçñêîãî ÿçûêà, óòî÷íÿþùåãî ôîðìûïîä÷èíåíèÿ (ôîðìèðîâàíèå òàêèõ ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ êàê: �à tel pointque�, �à l�époque ou� è ò.ï. Êàê îòìå÷àþò èññëåäîâàòåëè ôðàíöóçñêîãîÿçûêà À.Ñåøå (A.Sechaye, 1950, p. 192), Ô.Äåëîôð (F.Deloffre, 1975, p. 84),Æ.Øåòðè (J.Chétrit, 1976, p. 48) ýòè äâà ôàêòîðà áûëè ðåøàþùèìè âôîðìèðîâàíèè ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ. Èçìåíåíèÿ òåõ ôîðì, èç êîòîðûõôîðìèðóåòñÿ ñîñòàâíûå ñîþçû, èäåò ïî äâóì ëèíèÿì: 1) ðàçâèòèåðåëÿòèâíîñòè â ëåêñè÷åñêèõ çíà÷åíèÿõ ýòèõ ôîðì, ò.å. ñåìàíòè÷åñêîåèõ ñáëèæåíèå ñ îáùèìè ñåìàíòè÷åñêèìè çíà÷åíèÿìè ñîþçîâñîîòâåòñòâóþùåé ôóíêöèîíàëüíî-ñìûñëîâîé ãðóïïû è 2) ðàçâèòèåãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ çíà÷åíèé ïî ëèíèè èçìåíåíèÿ èñêîííûõ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõôóíêöèé òåõ æå ôîðì. Ýòî íåðàçðûâíî ñâÿçàíî ñî ñäâèãàìè â ÷ëåíåíèèïðåäëîæåíèÿ, â ïîñòðîåíèè êîòîðîãî äàííûå ôîðìû ó÷àñòâóþò.

Ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîå ïåðåðàçëîæåíèå íàáëþäàåòñÿ â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäàâ ñîõðàíåíèè îáùåé ñòðóêòóðû ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿïðîèñõîäèò ïåðåðàñïðåäåëåíèå ãðàíèö ìåæäó ïðåäèêàòèâíûìè ÷àñòÿìèñëîæíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è ñëîâà èëè ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ ãëàâíîãîïðåäëîæåíèÿ ïåðåõîäÿò â ïðèäàòî÷íîå è îáúåäèíÿåòñÿ ñ ïðîñòûìïîä÷èíèòåëüíûì ñîþçîì. Ïðîòèâîðå÷èâîñòü â ïîíèìàíèè �que� èíàëè÷èå îòíîñèòåëüíîñòè âûçâàëî ìàññîâûé ïåðåõîä â ñîþçû îáñòîÿ-

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òåëüñòâåííûõ ñëîâ â îòíîñèòåëüíûõ ïðèäàòî÷íûõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ èïðåâðàùåíèå òåì ñàìûì ýòèõ îòíîñèòåëüíûõ ïðèäàòî÷íûõ ïðåäëîæåíèéâ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûå À.Ñåøå îòìå÷àåò, ÷òî òàêèì îáðàçîì çíà÷èòåëüíîåñëîâî - èìÿ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå - ñòàíîâèòñÿ ÷àñòüþ ñîþçà �Un élémentrelatif devient conjonction introduisant une proposition quand il absorbe sonantécédent et que l�antécédent comme le relatif cesse de jouer le rôle de substantiftant dans la proposition principale que dans la subordonneé� (A.Sechaye, 1950,p. 192).

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, çàêîíîìåðíî ïðîèñõîäèò ïðîöåññ âîçìåùåíèÿíåäîñòàþùèõ ÿçûêó ñðåäñòâ ñâÿçè äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ îäíîçíà÷íûõñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèé ãðàììàòèêàëèçîâàííûìè ñîþçíûìè ñî÷åòà-íèÿìè, äèôôåðåíöèðóþùèìè çíà÷åíèå ïðèäàòî÷íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.Ðåçóëüòàòîì äèôôåðåíöèàöèè óñëîâíûõ îòíîøåíèé, íàïðèìåð, áûëîíàïðàâëåíèå ñîþçíûõ ñî÷åòàíèé �à condition que�, �à cette condition que�,�à une seule condition que�. Ïîÿâëåíèå íîâûõ åäèíèö ïëàíà âûðàæåíèÿîáúÿñíÿåòñÿ íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ ïëàíà ñîäåðæàíèÿ.

Ïðè÷èíàìè è óñëîâèÿìè òðàíñôîðìàöèè òàêèõ ñî÷åòàíèé â ñîþçûÿâëÿþòñÿ: 1) ñòðóêòóðà ÑÏÏ - ïðåïîçèöèÿ ãëàâíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ;2) óñèëåíèå ïðèçíàêà, íàçâàííîãî â ãëàâíîì ïðåäëîæåíèè ïðèëàãà-òåëüíûì (�a tel point que, de telle façon que�); 3) îñîáåííîñòè ñòðóêòóðûâñåãî ÑÏÏ: êîððåëÿò â êîíöå ãëàâíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ. Â íåêîòîðûõñëó÷àÿõ ïðèäàòî÷íàÿ ÷àñòü ïðèîáðåòàåò ïðèñîåäèíèòåëüíûé îòòåíîê èñïîñîáíà ïàðöåëèðîâàòüñÿ. Ïðèâîäèì ïðèìåðû:

(1) - Question de boire, on�a besoin de personne. Du moment que le cruchonest là. (Carco. Brumes, p. 77).

(2) - Pour moi, c�est curieux, j�ai toujours eu un penchant naturel à corrigerdes devoirs. Au point que jeune je me suis parfois surpris à rectifier l�ortographedes affiches. (M.Pagnol, Topaze, p. 15).

Ôðàíöóçêèé èññëåäîâàòåëü Æ.Øåòðè (J.Chétrit, 1976, p. 48) èçó÷èâìîðôîñèòàêñè÷åñêèé ñîñòàâ ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûõ ñîþçîâ óòâåðæäàåò: �Lagrande majorité des subordonnants temporels a pour caracteristique commune d�êtreformé autour d�un noyau nominal précédé de différents déterminants, desprépositions et suivi parfois d�autres éléments placés devant le relateur �que� ou�où�.

Â ðåçóëüòàòå àíàëèçà òåîðåòè÷åñêãî ìaòåðèàëà ìû ïðèõîäèì ê âûâîäóî òîì, ÷òî ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûå ñîþçû - ýòî íåèçìåíÿåìûå ñëîâà èëè ñëîâîñî-÷åòàíèÿ, êîòîðûå, íå ÿâëÿÿñü ÷ëåíîì ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ñëóæàò ãðàììàòè-÷åñêèì ñðåäñòâîì ñîåäèíåíèÿ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ åäèíèö è, â òî æå âðåìÿ,

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âûðàæàþò îïðåäåëåííûå ëîãèêî-ñìûñëîâûå îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó íèìè.Ñîþçû õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ âíóòðåííåé ñåìàòè÷åñêîé öåëîñòíîñòüþ,ïîñòîÿíñòâîì ìîðôîëîãè÷åñêîãî ñîñòàâà, çàêðåïëåíèåì çà íèì ñòðîãîîïðåäåëåííîãî ìåñòà â ïðåäëîæåíèè.

Ñèíòàãìàòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå ïîä÷èíèòåëüíîãî ñîþçà ýòî òî çíà÷åíèå,êîòîðîå îí ïðèîáðåòàåò â ñîñòàâå ÑÏÏ, ò.å. çíà÷åíèå, ñîñäàþùååñÿ ïîäíåïîñðåäñòâåííûì âëèÿíèåì åãî îêðóæåíèÿ. Ïîñëåäíåå âêëþ÷àåò ìîð-ôîëîãè÷åñêèå, ëåêñèêè÷åñêèå è ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå êîìïîíåíòû ñòðóêòóðûÑÏÏ. È òàê, çíà÷åíèå ñîþçà îêàçûâàåòñÿ êðàéíå âàæíûì äëÿ âûÿâëåíèÿïðèðîäû òåõ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèé, êîòîðûå óñòàíàâëèâàþòñÿ ìåæ-äó ÷àñòÿìè ÑÏÏ, ïîñêîëüêó ðàçëè÷èÿ â èõ çíà÷åíèÿõ íåïîñðåäñòâåííîâëèÿåò íà äèôôåðåíöèàöèþ ðàçíûõ òèïîâ ïðåäëîæåíèé, ðàçíûõ âèäîâçàâèñèìîñòè ìåæäó íèìè.

Â ÑÏÏ, êàê èçâåñòíî, ïîä÷èíèòåëüíîé ñîþç ôóíêöèîíèðóåò â äâóõôîðìàõ: ðàñ÷ëåíåííîé è íåðàñ÷ëåíåííîé. Â ðàñ÷ëåíåííîé ôîðìå ñâÿçüìåæäó ÷àñòÿìè ÑÏÏ î÷åíü òåñíàÿ, ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå íåîòäåëÿåòñÿ îò ãëàâíîãî çàïÿòîé: (3) Dès quatre heures dix l�affaire étaitengagée de telle sorte qu�il devenait hasardeux de dépasser le porche. (Cocteau,Enfant, p. 11).

Åñëè æå ñîþç âûñòóïàåò â êîíòàêòíîì âèäå, âñå ñëîæíîå ïðåäëîæåíèåðàñïàäàåòñÿ íà äâå îò÷åòëèâî îòãðàíè÷èâàåìûe äðóã îò äðóãà ÷àñòè(Ïîñïåëîâ, 1959, ñ. 24). (4) Déjà tout le monde avait apréhendé le repas, à telpoint que Gilles avait proposé de ne pas faire le déjeuner du tout. (G.Simenon,Voyageur, p. 147).

Ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå, ââîäèìîå íåðàñ÷ëåíåííûì ñîþçîì îòíî-ñèòñÿ êî âñåìó ãëàâíîìó ïðåäëîæåíèþ. (5) Et pourquoi est-ce qu�elle estpartie si vite, juste au moment où je venais. (Colette, Le ble, p. 22) (6) Une chanceque je t�aie répéré de loin, au moment même où tu entrais ici! - remarqua-t-il, touten s�asseyant devant lui. (Colette, Auto-stop, p. 140).

Ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå âðåìåíè â öèòèðóåìîì äâó÷ëåííîìïðåäëîæåíèè (6) ïðèäàåò ëèøü äîïîëíèòåëüíóþ èíôîðìàöèþ.

Â ñòðóêòóðíîì ïëàíå ÑÏÏ ñ ïðèäàòî÷íûìè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåííûìè,ââåäåííûìè ñîñòàâíûìè ñîþçàìè, ôóíêöèîíèðóþò òàêæå, êàê è ïðîñòûåñîþçû, ò.å. ìîãóò íàõîäèòüñÿ: à) â ïðåïîçèöèè; â) â èíòåðïîçèöèè è ñ)â ïîñòïîçèöèè:

a) (7) Dès l�instant qu�il s�agissait de faire plaisir à son fils, Marthe avait consentià sortir de sa lethargie. (J.-L.Cotte, Les semailles, p. 65).

â) (8) Pres de son broc d�eau chaude Geisha ressentait elle aussi, chaque fois

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qu�une boule heurtait la façade du magasin, un choc secret. (Carco, Brumes, p. 31).c) (9) M.Othon m�a parlé de vous ce matin, ajouta soudain Rieux au moment

où Rambert le quittait. (A.Camus, Peste, p. 185).Êàê ïîêàçàë àíàëèç èññëåäóåìîãî ôàêòè÷åñêãî ìàòåðèàëà çíà÷åíèå

ñîþçà, ò.å. ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ââîäèìîãî ýòèì ñîþçîì, çàâèñèò îò åãî ïîçèöèèâ ñòðóêòóðå ÑÏÏ. Ñîñòàâíûå âðåìåííûå ñîþçû - �au moment où�, �chaquefois que� è ò.ï. íàõîäÿñü â ïðåïîçèòèâíîì ïðèäàòî÷íîì ïðåäëîæåíèè÷àùå âñåãî èìåþò çíà÷åíèå âðåìåíè. Òå æå ñîþçû, íàõîäÿñü âïîcòïîçèöèè è â ðàñ÷ëåíåííîé ôîðìå, êðîìå çíà÷åíèÿ âðåìåíèïðèîáðåòàþò îïðåäåëèòåëüíîå çíà÷åíèå.

Íà íàø âçãëÿä îñîáûé èíòåðåñ çàñëóæèâàåò âîïðîñ î ôóíêöèî-íèðîâàíèè ñîñòàâíîãî ñîþçà â òåêñòàõ ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè, ÷èòàåìûõñòóäåíòàìè ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî âóçà. Ìíîãîëåòíèé îïûò ïðåïîäîâàíèÿôðàíöóçêîãî ÿçûêà íà ðàçíûõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî óíèâåð-ñèòåòà è àíàëèç òåêñòîâ ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè ïîçâîëÿåò ñäåëàòü íåêîòîðûåçàìå÷àíèÿ. Ïðè îòáîðå äèäàêòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà è îñîáåííî ïðè ðàáîòåíàä òåêñòîì ñëåäóåò ó÷èòûâàòü ôàêòîð ÷àñòîòíîñòè ëåêñè÷åñêèõ èãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ÿâëåíèé. ×àñòîòíîñòü - ýòî ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåìîñòüóïîòðåáëåíèÿ ëåêñè÷åñêèõ è ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ôîðì èëè êîíñòðóêöèé âòîì èëè èíîì âèäå ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè. Êàê ïîêàçàë àíàëèç òåêñòîâðàçíûõ ñïåöèàëüíîñòåé, ÷àùå âñåãî ÑÏÏ ñ ñîñòàâíûìè ñîþçàìèâñòðå÷àþòñÿ â òåêñòàõ ïî ìàòåìàòèêå è ôèçèêå, â òî âðåìÿ êàê â òåêñòàõïî áèîëîãèè, õèìèè èëè ïåäàãîãèêå èõ ïî÷òè íåò. È òàê â âûøåóïî-ìÿíóòíûõ òåêñòàõ ïî ìàòåìàòèêå ñîñòàâíûå ñîþçû �dans le cas où�, �à laseule condition que� î÷åíü ðàñïðîñòðàíåíû. Îñîáîãî âíèìàíèÿ çàñëóæèâàåòñîþçíîå îáðàçîâàíèå �si et seulement si� êîòîðîå ïðèñóòñâóåò êàê âîïðåäåëåíèÿõ: (10) �On dit que deux droites sont coplanaires si et seulement sielles sont contenues dans un même plan�, òàê â äîêàçàòåëüñòâàõ òåîðåì èò.ï. Â òåêñòàõ ïî ôèçèêå ïðè îïèñàíèè ýêñïåðèìåíòîâ ÷àñòî ïîÿâëÿþòñÿâðåìåííûå ñîñòàâíûå ñîþçû, à òàêæå ñîþçû îáðàçà äåéñòâèÿ, âðåìåííûå:�à partir du moment où�, �dès le moment où� (íà÷àëî äåéñòâèÿ); �chaque foisque� (ïîâòîðåíèå äåéñòâèÿ); �jusqu�au moment où� (çàêëþ÷åíèå äåéñòâèÿ).

Òåêñòû ïî èñòîðèè èëè ãåîãðàôèè íå îñîáåííî áîãàòû ÑÏÏ ññîñòàâíûìè ñîþçàìè. Èíîãäà â öèòèðóåìûõ äîêóìåíòàõ ïî èñòîðèèìîæíî âñòðåòèòü �depuis l�époque où�, �en sorte que�.

Ïðè îáó÷åíèè ÷òåíèþ òåêñòîâ ñ ÷àñòî ïîâòîðÿþùèìèñÿ ÑÏÏ ââûøåóèîìÿíóòûìè ñîþçàìè, ðàáîòó íàä ñîþçàìè ñëåäóåò îòíåñòè êïðåäòåêñòîâûì, ðåöåïòèâíûì óïðàæíåíèÿì. Ýòî ìîæåò áûòü è ïåðåâîä

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íà ðîäíîé ÿçûê ñàìîãî ñîþçà, è èçó÷åíèå ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ (ïðè÷èíî-ñëåäñòâåííûõ, âðåìåííûõ è ò.ï.) îòíîøåíèé. Ê ðåöåíòèâíî-ïðîäóêòèâ-íûì ìîæíî îòíåñòè è òàêæå óïðàæíåíèÿ êàê: íàéòè â òåêñòå ÑÏÏ ññîñòàâíûì ñîþçîì; îïðåäåëèòü ñèíòàêñè÷åñêóþ ôóíêöèþ ïîä÷èíåííîãîïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ââîäèìîãî ñîñòàâíûì ñîþçîì; çàïîëíèòü ïðîïóñê, âûáðàâïîäõîäÿùóþ ñëîâîôîðìó èç ïðèâåäåííîãî ïåðå÷íÿ; ñ ïîìîùþ ñîñòàâíîãîñîþçà ñîåäåíèòü äâå ÷àñòè ÑÏÏ; çàêîí÷èòü íåçàêîí÷åííûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ;íàïèñàòü ðåçþìå òåêñòà, óïîòðåáëÿÿ òàêèå ñòðóêòóðû.

Óñâîåíèå ñïîñîáîâ âûðàæåíèÿ ñòðóêòóðíî-ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèéâ òåêñòå ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè ñ ïîìîùüþ ñîñòàâíûõ ñîþçîâ, à òàæå çêñòðà-ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêàÿ èíôîðìàöèÿ (ôîðìóëû, öèôðû, ðèñóíêè) îáëåã÷àþòïðîãíîçèðîâàíèå ñîäåðæàíèÿ ÷èòàåìîãî òåêñòà (àíòèöèïàöèþ). Îâëà-äåíèå òàêèìè ñòðóêòóðàìè êàê ÑÏÏ ñ ïðèäàòî÷íûìè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâåí-íàìè, ââåäåííûìè ñîñòàâíûìè ñîþçàìè, ñïîñîáñòâóåò óìåíèþ àðãó-ìåíòèðîâàòü - äîêàçàòü âåðíîñòü èëè îøèáî÷íîñòü àíòèòåçèñà.

Èòàê, íà îñíîâàíèè ïðîâåäåííîãî íàìè èññëåäîâàíèÿ òåîðåòè÷åñêîãîè ÿçûêîâîãî ìàòåðèàëà, ìû ìîæåì ñäåëàòü ñëåäóþùèå âûâîäû:

1) ôîðìèðîâàíèå ñîñòàâíèõ ñîþçîâ íà èìåííîé îñíîâå âûñòóïàåòêàê ðåçóëüòàò äèàëåêòè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ äâóõ ïðîòèâè-òåëüíûõ ôàêòîðîâ, äåéñòâóþùèõ íà ÿçûêå: ôàêòîðà àíàëèçàè ôàêòîðà ñèíòåçà;

2) ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîå ïåðåðàçëîæåíèå ñâÿçàíî ñî ñäâèãàìè â ÷ëåíå-íèè ÑÏÏ, êîãäà â ñîõðàíåíèè îáùåé ñòðóêòóðû ÑÏÏ ïðîèñ-õîäèò ïåðåðàñïðåäåëåíèå ãðàíèö ìåæäó ïðåäèêàòèâíûìè ÷àñòÿ-ìè ñëîæíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è ñëîâà èëè ñëâîîáðàçîâàíèÿ ãëàâ-íîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ïåðåõîäÿò â ïðèäàòî÷íîå è îáúåäåíÿþòñÿ ñïðîñòûìè ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûìè ñîþçàìè;

3) ïîä÷èíèòåëüíûé ñîþç ôóíêöèîíèðóåò â äâóõ ôîðìàõ: ðàç÷ëå-íåííûé è íåðàç÷ëåíåííûé;

4) ïðèäàòî÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå, ââåíåííîå ñîñòàâíûì ñîþçîì, ìîæåòíàõîäèòüñÿ â ïðåïîçèöèè, â èíòåðïîçèöèè è â ïîñòïîçèöèè;

5) îáó÷åíèå òåêñòîâ, â ñîñòàâå êîòîðûõ ôóíêöèîíèðóþò ñîñòàâíûåñîþçû, ñïîñîáñòâóåò ôîðìèðîâàíèþ àíòèöèïàöèè ïðè ÷òåíèèè ðàçâèâàåò ñïîñîáíîñòü àðãóìåíòèðîâàòü.

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RESUME

QUELQUES PROBLEMES DE LA FORMATION DESCONJONCTIONS COMPOSEES, DE LEURS FONCTIONS

DANS LA PHRASE ET DE L�ENSEIGNEMENT.

Dans l�article on fait l�aperçu de l�étude des conjonctions de subordinationcomposées et de sa formation qúi a été due aux facteurs d�analyse et de synthèse.On étudie aussi les conditions de transformation des groupes nominaux enconjonctoins de subordination ainsi que leur fonctionnement dans la phrase. Onaborde la question de l�enseignement du français specialisé.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ1. Wagner, Pinchon, 1962 - Wagner R.-L., Pinchon J. Grammaire du français

classique et moderne. Hachette. P., 1962.2. Bureau, 1979 - Bureau C. Syntaxe fonctionnelle du français. Laval. P., 1979.3. Herman, 1963 - Herman J. La formation du système roman des conjonctions

de subordination. Académie Verlag, 1963.4. Deloffre, 1975 - Deloffre F. La phrase française. SEDS, P., 1975.5. Cortès, 1985 - Cortes J. Quelques points de terminologie. Le français dans

le monde. 1985. Nr 192.6. Corbeil, 1968 - Corbeil J.-C. Les structures syntaxiques du français moderne.

Les éléments fonctionnels de la phrase. P., 1968.7. Meillet, 1921 - Meillet A. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale.

Champion. P., 1921.8. Ïîñïåëîâ, 1959 - Ïîñïåëîâ Í.Ñ. Ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííûå ïðåäëîæå-

íèÿ è åãî ñòðóêòóðíûå òèïû. Â.ß., 1959, No 2.9. Pottier, 1962 - Pottier P. Systématique des éléments de relation. Klincksieck.

P., 1962.10. Sandfeld, 1965 - Sandfeld K. Syntaxe du français contemporain. P., 1965.11. Sechaye, 1950 - Sechaye A. Essai sur la structure logique de la phrase.

P., 1950.12. Tesnière, 1959 - Tesnière L. Eléments de syntaxe structurale. Klincksieck,

P., 1959.13. Togeby, 1965 - Togeby K. Structure immanente de la langue française.

P., 1965.

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ÈÑÒÎ×ÍÈÊÈ1. Camus, 1978 - Camus A. La peste. Gallimard. P. 1978.2. Carco, 1960 - Carco. Brumes. P. 1960.3. Colette, 1983 - Colette. Le blé dans l�herbe. Oeuvres choisies. R.M., 1983.4. Colette, 1983 - Colette. Auto-stop. Oeuvres choisies. R.M. 1983.5. Cocteau, 1959 - Cocteau J. Les enfants terribles. P. 1959.6. Cotte, 1974 - Cotte J.L. Les semailles du ciel. J�ai lu. P. 1974.7. Pagnol, 1969 - Pagnol M. Topaze. L de poche. P. 1969.8. Simenon, 1977 - Simenon G. Le voyageur de la Toussaint. Gallimard.

P. 1977.

ÔÓÍÊÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÀß ÍÀÃÐÓÇÊÀ

ÐÓÑÑÊÎÉ ÈÍÒÎÍÀÖÈÈ (Â

ÑÎÏÎÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈÈ Ñ ËÈÒÎÂÑÊÎÉ)

Ã. ÊÓÍÄÐÎÒÀÑ

Èçâåñòíî, ÷òî èíòîíàöèÿ â ðóññêîì è ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ ÿâëÿåòñÿîäíèì èç ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ çíà÷åíèÿ çâó÷àùåãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, íàðÿäóñ ëåêñèêîé, ñèíòàêñèñîì è ñìûñëîâûì âçàèìîäåéñòâèåì ïðåäëîæåíèéâ òåêñòå. Îäíàêî îáúåì è ðàçíîîáðàçèå çíà÷åíèé, âûðàæàåìûõ ïðèïîìîùè èíòîíàöèè (ò. å. åå ôóíêöèîíàëüíàÿ íàãðóçêà) â ðàçíûõ ÿçûêàõìîæåò ðàçëè÷àòüñÿ, ÷òî îáóñëîâëåíî îñîáåííîñòÿìè ãðàììàòè÷åñêîãîñòðîÿ êàæäîãî èç íèõ.

Ôóíêöèîíàëüíàÿ íàãðóçêà èíòîíàöèè çàâèñèò îò ðÿäà óñëîâèé: îòñòåïåíè ó÷àñòèÿ èíòîíàöèîííûõ ñðåäñòâ â âûðàæåíèè îñíîâíûõ âèäîâðàçëè÷èé âûñêàçûâàíèé; îò ñîîòíîøåíèÿ ðàçëè÷èé, ñîâìåñòèìûõ èíåñîâìåñòèìûõ â îäíîì êîíòåêñòå; îò ñîîòíîøåíèÿ ðàçëè÷èéâûñêàçûâàíèé â íåçàâèñèìûõ è çàâèñèìûõ ïîçèöèÿõ òåêñòà; îòðåãóëÿðíîñòè îïïîçèöèé âûñêàçûâàíèé, ðàçëè÷àåìûõ èíòîíàöèåé; îòêîëè÷åñòâà ýìîöèîíàëüíûõ ðåàëèçàöèé èíòîíàöèîííûõ êîíñòðóêöèé.

Àíàëèç ìàòåðèàëà ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî â îáîèõ ñîïîñòàâëÿåìûõ ÿçûêàõïîñðåäñòâîì èíòîíàöèè ìîãóò áûòü âûðàæåíû âñå îñíîâíûå âèäû

37

ðàçëè÷èé: à) ñìûñëîâûå, á) ýìîöèîíàëüíûå (ò. å. ðàçëè÷èÿ íåéòðàëüíîãîè ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ãîâîðÿùåãî ê âûñêàçûâàåìîìó),â) ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèå ðàçëè÷èÿ. Îäíàêî èíòîíàöèîííûå ñðåäñòâà (ñèñòåìàèíòîíàöèîííûõ ñðåäñòâ â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ) - òèï èíòîíàöèîííîéêîíñòðóêöèè, ïåðåäâèæåíèå èíòîíàöèîííîãî öåíòðà, ñèíòàãìàòè÷åñêîå÷ëåíåíèå, ïàóçà) íåîäèíàêîãî ó÷àñòâóþò â âûðàæåíèè äàííûõ ðàçëè÷èé.Êàæäîå èç íèõ êàê â ðóññêîì, òàê è â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ îáëàäàåòñïåöèôèêîé ôóíêöèîíàëüíîé íàãðóçêè.

Ñïåöèôèêà ðàçëè÷èòåëüíûõ âîçìîæíîñòåé èíòîíàöèîííûõêîíñòðóêöèé ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ñëåäóþùåì:

1) â ðóññêîì è â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ ÈÊ è ÈÊË âûðàæàåò ñìûñëîâûåðàçëè÷èÿ: êîììóíèêàòèâíûå òèïû âûñêàçûâàíèé (ñîîáùåíèå - âîïðîñ,âîïðîñ, âîïðîñ - âîëåèçúÿâëåíèå); ðàçëè÷èÿ âíóòðè êîììóíèêàòèâíîãîòèïà âûñêàçûâàíèÿ (ñîîáùåíèå îöåíêà, âîïðîñ - ïåðåñïðîñ, âîïðîñ -ïîâòîðåíèå âîïðîñà ïðè îòâåòå è äð.). Ñîïîñòàâëåíèå ïîêàçàëî, ÷òîòèïû ÈÊ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, â îòëè÷èå îò ëèòîâñêîãî, ðàçëè÷àþò çíà÷åíèÿ:à) ñîîáùåíèå - âîïðîñ (â ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ ñ ñîþçîì �èëè�): Îí ïðèåäåòóòðîì / èëè âå÷åðîì. - Îí ïðèåäåò óòðîì / èëè âå÷åðîì? Â ëèòîâñêîìÿçûêå â òàêèõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ âîïðîñ âûðàæàåòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè ñîþçà ar,à ñîîáùåíèå - ïðè ïîìîùè ñîþçà arba: Jis atvaþiuos rytà/ar vakare? - Jisatvaþiuos rytà/arba vakare; á) ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíûé âîïðîñ ñ ñîþçîì �à�ïåðåñïðîñ ñ ÷àñòèöåé �à�. À â ñóááîòó? - À â ñóááîòó? Â ëèòîâñêîìÿçûêå òàêîãî òèïà ïåðåñïðîñ ñòðîèòñÿ áåç ÷àñòèöû è òàêèì îáðàçîìïðåäëîæåíèÿ èìåþò ðàçíûé ëåêñèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèé ñîñòàâ: Openktadiená? - Penktadiená? Ïðè ñîïîñòàâëåíèè òàêæå óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî âðóññêîì ÿçûêå çíà÷åíèÿ �âîïðîñ ñ îòòåíêîì òðåáîâàíèÿ� - �îòðèöàíèå�÷àùå âûðàæàþòñÿ ñ ïîìîùüþ ÈÊ, à â ëèòîâñêîì - ïðè ïîìîùè ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ (ôîðì ïîâåëèòåëüíîãî íàêëîíåíèÿ, ñî÷åòàíèé÷àñòèö). Ýòî óìåíüøàåò êîëè÷åñòâåííûé ñîñòàâ èíòîíàöèîííûõ îïïîçè-öèé â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêå è òåì ñàìûì ñíèæàåò ðîëü èíòîíàöèè, ïîñðàâíåíèþ ñ ðóññêèì.

Â ñëîæíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ ðàçëè÷èòåëüíûå âîçìîæíîñòè èíòîíà-öèîííûõ êîíñòðóêöèé ïðîÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî íà ñòûêå ÷àñòåé: òèïûÈÊ è ÈÊË èñïîëüçóþòñÿ êàê ñðåäñòâî óñèëåíèÿ èëè îñëàáëåíèÿ çíà÷å-íèé, âûðàæåííûõ ñîþçíîé ñâÿçüþ ÷àñòåé è èõ ñìûñëîâûì âçàèìî-äåéñòâèåì. Â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå â ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííîì ïðåäëîæåíèè èíòîíà-öèÿ çàâåðøåííîñòè (ÈÊ-1, ÈÊ-2) èëè íåçàâåðøåííîñòè (ÈÊ-3) âãëàâíîé ÷àñòè óñèëèâàåò èëè îñëàáëÿåò åå ñìûñëîâóþ ñàìîñòîÿòåëü-

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íîñòü: Ìû çàøëè â ëåñ, / ÷òîáû óêðûòüñÿ îò âåòðà. - Ìû çàøëè â ëåñ,/ ÷òîáû óêðûòüñÿ îò âåòðà. (=Ìû çàøëè â ëåñ äëÿ òîãî, / ÷òîáû óêðûòüñÿîò âeòðà.) Àíàëîãè÷íûå îòíîøåíèÿ íàáëþäàþòñÿ â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêå:Jie iðëjo anksti rytà, / kad su ðviesa sugráþtø. Jie iðëjo anksti rytà, / kad su ðviesasugráþtø. = Jie iðëjo anksti rytà todël, / kad su ðviesa sugráþtø).

Â áåññîþçíûõ ñîåäèíåíèÿõ ïðåäëîæåíèé ñ ïîìîùüþ èíòîíàöèîííûõêîíñòðóêöèé ðàçãðàíè÷èâàeòñÿ ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü äåéñòâèé è âçàèìî-îáóñëîâëåííîñòü äåéñòâèé. Â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå äàííûå ðàçëè÷èÿ âûðà-æàþòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè èíòîíàöèè çàâåðøåííîñòè (ÈÊ-1, ÈÊ-2): Ñäàìýêçàìåí, / ïîåäó îòäûõàòü (ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü äåéñòâèé) è èíòîíàöèèíåçàâåðøåííîñòè (ÈÊ-3): Ñäàì ýêçàìåí, / ïîåäó îòäûõàòü (âçàèìî-îáóñëîâëåííîñòü äåéñòâèé). = Êîãäà ñäàì ýêçàìåí, / ïîåäó îòäûõàòü.Àíàëîãè÷íûå îòíîøåíèÿ íàáëþäàþòñÿ â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêå: Gausiu premijà,/ pirksiu magnetofonà. - Gausiu premijà, / pirksiu magnetofonà. (= Kada gausiupremijà, / pirksiu magnetofonà.) Êîíêðåòèçàöèÿ çíà÷åíèÿ âçàèìîîáóñëîâ-ëåííîñòè ñðåäñòâàìè èíòîíàöèè è â ðóññêîì, è â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõâîçìîæíà ëèøü â îòäåëüíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ, íàïðèìåð, ïðè âûäåëåííîñòèèíòîíàöèîííûì öåíòðîì ãëàãîëîâ â ôîðìå áóäóùåãî âðåìåíè â íà÷àëåè â êîíöå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ: (Åñëè) ñäàì ýêçàìåí, / ïîåäó îòäûõàòü.; ñð. âëèòîâñêîì: (Jeigu) gausiu premijà, / pirksiu magnetofonà.

2) Èíòîíàöèîííûå êîíñòðóêöèè âûðàæàþò òàêæå ðàçëè÷èÿíåéòðàëüíîãî è ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ãîâîðÿùåãî ê âûñêàçû-âàåìîìó: Ïî÷åìó òû îïîçäàëà? (íåéòðàëüíûé âîïðîñ) è Ïî÷åìó òûîïîçäàëà? (âîïðîñ ñ íàçèäàíèåì); òàêæå è â ëèòîâñêîì: - Þiûrëjai krepðiná?Þiûrëjau. (íåéòð. îòâåò) è - Þiûrëjau! (îòâåò ñ âûçîâîì).

3) Èíòîíàöèîííûå êîíñòðóêöèè âûðàæàþò òàêæå ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèåðàçëè÷èÿ. Â íåêîíe÷íûõ ñèíòàãìàõ ïîâåñòâîâàòåëüíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿïðè âûðàæåíèè íåçàâåðøåííîñòè ÈÊ-3 (â ëèòîâñêîì ÈÊË-3) ïðèäàåòðå÷è ðàçãîâîðíûé îòòåíîê, à ÈÊ-4 (â ëèòîâñêîì ÈÊË-4) õàðàêòåðèçóåòîôèöèàëüíûé, äåëîâîé òîí: Âàøå çàÿâëåíèå / íàõîäèòñÿ ó äèðåêòîðà. -Jûsø pareiðkimas / dabar pas direktoriø.; ÈÊ-6 (ðåàëèçàöèè ñ óâåëè÷åíèåìäëèòåëüíîñòè ãëàñíîãî öåíòðà è íàïðÿæåííîñòè àðòèêóëÿöèè) ïðåîáëà-äàåò â òîðæåñòâåííî-ïðèïîäíÿòîé ðå÷è: Ñåãîäíÿ / íà Êðàñíîé Ïëîùàäè/ñîñòîÿëàñü ïðàçäíè÷íàÿ äåìîíñòðàöèÿ. Â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêå òîðæåñ-òâåííî-ïðèïîäíÿòóþ ðå÷ü õàðàêòåðèçóåò ÈÊË-6: Ðiandienà / Vingio parke/ Dainø ðventës atidarymas. (Ñåãîäíÿ / â ïàðêå Âèíãèñ / îòêðûòèå Ïðàçäíèêàïåñíè).

Óïîòðåáëåíèå ðàçíûõ òèïîâ èíòîíàöèîííûõ êîíñòðóêöèé ïðè

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âûðàæåíèè îáùåãî çíà÷åíèÿ (íàïðèìåð, íåçàâåðøåííîñòè), ÿâëÿåòñÿñèíîíèìè÷íûì. Ñèíîíèìè÷åñêîå óïîòðåáëåíèå òèïîâ ÈÊ è ÈÊËíàáëþäàåòñÿ è âî ìíîãèõ äðóãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ, íàïðèìåð: ïðè âûðàæåíèèèíòåíñèâíîñòè ïðîÿâëåíèÿ ïðèçíàêà, äåéñòâèÿ, ñîñòîÿíèÿ (òèïû 3, 5,6): Çäåñü òàê õîëîäíî! Çäåñü òàê õîëîäíî! Èia taip ðalta! Èia taip ðalta!;ïðè âûðàæåíèè âîïðîñà â ïðåäëîæåíèè áåç ìåñòîèìåííîãî ñëîâà (òèïû3, 4): Âû äàâíî â Ìîñêâå? Jûs seniai Maskvoje?; ïðè ïåðå÷èñëåíèè (âñåòèïû ÈÊ è ÈÊË) è äð. Ïðè ñèíîíèìè÷åñêîì óïîòðåáëåíèè òèïîâèíòîíàöèîííûõ êîíñòðóêöèé âîçíèêàþò ðàçëè÷èÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíî-ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà.

Ïåðåäâèæåíèå èíòîíàöèîííîãî öåíòðà â ðóññêîì è ëèòîâñêîìÿçûêàõ ÷àùå âñåãî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ: êàê ñðåäñòâî âûäåëåíèÿ íåèçâåñòíîãîâ âîïðîñå áåç ìåñòîèìåííîãî ñëîâà: Ñåñòðà ó÷èòñÿ â èíñòèòóòå? - Ñåñòðàó÷èòñÿ â èíñòèòóòå? Sesuo mokosi institute? - Sesuo mokosi institute?; êàêñðåäñòâî ñìûñëîâîãî âûäåëåíèÿ ñëîâà â âîïðîñå ñ ìåñòîèìåííûì ñëîâîì:Ãäå Âû æèâåòå? - Ãäå Âû æèâåòå? Kur Jûs gyvenate? - Kur Jûs gyvenate?;êàê ñðåäñòâî âûäåëåíèÿ ãëàâíîãî â ñîîáùåíèè: Íèíà çâîíèëà óòðîì. -Íèíà çâîíèëà óòðîì. Nina skambino rytà. - Nina skambino rytà.; êàê ñðåäñòâîäåòàëèçàöèè ñìûñëîâûõ îòíîøåíèé â ñîñòàâå òåìû â íåêîíå÷íûõñèíòàãìàõ ïîâåñòâîâàòåëüíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ: Çîëîòûå ìåäàëè â Ïðàãå /çàâîåâàëè ÷åøñêèå õîêêåèñòû. - Çîëîòûå ìåäàëè â Ïðàãå / çàâîåâàëè÷åøñêèå õîêêåèñòû. Aukso medalius Prahoje / iðkovojo èekø ledo ritulininkai.- Aukso medalius Prahoje / iðkovojo èekø ledo ritulininkai. Â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíèïåðåäâèæåíèå èíòîíàöèîííîãî öåíòðà â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ ó÷àñòâóåò, âî-ïåðâûõ, êàê ñðåäñòâî êîíêðåòèçàöèè ëåêñè÷åñêîãî çíà÷åíèÿ ñëîâà: Àëàð÷èê ïðîñòî îòêðûâàëñÿ. - À ëàð÷èê ïðîñòî îòêðûâàëñÿ. (�ïðîñòî�êàê íàðå÷èå è êàê ÷àñòèöà). Visi iðvaþiavo. Vienas jis liko. - Vienas jis liko.(�vienas� - êàê èì. ÷èñëèòåëüíîå è êàê ÷àñòèöà); âî-âòîðûõ, â âûðàæåíèèðàçëè÷èé ïî öåëè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ: Âîò ÷òî îí ñêàçàë? - Âîò ÷òî îí ñêàçàë.Ðtai kà jis pasakë? - Ðtai kà jis pasakë!

Ñèíòàãìàòè÷åñêîå ÷ëåíåíèå â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ ñëóæèò äëÿ âûäåëåíèÿèç ïîòîêà ðå÷è ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è åãî ñìûñëîâûõ ÷àñòåé. Ñèíòàãìàòè÷åñêîå÷ëåíåíèå òàêæå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ êàê ñðåäñòâî ðàçëè÷åíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõòèïîâ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ: Çàâòðà ìû óåçæàåì? - Çàâòðà/ ìû óåçæàåì. Rytojmes iðvaþiuojame? - Rytoj/ mes iðvaþiuojame.; - êàê ñðåäñòâî êîíêðåòèçàöèèñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ñâÿçåé ìåæäó ñëîâàìè â ïðåäëîæåíèè: Ñåñòðà ïèñàëà:/ ìàòü óåçæàåò â ñàíàòîðèé. - Ñåñòðà, ïèñàëà ìàòü, / óåçæàåò â ñàíàòîðèé.Sesuo raðë: / mama iðvaþiuoja á sanatorijà. - Sesuo, raðë mama, / iðvaþiuoja á

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sanatorijà.; êàê ñðåäñòâî äåòàëèçàöèè ñìûñëîâûõ îòíîøåíèé âíóòðèïðåäëîæåíèÿ: Âñòðåòèìñÿ çàâòðà âå÷åðîì ó Íèêîëàÿ. - Âñòðåòèìñÿçàâòðà, / âå÷åðîì, / ó Íèêîëàÿ. (äîïîëíèòåëüíîå ÷ëåíåíèå âíîñèòïîÿñíèòåëüíûé îòòåíîê). Ñð. â ëèòîâñêîì: Rita ir Petras gyvena Kaune, / oað Vilniuje. - Rita ir Petras / gyvena Kaune, / o að / Vilniuje. (äîïîëíèòåëüíîå÷ëåíåíèå ïîä÷åðêèâàåò ñîïîñòàâëåíèå).

Ïàóçà è â ðóññêîì, è â ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ â îñíîâíîì âûñòóïàåò êàêñðåäñòâî ïîä÷åðêèâàíèÿ ñìûñëîâûõ è ýìîöèîíàëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé, âû-ðàæàåìûõ â ïðåäëîæåíèè; ïîýòîìó ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ äðóãèìè èíòîíà-öèîííûìè ñðåäñòâàìè åå ðàçëè÷èòåëüíûå âîçìîæíîñòè ìåíüøå.

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñîïîñòàâëåíèå ïîêàçàëî, ÷òî â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå ôóíê-öèîíàëüíàÿ íàãðóçêà èíòîíàöèè âûøå, ÷åì â ëèòîâñêîì; â ëèòîâñêîìÿçûêå ñîîòâåòñòâåííî óñèëåíà ðîëü ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ.

REZIUME

RUSØ KALBOS INTONACIJOS FUNKCIONALUMAS(LYGINANT SU LIETUVIØ KALBA)

Intonacija abiejose gretinamosiose kalbose yra viena ið garsinës kalbos raiðkospriemoniø (kartu su leksika, gramatika, kontekstu). Intonacija, kalbojefunkcionuodama kaip garsiniø raiðkos priemoniø sistema (intonaciniai tipai,intonacinio centro vieta, sintagminë skaida, pauzë), rusø ir lietuviø kalbosediferencijuoja ir perduoda prasminius, emocinius ir stilistinius garsinës kalbosskirtumus.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀÁðûçãóíîâà, 1979 - Áðûçãóíîâà Å. À. Ôîíîëîãè÷åñêèé ìåòîä â èíòî-

íàöèè. // Èíòîíàöèÿ. Êèåâ, 1979.Êóíäðîòàñ, 1990 - Êóíäðîòàñ Ã. Ï. Ñèñòåìà èíòîíàöèîííûõ ñðåäñòâ ëè-

òîâñêîãî ÿçûêà â ñîïîñòàâëåíèè ñ ñèñòåìîé â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå. //Kalbotyra (ßçûêîçíàíèå), No 42(2), Âèëüíþñ, 1990.

Ðóññêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà, 1980 - Ðóññêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà. Ì., ÷àñòü ïåðâàÿ,1980.

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ÑÂÎÁÎÄÍÎÌ ÑÓÁÑÒÀÍÒÈÂÍÎÌ

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Â ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ î÷åíü ìíîãî âíèìàíèÿ óäåëÿåòñÿïðîáëåìå ñâÿçíîñòè ÿçûêîâûõ åäèíèö, ò. å. èõ âàëåíòíîñòíûì èñî÷åòàåìîñòíûì õàðàêòåðèñòèêàì. /Ñìîëüÿíèíîâà, 1982; Äåíèñåíêî,1983/. Ðàáîòà íàä ýòîé ïðîáëåìîé ïðîõîäèò ïî äâóì íàïðàâëåíèÿì: âî-ïåðâûõ, ðàññìàòðèâàþòñÿ âîïðîñû îáùåãî õàðàêòåðà - ðàçëè÷íûåàñïåêòû òåîðèè âàëåíòíîñòè / Àìáàðöóìÿí Ð. Ñ., Áîíäçèî Á., ÈôëàíäÅ., Êèáàðäèíà Ñ. Ì., Ôèøåð Ã. è äð./, ðàçíîâèäíîñòè âàëåíòíîñòåé,âûäåëÿåìûå íà ðàçëè÷íûõ îñíîâàíèÿõ / Êîðõîíåí Ã., Íîâèöêàÿ Í. Ì.,Ïàøåâñêàÿ Ò. Ë.á Ïîëÿíñêèé À. Í./, âàëåíòíîñòü è çíà÷åíèå ÿçûêîâîéåäèíèöû / Çîììåðôåëüäò Ê., Åðàñîâà Å. Ã., Êî÷åðãàí Ì. Ï./, âàëåíò-íîñòü è ÷àñòè ðå÷è / Ãåëüáèã Ã., Èôàíòüåâà Ð. Í., Ñòåïàíîâà Ì. Ä./,ïðàêòè÷åñêîå ïðèìåíåíèå òåîðèè âàëåíòíîñòè â ñëîâàðå /Òàðâàéíåí Ê./è äð.; âî-âòîðûõ, ìíîæåñòâî èññëåäîâàíèé ïîñâÿùåíî ÷àñòíûì âîïðîñàì,êàñàþùèìñÿ ïðîÿâëåíèé âàëåíòíîñòè, ò. å. ñî÷åòàåìîñòíûìõàðàêòåðèñòèêàì ÿçûêîâûõ åäèíèö. Òàê, ïðåäìåòîì èññëåäîâàíèÿÿâëÿþòñÿ ãðóïïû ñëîâ ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà - ÷àñòè ðå÷è, îìîíèìû, àíòî-íèìû, ñèíîíèìû, ìíîãîçíà÷íûå è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêè íåóòðàëüíûå ñëîâà èò. ä./ Àêóëîâà Ê. Ï., Äîáðîòâîðñêàÿ Ç. Ä., Ñàâèëîâà È. Ï. è äð./.

Íàèáîëåå øèðîêî è ðàçíîñòîðîííå íà ìàòåðèàëå ðàçëè÷íûõ ÿçûêîâèññëåäîâàíû âàëåíòíîñòíûå è ñî÷åòàòåëüíûå îñîáåííîñòè ãëàãîëà âîîáùåè òàêèõ åãî ëåêñèêî-ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï êàê ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî ñîñòîÿíèÿ,ìûøëåíèÿ, îáëàäàíèÿ è ïðèîáðåòåíèÿ, óâëå÷åííîñòè, óìñòâåííîéäåÿòåëüíîñòè, ñîçèäàíèÿ è ðàçðóøåíèÿ, ïåðåìåùåíèÿ, ïðåîáðàæàþùåãîôèçè÷åñêîãî äåéñòâèÿ è äð. Èññëåäîâàëàñü òàêæå ñâÿçíîñòü ãëàãîëîâäðóãèõ ðàçðÿäîâ - ïðåôèêñàëüíûõ è áåñïðåôèêñàëüíûõ, êàóçàòèâíûõ,ïåðåõîäíûõ, à òàêæå ïðè÷àñòèé ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè.

Îäíà èç òåíäåíöèé â ðàçâèòèè òåîðèè âàëåíòíîñòè - ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåâàëåíòíîñòè ñ ãëàãîëà íà äðóãèå ÷àñòè ðå÷è - íàøëà ñâîå îòðàæåíèå âðàáîòàõ î ñâÿçíîñòè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, ïðèëàãàòåëüíîãî è íàðå÷èÿ. Â

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îòíîøåíèè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü äâà ïîäõîäà; I/èññëåäîâàíèå ñî÷åòàåìîñòè èì¸í ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûõ îïðåäåëåííîéìîðôîëîãè÷åñêîé ñòðóêòóðû - îòàäúåêòèâíûå è îòãëàãîëüíûå; è 2/èññëåäîâàíèå ñî÷åòàåìîñòè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûõ ðàçëè÷íîé ñåìàíòèêè.

Ïîìèìî èññëåäîâàíèé, ïðîâåäåííûõ íà ìàòåðèàëå îäíîãî ÿçûêà -àíãëèéñêîãî, èñïàíñêîãî, íåìåöêîãî, ðóññêîãî, ôðàíöóçñêîãî -ñóùåñòâóþò ðàáîòû ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà. Òàê, ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêàÿ ñî÷åòàåìîñòü ãëàãîëîâ ïîëîæåíèÿ ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ âðóññêîì è áîëãàðñêîì ÿçûêàõ; ñî÷åòàåìîñòü ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûõ,îáîçíà÷àþùèõ à/ �÷åëîâåê� â àíãëèéñêîì è õàêàññêîì ÿçûêàõ è á/ �÷àñòèòåëà� â àíãëèéñêîì è òóðêìåíñêîì ÿçûêàõ, ñî÷åòàåìîñòü îòãëàãîëüíûõñóùåñòâèòåëüíûõ â ðóññêîì è íåìåöêîì ÿçûêàõ è íåêîòîðûå äðóãèå.

Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ îáúåêòà èññëåäîâàíèÿ, íàèáîëüøåå âíèìàíèåëèíãâèñòû óäåëÿþò ëåêñåìå, åå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèì è ñåìàíòè÷åñêèìàñïåêòàì ñî÷åòàåìîñòè. Îäíàêî, åñòü ðàáîòû, â êîòîðûõ èññëåäóåòñÿñî÷åòàåìîñòü ñëîâîîáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ìîðôåì, èìåííûõ îñíîâ âïðåôèêñàëüíîì ñëîâîîáðàçîâàíèè, îñíîâ â ñëîâîñëîæåíèè, ãëàãîëüíûõîñíîâ ñ ñóôôèêñàìè è äð. Êðîìå âûøåóêàçàííûõ, âàëåíòíîñòíîìóàíàëèçó ïîäâåðãàþòñÿ è òàêèå åäèíèöû êàê ïîëèêîìïîíåíòíûåàòðèáóòèâíûå ñóáñòàíòèâíûå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ, ýëåìåíòàðíûåïðåäëîæåíèÿ â ñîñòàâå ãèïîòàêñèñà è ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêèå åäèíèöû.

Âñå âûøåóêàçàííûå èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïðîâåäåíû íà ìàòåðèàëåñîâðåìåííûõ ÿçûêîâ. Ñî÷åòàåìîñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîì ïëàíå, â ðàçëè÷íûåýòàïû ðàçâèòèÿ ÿçûêà âîîáùå, è àíãëèéñêîãî, â ÷àñòíîñòè,ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ â ãîðàçäî ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè. Òàê, â äèññåðòàöèîííûõðàáîòàõ èññëåäóåòñÿ âàëåíòíîñòü ãëàãîëîâ áûòèÿ è ãîâîðåíèÿ âñðåäíåàíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå / Àëåêñàíäðîâà Ì. Þ./, ãëàãîëîâ ìûñëèòåëüíîéäåÿòåëüíîñòè 18-20 â. â. /Êîïà÷åâñêàÿ Ñ. Ì./, ãëàãîëîâ êîììóíèêàöèèâ àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå 14-17 â. â. /Ñàâåëüåâà Ñ. Ô./, ãëàãîëîâ çíàíèÿ âñðåäíåàíãëèéñêîì è íîâîàíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå /Èâèíà Ò. Í./, ãëàãîëîâ�giefan� è �agiefan� è �cuman�, �gan�, �irnan� â äðåâíåàíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå/Ñåìåíþê Ì. Ï./.

×òî êàñàåòñÿ ñî÷åòàåìîñòè èìåíè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî â èñòîðè÷åñêîìïëàíå, èçâåñòíû òîëüêî äâå ðàáîòû, â êîòîðûõ èññëåäóåòñÿ ñî÷åòàåìîñòüîòãëàãîëüíûõ àáñòðàêòíûõ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûõ è ñëîâîîáðàçîâàòåëüíàÿâàëåíòíîñòü ñóáñòàíòèâíûõ îñíîâ / Ìàòâååâà, 1980; Ïÿòèøèíà, 1975/.

Êàê èçâåñòíî, êàæäûé îáúåêò èëè ÿâëåíèå äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè îáëàäàåòïðèçíàêàìè îïðåäåëåííîãî ðîäà, êîòîðûå ìîãóò áûòü �ðàçäåëåíû íà

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äâå îñíîâíûå ãðóïïû: ñîáñòâåííûå ïðèçíàêè, óêàçûâàþùèå íà ôîðìó,ðàçìåð, âíåøíîñòü, âîçðàñò è ò. ï. ïðèçíàêè îáúåêòà... è îòíîñèòåëüíûå,îòðàæàþùèå ñâÿçü äàííîãî ïðåäìåòà ñ äðóãèìè.� / Ãàê, 1979, ñ. 45/.Äëÿ áîëåå ïîëíîé õàðàêòåðèñòèêè îáúåêòà, îáîçíà÷àåìîãî ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíûì â ïåðâîé ãðóïïå âûäåëÿþòñÿ äâà âèäà ïðèçíàêîâ - êà÷åñòâåííûåè êîëè÷åñòâåííûå. Ïðè ðàññìîòðåíèè îêðóæåíèÿ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãîîêàçàëîñü, ÷òî êà÷åñòâåííûå, êîëè÷åñòâåííûå è îòíîñèòåëüíûå ïðèçíàêèíàøëè ñâîå âûðàæåíèå â ðàçëè÷íîé ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé âàëåíòíîñòèñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, ïîä êîòîðîé ïîíèìàåòñÿ ñïîñîáíîñòü ñóùåñòâèòåëü-íîãî ïðèñîåäèíèòü ê ñåáå îïðåäåëåííîå êîëè÷åñòâî àêòàíòîâ /îïðåäå-ëåíèé/ â îïðåäåëåííîé ñèíòàêñèêî-ìîðôîëîãè÷åñêîé ðåïðåçåíòàöèè /Ñòåïàíîâà, Õåëüáèã, 1978, ñ. 156/.

Ñ òåîðèåé âàëåíòíîñòè òåñíî ñâÿçàíà ïðîáëåìà ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîãî èñåìàíòè÷åñêîãî ìîäåëèðîâàíèÿ, ïîñêîëüêó òîëüêî â âèäå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèèëè ñåìàíòè÷åñêè îðåíòèðîâàííûõ ìîäåëåé ìîæíî ÿñíî ïðåäñòàâëÿòüñîîòâåòñòâóþùèå ñî÷åòàåìîñòíûå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè ÿçûêîâûõ åäèíèö /Ñîâðåìåííîå..., 1983, ñ: 189/. Ïðèíèìàÿ âî âíèìàíèå òîò ôàêò, ÷òîñåìàíòè÷åñêèé è ôîðìàëüíûé àñïåêòû ÿâëÿþòñÿ íåîòúåìëåìîé ÷àñòüþëþáîãî ÿçûêîâîãî ÿâëåíèÿ, ïðè àíàëèçå îäíîãî èç íèõ íåîáõîäèìîó÷èòûâàòü è âòîðîé, ò. å. èññëåäîâàòü îáà àñïåêòà â èõ ñâÿçè èâçàèìîîáóñëîâëåííîñòè.

Èòàê, çàäà÷à äàííîé ñòàòüè - óñòàíîâèòü âçàèìîñâÿçü ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõè ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ ìîäåëåé ñâîáîäíûõ ñóáñòàíòèâíûõ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé âäðåâíåàíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, ò. å. â êàêèõ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ìîäåëÿõðåàëèçóþòñÿ êà÷åñòâåííûå, êîëè÷åñòâåííûå è îòíîñèòåëüíûå ìîäåëèñóáñòàíòèâíûõ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé / êîìáèíèðîâàííûå ìîäåëè â äàííîéñòàòüå ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ íå áóäóò/. Ïîä ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ìîäåëüþ â äàííîéðàáîòå ïîíèìàåòñÿ �ñõåìà, ôîðìóëà, îòâëå÷åííàÿ îò êîíêðåòíîãîëåêñè÷åñêîãî íàïîëíåíèÿ è âêëþ÷àþùàÿ íåîáõîäèìûå... êëàññû ñëîâ.�/Ñòðóêòóðíûé..., 1972, ñ.12/.

Â ïðîöåññå èññëåäîâàíèÿ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ñî÷åòàåìîñòè, ïîíèìàåìîéêàê ðåàëèçàöèè îïðåäåëåííîé âàëåíòíîñòè ÿçûêîâîé åäèíèöû /ñì.Ñìîëüÿíèíîâà, 1982, ñ.9/, íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü äâà ìîìåíòà â îòíîøåíèèèìåíè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî: I/ îíî îáëàäàåò îäíîâðåìåííî äâóìÿñïîñîáíîñòÿìè - ôîðìèðîâàòü ñî÷åòàíèå ñëîâ, öåíòðîì êîòîðîãî îíîÿâëÿåòñÿ, è âûéòè â ïðåäëîæåíèå â êà÷åñòâå íåçàâèñèìîãî /ïîäëåæàùåå/è çàâèñèìîãî /äîïîëíåíèå, îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî/ ÷ëåíà ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.Ãðàôè÷åñêè ýòî ìîæåò áûòü ïðåäñòàâëåíî òàê:

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2N V

1

At

Â äàííîé ñòàòüå áóäåò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ ïåðâûé òèï ñî÷åòàíèé.2/ äëÿ íåãî õàðàêòåðíî òî, ÷òî îíî ñîîòíîñèò îïðåäåëÿåìûé îáúåêò

èëè ÿâëåíèå äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè ñ ñèòóàöèåé. Â ýòîì ñëó÷àå îïðåäåëåíèåñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî - óêàçàòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìåíèå, óïîòðåáëÿåìîå ññóùåñòâèòåëüíûìè êàê èìåþùèì ïðè ñåáå äðóãîå îïðåäåëåíèå, òàê èáåç íåãî, íàïðèìåð:

1. Awierged bith se mann se the wirnath his sweorde blodes (p. 379) -Cursed be the man who wishes blood.

2. Aefter thaem thaer wearth se maesta hunger (p. 88) - There was thegreatest hunger.

3. Hu se lareow sceold beon claene on his mode. (p. 75) - How the teachershould be of clear mind.

Â âûøåïðèâåäåííûõ ïðèìåðàõ óêàçàòåëüíîå ìåñòîèìåíèå óïîòðåá-ëÿåòñÿ â èíäèâèäóàëèçèðóþùåé ôóíêöèè /ïðèìåðû 1 è 2/, ãäå ñóùåñò-âèòåëüíîå èìååò ïîñòïîçèòèâíîå /1/ è ïðåïîçèòèâíîå /2/ îïðåäåëåíèå èâ îáîáùàþùåé ôóíêöèè, ñ îïðåäåëåíèåì /1/ èëè áåç íåãî /3/.

Â ðàáîòå èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ñëåäóþùèå ñèìâîëû: N - ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå /ÿäðî/, NI - ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå /îïðåäåëåíèå/, V - ãëàãîë, V1,2 - ïðè÷ÿñòèÿíàñòîÿùåãî è ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè, A - ïðèëàãàòåëüíîå, Q - ÷èñëè-òåëüíîå, Pp - ïðèòÿæàòåëüíîå / Pd - óêàçàòåëüíîå, Pind - íåîïðåäåëåííîå/ìåñòîèìåíèå, At - îïðåäåëåíèå, Adv - íàðå÷èå.

Ñïîñîáíîñòü ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî îïðåäåëÿòüñÿ óêàçàòåëüíûììåñòîèìåíèåì, ñîîòíîñÿùèì îïðåäåëåííûé ïðåäìåò ñ äàííîé ñèòóàöèåéñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ãîâîðÿùåãî ïîçâîëÿåò ãîâîðèòü î êîììóíèêàòèâíîé /ñèòóàòèâíîé/ âàëåíòíîñòè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, êîòîðàÿ â äàííîé ðàáîòåòàêæå íå ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ /î ïîïûòêå ñâÿçàòü óïîòðåáëåíèå àðòèêåëåéñ ãðàììàòèêîé òåêñòà ñì. Øòåëëèíã, 1978/.

I. ÊÀ×ÅÑÒÂÅÍÍÛÅ È ÊÎËÈ×ÅÑÒÂÅÍÍÛÅÌÎÄÅËÈ ÑÓÁÑÒÀÍÒÈÂÍÛÕ ÑËÎÂÎÑÎ×ÅÒÀÍÈÉ

Îñíîâîé äëÿ ñîâìåñòíîãî îïèñàíèÿ âûäåëåííûõ ìîäåëåé ïîñëóæèëî

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òî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, ÷òî êà÷åñòâåííàÿ è êîëè÷åñòâåííàÿ ñòîðîíû èìåíèñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ âçàèìîïåðåñåêàåìîñòüþ, ò. å. ìåæäóíèìè ñóùåñòâóåò îáëàñòü, ãäå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå ìîæåò îïðåäåëÿòüñÿ êàêêà÷åñòâî, òàê è êîëè÷åñòâî /ñì. ïðèìåðû 13, 14, ñ./ - äèôôóçíûå ñëó÷àè.

1/ ïðè îïèñàíèè êà÷åñòâåííûõ ìîäåëåé îêàçàëîñü öåëåñîîáðàçíûìðàçäåëèòü âñå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ íà äâå ãðóïïû, â çàâèñèìîñòè îò òîãî, îò-íîñÿòñÿ ëè îïðåäåëåíèÿ ê à/ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîìó âîîáùå, ò. å. íåçàâèñè-ìî îò åãî ôîðìû è êëàññà èëè á/ ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì îïðåäåëåííîãî êëàññà- êîíêðåòíûì, àáñòðàêòíûì, â åäèíñòâåííîì èëè ìíîæåñòâåííîì ÷èñëå.

à/ â ïåðâîé ãðóïïå êà÷åñòâåííàÿ ñòîðîíà ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãîâûðàæàåòñÿ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿìè ñ îäíèì, äâóìÿ è òðåìÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè- êà÷åñòâåííûìè ïðèëàãàòåëüíûìè è ïðè÷ÿñòèÿìè íàñòîÿùåãî èïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè, îäèíî÷íûìè èëè ñî ñâîèìè ñîáñòâåííûìèîïðåäåëåíèÿìè - íàðå÷èÿìè. Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ïîçèöèè, çàíèìàåìîé ïîîòíîøåíèè ê ðÿäó, îïðåäåëåíèÿ ðàñïîëàãàþòñÿ, â îñíîâíîì, âïðåïîçèöèè /96%/; åñòü ñëó÷àè óïîòðåáëåíèÿ èõ è ïî îáå ñòîðîíû /4%/. Â ïîñëåäíåì ñëó÷àå ìåæäó îïðåäåëåíèÿìè íàáëþäàåòñÿ ñî÷èíèòåëüíàÿ/ïðèìåð 4/ èëè àêêóìóëÿòèâíàÿ ñâÿçü /ïðèìåð 5/, íàïðèìåð:

4. ... thaet he sie claenes willan and godes (p. 344) -... that he should be of a pure and good will.

5. ... and haefth on his agnum nebbe opene wunde unlacnode (p. 61) - ...and has on his neck open uncured wounds.

Àíàëèçèðóÿ õàðàêòåð îïðåäåëåíèé, ñëåäóåò ñêàçàòü, ÷òî, â îñíîâíîì,êàæäîå ïðèëàãàòåëüíîå èëè ïðè÷àñòèå óêàçûâàåò íà íàèáîëåå òèïè÷íóþ÷åðòó îïðåäåëÿåìîãî ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî â äàííîì òåêñòå /King Alfred�s..., 1871. /: öâåò / reade apla - red apples /, âêóñ/ sealtne sae - salty sea/, ðàçìåð / heane munt - high mountain /, âåñ / hefegum martyrdome -heavy (great) sufferings /, îáúåì / miclan weorces - great work /, âîçðàñò/ ealdan treowum - old trees /, ñîñòîÿíèå / dumba nietenu - dumb animals�hale lic - sound body / è ò. ä. Îäíàêî, ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå, îáëàäàþùèåêà÷åñòâåííî-îöåíî÷íûì çíà÷åíèåì / god - good, yfel - bad, ryht - right,halig - holy/, èìåþò ãîðàçäî áîëåå øèðîêóþ ñî÷åòàåìîñòü ññóùåñòâèòåëüíûìè ÷åì äðóãèå. Îíè îïðåäåëÿþò ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûåîäóøåâëåííûå è íåîäóøåâëåííûå, êîíêðåòíûå è àáñòðàêòíûå, íàïðèìåð:

goda recceras (teachers), craefte (crafts), weorcum (work);ryhte tide (time), andgiet (understanding), wegas (ways);

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yfle weorc (work), mannan (men), bisenum (example);halig cirice (church), wer (man), hraegle (clothes), stemne (voice).

Ýòîò ôàêò îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ íàëè÷èåì îïðåäåëåííûõ ñâîéñòâ ó ïðåäìåòîâè ÿâëåíèé è ñïîñîáíîñòüþ íîñèòåëÿ ÿçûêà äàòü îöåíêó ëþáîìó ïðåäìåòóè ÿâëåíèþ äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ åãî òî÷êîé çðåíèÿ.

á/ êî âòîðîé ãðóïïå îòíîñÿòñÿ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ, â êîòîðûõ êà÷åñòâîîïðåäåëÿåìîãî ïðåäìåòà âûðàæàåòñÿ ëèøü ïðè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîì âîïðåäåëåííîé ôîðìå. Ýòî ñòðóêòóðû ñ îäíèì è, ðåæå, äâóìÿîïðåäåëåíèÿìè; â ïîñëåäíåì ñëó÷àå îäíî îïðåäåëåíèå - ïðè÷àñòèåïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè - óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ â ïîñòïîçèöèè èëè â ïðåïîçèöèè.Ïîìèìî ïðèëàãàòåëüíûõ è ïðè÷àñòèé â êà÷åñòâå ïðåïîçèòèâíîãîîïðåäåëåíèÿ ïðè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîì â åäèíñòâåííîì ÷èñëå óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿíåîïðåäåëåííûå è îòðèöàòåëüíûå ìåñòîèìåíèÿ / sum mon - some man,nan mon - no man /, à ïðè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîì â ìíîæåñòâåííîì ÷èñëå -ìåñòîèìåíèå �other� /othrum monnum - (to) other people (men)/.Ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ ìîäåëè PnN îòìå÷àëèñü â ïðåäèêàòèâíîì óïîòðåáëåíèè.

Èòàê, êà÷åñòâåííûå îòíîøåíèÿ â ñóáñòàíòèâíîì ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèèäðåâíåàíãëèéñêîãî òåêñòà áûëè ïðåäñòàâëåíû ñëåäóþùèìè 14 ìîäåëÿìè:I/ (Adv) A N 2/ (Adv) V1,2 N 3/ (Adv) A (Adv) A N4/ Pdef N 5/ Pind N 6/ V2 A N7/ (Adv) A N (Adv) A 8/ A N V2 9/ A N A A10/ A N V2 V2 11/ Pind A N 12/ Pdef A N13/ Pind N V2 14/ Pn N

×àñòîòíîñòü óñòàíîâëåííûõ ìîäåëåé /ñ èõ âàðèàíòàìè/ îêàçàëàñüíåîäèíàêîâîé: ìîäåëè 1-4 ñîñòàâèëè 95% âñåõ ñëó÷àåâ, îñòàëüíûå ìîäåëèáûëè ïðåäñòàâëåíû åäèíè÷íûìè ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿìè.

2/ êîëè÷åñòâåííàÿ ìîäåëü âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ äâîÿêîãîðîäà: ñ âûðàæåíèåì à/ îïðåäåëåííîãî êîëè÷åñòâà è á/ íåîïðåäåëåííîãîêîëè÷åñòâà /òàêæå ÷åòíîãî è ðàçìûòîãî êîëè÷åñòâà, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî; ñì.Íàóìåíêî, 1984, ñ. 17/. Ê ñòðóêòóðàì, âûðàæàþùèì ÷åòêîå,îïðåäåëåííîå êîëè÷åñòâî, îòíîñÿòñÿ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ, â êîòîðûõñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êîëè÷åñòâåííûìè è ïîðÿäêîâûìè÷èñëèòåëüíûìè â ïðåïîçèöèè èëè ïîñòïîçèöèè è îïðåäåëåííûììåñòîèìåíèåì �begen - both� â ïðåïîçèöèè:

6. Ne maeg nan mon twam hlafordum hieran (p. 129) - No man can servetwo lords.

7. ... thonne haebbe we begen fet gescode (p. 45) - ... when we have hurtboth feet.

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8. ... se reccere his godan weorc for gielpe anum ne do (p. 141) - that theteacher shouldn�t do good deeds only for glory.

Áîëüøóþ ÷àñòü êîëè÷åñòâåííûõ ìîäåëåé /äâå òðåòè/ ñîñòàâëÿþòñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ, âûðàæàþùèå íåîïðåäåëåííîå êîëè÷åñòâî. Ýòîñòðóêòóðû ñ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè â ïðåïîçèöèè è â ïîñòïîçèöèè. Â êà÷åñòâåïðåïîçèòèâíûõ îïðåäåëåíèé âûñòóïàþò êîëè÷åñòâåííûå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå/monig, micel - many, much/, îäíè èëè ñî ñâîèìè îïðåäåëåíèåì - íàðå÷èåìè íåîïðåäåëåííîå ìåñòîèìåíèå �sum� /ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå ïðè íåì âñåãäàâî ìíîæåñòâåííîì ÷èñëå/, íàïðèìåð:

9. ... thy mara wisdom on londe waere thy... (p. 5) - ...the more wisdomthere was on the land (in the country)...

10. Ac manige menn beoth the ... (p. 67) - But there are many men who...11. ...that we eac sume bec wendon (p. 7) - ...that we should translate some

books, too.Âî âñåõ âûøåóêàçàííûõ ñëó÷àÿõ íàáëþäàëîñü ñîâïàäåíèå

ñòðóêòóðíîãî è ñåìàíòè÷åñêîãî ÿäðà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ. Îäíàêî,âñòðå÷àëèñü ñëó÷àè, â êîòîðûõ ñòðóêòóðíûé è ñåìàíòè÷åñêèé öåíòðûíå ñîâïàäàëè: ñòðóêòóðíûé öåíòð �dael� îêàçûâàåòñÿ îïðåäåëåíèåì êñåìàíòè÷åñêîìó öåíòðó �bletsunge�, íàïðèìåð:

12. ...that we onfon sumne dael bletsinge (p. 333) - ...that we should attainsome (part of) blessing.

Ýòî îòíîñèòñÿ êî âñåì ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûì, â çíà÷åíèè êîòîðûõïðèñóòñòâóåò ñåìà êîëè÷åñòâà, îáúåìà.

Èòàê, êîëè÷åñòâåííûå îòíîøåíèÿ â ñóáñòàíòèâíîì ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèèáûëè ïðåäñòàâëåíû ñëåäóþùèìè 6 ìîäåëÿìè:1/ Q N 2/ N Q 3/ Pind N4/ (Adv) A N 5/ N A 6/ Pind N1 N

Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ÷àñòîòíîñòè 91% èññëåäîâàííûõ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèéîòíîñÿòñÿ ê ìîäåëÿì 1-4.

Â ðåçóëüòàòå àíàëèçà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé, îòðàæàþùèõ êà÷åñòâåííûå èêîëè÷åñòâåííûå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, âñòðåòèëèñüñòðóêòóðû, â êîòîðûõ ïðèñóòñòâîâàëè îáà òèïà îòíîøåíèé îäíîâðå-ìåííî, ïðè îïðåäåëåíèÿõ �aelc� /Quirk..., 1982, p. p. 102-103/ è �nan�/ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå ïðè íèõ òîëüêî â åäèíñòâåííîì ÷èñëå/, íàïðèìåð:

13. Ne maeg nan mon twam hlafordum hieran (p. 31). - No man can...14. ...that he aelce daege symblede (p. 337). - ...that he should feast every

day.Õîòÿ âûøåóïîìÿíóòûå îïðåäåëåíèÿ óïîòðåáëÿëèñü ñ ñóùåñòâè-

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òåëüíûìè ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà - îäóøåâëåííûìè è íåîäóøåâëåííûìè,êîíêðåòíûìè è àáñòðàêòíûìè - ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü äâå îñîáåííîñòè,êàñàþùèåñÿ �nan�:

à/ â ñî÷åòàíèè �nan wuht� �ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå �wuht - creature�óïîòðåáëÿëîñü â îñëàáëåííîì çíà÷åíèè, ò. å. ïðîèçîøëà ëåêñèêàëèçàöèÿåäèíèöû, ïðèîáðåòàâøåé çíà÷åíèå �íè÷åãî, íèêòî, íèñêîëüêî�,íàïðèìåð:

15. Ne maeg ic nan wuht don (p. 307). - I cannot do anything.á/ êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèå ìîäåëè Pn N ìîãëî ïåðåäàòü

êà÷åñòâåííîå è êîëè÷åñòâåííîå îêðóæåíèå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî. Îäíàêî,êîãäà �nan� îïðåäåëÿëî àáñòðàêòíîå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîå â åäèíñòâåííîì÷èñëå â ôóíêöèè ïðåäèêàòèâà, âûðàæàåìîå îòíîøåíèå áûëî êà÷åñòâåí-íûì, íàïðèìåð:

16. ...that hit nan syn naere (p. 39). - ...that it was no sin.Â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ÿâíî ïðîñëåæèâàåòñÿ çàâèñèìîñòü ñåìàíòè÷åñêîé

ìîäåëè îò ðîäà ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî è ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ïîçèöèèñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ â ïðåäëîæåíèè.

II. ÎÒÍÎÑÈÒÅËÜÍÛÅ ÌÎÄÅËÈÑÓÁÑÒÀÍÒÈÂÍÛÕ ÑËÎÂÎÑÎ×ÅÒÀÍÈÉ

Äàííûé âèä ìîäåëåé áûë âûäåëåí íà îñíîâå ðàçëè÷íîãî îêðóæåíèÿñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, îòðàæàþùåãî �âíåøíèå� ñâÿçè îïðåäåëåííîãîïðåäìåòà èëè ÿâëåíèÿ äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè ê äðóãèì ïðåäìåòàì è ÿâëåíèÿì.

Â ðåçóëüòàòå àíàëèçà ôàêòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà îêàçàëîñü âîçìîæíûìâûäåëèòü ñëåäóþùèå òèïû îòíîøåíèé â îòíîñèòåëüíûõ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿõ:

à/ îòíîøåíèå ê ëèöàì. Ýòîò âèä îòíîøåíèé âûðàæàåòñÿ âñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿõ ñ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè â ïðåïîçèöèè, ïîñïîçèöèè è ïî îáåñòîðîíû ÿäðà. Â êà÷åñòâå îïðåäåëåíèé óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ ïðèòÿæàòåëüíûåìåñòîèìåíèÿ, óêàçàòåëüíûå ìåñòîèìåíèÿ òîëüêî â ïîñòïîçèöèè è ñïðèäàòî÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì /ïðèìåð 21/, ñîáñòâåííûå è íàðèöàòåëüíûåñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå â ðîäèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå /ñì. òàêæå Ñûòåëü, 1974/ èëèäðóãîì /â ïîñëåäíåì ñëó÷àå òîëüêî ïîñòïîçèòèâíî/, ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå âðîäèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå /ïðèìåð 20/ è ïðè÷àñòèÿ íàñòîÿùåãî âðåìåíè,íàïðèìåð:

17. ...hwaet awriten is on Salomones bocum (p. 323) - ...that is written inSolomon�s books.

18. ...nolde he bion monna lareow (p. 385) - ...he did not want to be a(people�s) teacher.

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19. Sunu min, ne todael thu... (p. 37) - My son, don�t...20. Se reccere sceal bion with thara yfelena untheawas strac (p. 107) - The

teacher must be strict at the vices of bad people.21. ...the bioth heafda thara the thaerunder bioth (p. 131) - ...that are heads

of those who are below.Îòíîøåíèå ê ëèöó áûëî ïðåäñòàâëåíî ñëåäóþùèìè ìîäåëÿìè:

1/ Pp N 2/ (Pd,p,ind,n) NN 3/ Pd, Pp,def N4/ Pd Pp N�s N 5/ Pd,p A N�s N 6/ N Pp,d7/ Pd N N�s 8/ N P (A,Q,N2S) N1 9/ N P P N�s10/ N�s N V2 11/ NI s N N�s 12/ Pd VI N�s N Pd VI s

á/ îòíîøåíèå ê æèâîòíûì è ïòèöàì áûëî ïðåäñòàâëåíîñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿìè ñ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè â ïðåäïîçèöèè è â ïîñòïîçèöèè,âûðàæåííûìè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûìè â ðîäèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå / fulga briddas- nestlings; ceapes hirdas - herdsmen / ñëåäóþùèìè ìîäåëÿìè:1/ NI s N è 2/ Pd N Pd NI s

â/ îòíîøåíèå ê êîíêðåòíûì îáúåêòàì âûðàæàåòñÿ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿìèñ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè â ïðåïîçèöèè è â ïîñòïîçèöèè, ïðåäñòàâëåííûìèñóùåñòâèòåëüíûìè â ðîäèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå, ïðåèìóùåñòâî â ïîñòïîçèöèè.Ñåìàíòè÷åñêèå ãðóïïû ýòèõ ïðåäìåòîâ î÷åíü ðàçíîîáðàçíû: íàçâàíèÿ÷àñòåé òåëà ÷åëîâåêà, îäåæäû, çäàíèé, îáúåêòîâ ïðèðîäû, íàïðèìåð:

22. Durh thone aepl thaes eagan mon maeg geseon (p. 69) - With the eyeman can see.

23. Toworpne sint tha stanas thaes temples (p. 133) - Ruined is the temple(the stones of the temple).

24. ...and Swa aworpen to saes grunde (p. 31) - ...and threw on to the bot-tom of the sea.

ã/oòíîøåíèå ê ìàòåðèàëó âûðàæàåòñÿ îòíîñèòåëüíûìè ïðèëàãàòåëü-íûìè ñ ñóôôèêñîì �-lic�, óïîòðåáëÿþùèìèñÿ òîëüêî ïðåïîçèòèâíî /flaesclicum monnum - (to) men of flesh/. Îäíàêî, èíòåðåñíî îòìåòèòü,÷òî òà æå ìîäåëü Alic N ìîæåò âûðàæàòü íå òîëüêî îòíîøåíèå êìàòåðèàëó, íî è îòíîøåíèÿ äðóãîãî òèïà, îáúåêòíûå, íàïðèìåð�lichomlican laecasdoctors of a body�. Ïîëèñåìèþ äàííîé ìîäåëè ñíèìàåòàíàëèç ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî - ÿäðà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ.

Èòàê, îòíîøåíèå ê êîíêðåòíûì îáúåêòàì âûðàæàëîñü ñëåäóþùèìèìîäåëÿìè:1/ N�s N 2/ NN�s 3/ Pd N Pd,p N�s4/ A N 5/ Pd N Pd A N�s

ä/ îòíîøåíèå ê àáñòðàêòíûì ïîíÿòèÿì, îáîçíà÷àþùèì ñîñòîÿíèÿ,

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÷óâñòâà, ðåçóëüòàòû ïñèõè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ÷åëîâåêà, ïðîöåññîâ èêà÷åñòâ ïðåäìåòîâ. Îòíîøåíèå äàííîãî âèäà âîçíèêàåò â ñëîâîñî÷å-òàíèÿõ ñ îïðåäåëåíèÿìè êàê â ïðåïîçèöèè, òàê è â ïîñòïîçèöèè. Âêà÷åñòâå ïðåïîçèòèâíûõ îïðåäåëåíèé âûñòóïàþò ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå âðîäèòåëüíîì ïàäåæå è îòíîñèòåëüíûå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå ñ ðàçëè÷íûìèñóôôèêñàìè, íàïðèìåð:

25. ...thonne he us wlitige spraece selth ymb... (p. 369) - ... when he makesa beautiful speech to us.

26. ...that mon eorthlice sibbe betwux thaem faestnige (p. 363) - ...so thatpeace on the earth between them was established.

27. ...that ge sien gearwe to ganganne on sibbe weg (p. 45) - ...that youshould be ready to make peace.

Ïîñòïîçèòèâíî óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ òîëüêî ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå â ðîäèòåëü-íîì ïàäåæå ñî ñâîèìè ñîáñòâåííûìè îïðåäåëåíèÿìè èëè áåç íèõ,íàïðèìåð:

28. ...that ge wapnode mid thaem waepnum ryhtwisnesse (p. 83) - ...thatyou should fight with weapons of righteousness.

29. ...forthaem sio georfulnes eorthlicra thinga abisgath ondgit (p. 129) -the wish for earthly things occupies mind.

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îòíîøåíèå ê àáñòðàêíûì ïîíÿòèÿì âûðàæàåòñÿñëåäóþùèìè ìîäåëÿìè:1/ N�s N 2/ Pd A N 3/ Pd Q N�s N4/ N N�s 5/ Pd N Pd,p N�s 6/ Pd N A N�s7/ Pd N Pd A N�s 8/ Pd N N�s and N�s

Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ÷àñòíîñòè íàèáîëåå óïîòðåáèòåëüíû ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ,âûðàæàþùèå îòíîøåíèå ê ëèöó /88%/.

Ñâîäíàÿ êîëè÷åñòâåííàÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêà âñåõ âûøåïðèâåäåííûõñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ ìîäåëåé ïðèâîäèòñÿ â òàáëèöå Nî 1.

Èòàê, ïîäâîäÿ èòîãè âñåìó, ÷òî áûëî ñêàçàíî, ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî1/ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêàÿ ñåìàíòèêà â ñâîáîäíîì ñóáñòàíòèâíîì ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèèìîæåò áûòü âûðàæåíà â òåðìèíàõ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ñî÷åòàåìîñòè -ðåàëèçàöèè ïîòåíöèàëüíîé ñïîñîáíîñòè ñóùåñòâèòåëüíîãî, äåòåðìè-íèðóþùåãî ñâîå ìîðôîëîãî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîå îêðóæåíèå ñîáñòâåííûìèõàðàêòåðèñòèêàìè.

2/ ñåìàíòè÷åñêèå êà÷åñòâåííûå, êîëè÷åñòâåííûå è îòíîñèòåëüíûåìîäåëè íå èìåþò îäíîçíà÷íîãî âûðàæåíèÿ â âèäå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõìîäåëåé, ò. å. îäíà è òà æå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêàÿ ìîäåëü ìîæåò ïðåäñòàâëÿòüðàçëè÷íûå ñåìàíòè÷åñêèå ìîäåëè. Îäíàêî, ñðåäè ñòðóêòóðíûõ ìîäåëåé

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âûäåëÿþòñÿ öåíòðàëüíûå, õàðàêòåðèçóåìûå íàèáîëüøåé êîíöåíòðàöèåéçíà÷åíèÿ è îòíîñÿùèåñÿ âïîëíå ê îïðåäåëåííîé ñåìàíòè÷åñêîé ìîäåëèè ïåðèôåðèéíûå, â êîòîðûõ ñåìàíòèêà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ îêàçûâàåòñÿáîëåå ïîäâëàñòíîé âëèÿíèÿì ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà /ñþäà îòíîñÿòñÿ èäèôôóçíûå ñëó÷àè/. Òàê, äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ êà÷åñòâåííûõ îòíîøåíèéöåíòðàëüíûìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå ìîäåëè (Adv) AN è (Adv) V2N;äëÿ êîëè÷åñòâåííûõ - QN(Q); äëÿ îòíîñèòåëüíûõ - N�s N, N N�s è P N

3/ ñåìàíòèêà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ îáóñëàâëèâàåòñÿ ñåìàíòèêîé ýëåìåíòà,âûñòóïàþùåãî â ôóíêöèè îïðåäåëåíèÿ, ôîðìîé ñàìîãî ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíîãî - ÿäðà ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ, à èíîãäà è ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ôóíêöèåéñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ â ïðåäëîæåíèè.

4/ õîòÿ äàííîå èññëåäîâàíèå áûëî ïðîâåäåíî íà ìàòåðèàëåäðåâíåàíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, íàì ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ âîçìîæíûì ïðåäëîæèòü,÷òî ïîëó÷åíèå âûâîäû ïðèìåíÿåìû è ê ñîâðåìåííîìó àíãëèéñêîìóÿçûêó.

SUMMARY

SYNTACTIC SEMANTICS IN A FREE NOUN PHRASE

The article deals with semantic relations and their surface representation in OldEnglish free noun phrases. On the basis of the semantics of the attributes in thenoun phrases were established three types of semantic relations - qualitative, quan-titative and relative. They were represented by two central morphologo-syntacticpatterns each, with a number of less frequently used patterns of great variety.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀÃàê, 1979 - Ãàê Ã. Ê âîïðîñó î ñåìàíòè÷åñêîé òèïîëîãèè ñëîâîñî÷åòà-

Òàáëèöà Nî 1.Êîëè÷åñòâåííàÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêà ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ ìîäåëåé

ñóáñòàíòèâíûõ ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé äðåâíåàíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà â ÷èñëàõè ïðîöåíòàõ

Âèä ìîäåëè Îáùåå ÷èñëî Öåíòð Ïåðèôåðèÿ

Îòíîñèòåëüíàÿ 975 /68%/ 933 /95%/ 44 /5%/Êà÷åñòâåííàÿ 408 /24%/ 379 /92%/ 29 /8%/

Êîëè÷åñòâåííàÿ 150 /8%/ 136 /91%/ 14 /9%/

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íèé. - Ñáîðíèê íàó÷íûõ òðóäîâ ÌÃÏÈÈß èì. Ì. Òîðåñà. -âûï. 145 - Ì., 1979.

Äåíèñåíêî, 1983 - Äåíèñåíêî Í. À. Îñíîâàíèÿ è ïðèíöèïû ñèñòåìàòèêèñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé è ñåìàíòè÷åñêîé âàëåíòíîñòè / íà ìàòåðèàëåàáñòðàòíûõ èìåí êà÷åñòâà â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå/: Àâòîðåô. äèñ.... êàíä. ôèëîëîã. íàóê. - Ì., 1983.

Ìàòâååâà, 1980 - Ìàòâååâà Ë. Â. Îòãëàãîëüíûå àáñòðàêòíûå ñóùåñòâè-òåëüíûå ñ ñóôôèêñàìè �-ing�, �-ung� è �-ness� â äðåâíåàíãëèéñêîìÿçûêå: Àâòîðåô. äèñ. ... êàíä. ôèëîëîã. íàóê. -Ì., 1980.

Íàóìåíêî, 1984 - Íàóìåíêî Í. È. Ñðåäñòâà ïåðåäà÷è çíà÷åíèÿ ðàç-ìûòîãî êîëè÷åñòâà èìåíåì ÷èñëèòåëüíûì â ñîâðåìåííîì àíãëèéñ-êîì ÿçûêå: Àâòîðåô. äèñ. ... êàíä. ôèëîëîã. íàóê. - Ë., 1984.

Ïÿòèøèíà, 1975 - Ïÿòèøèíà Ò. Ã. Ñëîâîîáðàçîâàòåëüíàÿ âàëåíòíîñòüè àêòèâíîñòü ñóáñòàíòèâíûõ îñíîâ ïðîñòîé ñòðóêòóðû äðåâíåàíã-ëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà: Àâòîðåô. äèñ. ...êàíä. ôèëîëîã. íàóê. -Ë., 1975.

Ñìîëüÿíèíîâà, 1982 - Ñìîëüÿíèíîâà Å. Í. Îñíîâû ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîéñâÿçàíîñòè: Àâòîðåô. äèñ. ... ä-ðà ôèëîëîã. íàóê. -Ë., 1982.

Ñîâðåìåííîå..., 1983 - Ñîâðåìåííîå çàðóáåæíîå ÿçûêîçíàíèå. - Êèåâ,1983.

Ñòåïàíîâà, Õåëüáèã, 1978 - Ñòåïàíîâà Ì. Ä., Õåëüáèã Ã. ×àñòè ðå÷èè ïðîáëåìà âàëåíòíîñòè â ñîâðåìåííîì íåìåöêîì ÿçûêå. - Ì.,1978.

Ñòðóêòóðíûé ..., 1972 - Ñòðóêòóðíûé ñèíòàêñèñ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. -Ðåä. ïðîô. Èîôèê Ë. Ë. - Èçä. Ëåí. Óí-òà, 1972.

Ñûòåëü, 1974 - Ñûòåëü Â. Â. Î ñåìàíòèêå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèé ñ ïðèèìåííûìãåíèòèâîì â äðåâíåàíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå.// Âîïðîñû ñèíòàêñèñààíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. - Ïÿòèãîðñê, 1974.

Øòåëëèíã, 1978 - Øòåëëèíã Ä. À. Àíãëèéñêèé àðòèêëü è åãî ðîëü âãðàìàòèêå òåêñòà.// Èíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêè â øêîëå. - No 6 - 1978.

King Alfred�s West-Saxon Version of Gregory�s Pastoral Care, ed. by H. Sweet. -London, 1871.

Quirk, 1982 - R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik. A University Gram-mar of English. - M., 1982

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ON TEACHING LISTENING

COMPREHENSION

A. RËKSNIENË

Listening is an active process in which the listener plays a very active part inconstructing the message exchanged between the listener and speaker. Listeningcomprehesion is considered a fundamental and important skill in language learn-ing. It is regarded as the first among the four essential skills (speaking, writing,reading and listening). Listening places qualitative demand on the participation ofthe listener. While listening it is not enough to understand only separate words.The listener has to work out what the speaker means by using certain words oncertain occasions. He must be able to make sense out of the information that isgiven, deduce the meaning of unknown words and phrases, understand implica-tions, feel the speaker�s mood.

When first exposed to a naturally occurring conversation in a foreign language,the listener has to decide whether it is noise or it is organised sound. Thus, theknowledge of the sound system is an important factor in learning to listen effec-tively. Gradually the listener starts breaking the noise up into words and sentences.He begins to recognise such elements as phonemes and intonation. Although hemay not try to identify the sounds (consciously or unconsciously), the listener�slinguistic competence gives an ability to say what sounds and sound combinationsare typical of it. Native speakers often make �mistakes�, slips-of-the-tongue, whenusing English, but they compensate for such slips in their interpretations, sincethey are concerned with what they intend to convey. The listener will make errorsextracting the meaning from words or word groups, because very often the arrivalof new information and the fast incoming stream makes it complicated. In order todevelop the speed of understanding the listener will have to do a lot of listeningand acquire a good command of the language. Later this will help the listener toprocess the information without much difficulty and store it in his memory forfurther use.

One more important factor in the process of listening is that understanding canonly occur if the listener puts all he hears in a context. It�s the context that providesbasis for predictions which may be both verbal and meaningful. Verbal predictionsoccur if the listener knows language structures (to depend on, in spite of, if I hadknown etc.). Meaningful predictions arise from life experience. In a familiar situ-

54

ation the listener will understand much more than in a field that is strange to him.For example, before listening to a passage in which Mary McDonald (a primaryschool teacher) talks about her work in a primary school, the listeners may beasked �What do you think Mary McDonald is going to say about boys and girls,how she treats them and what they do?�*. The listener will be able to make predic-tions or express his personal attitude if he is familiar with the education system.The accumulated knowledge of language and culture will also give the listener anopportunity to know that people will speak differently on different occasions, willuse certain varieties of language.

Comprehension becomes easier if the listener knows certain characteristics ofspoken language as well. There are several features of spoken English which arenecessary to outline and which the teacher can draw his students� attention to.Pronunciation is one of those which creates difficulties for a learner. In Englishthere is a certain number of sounds that are unknown or unusual for Lithuanianlearners of English. Learners may fail to identify certain consonant sounds orrecognise the quality or length of a vowel. Minimal-pair exercises for vowel andconsonant distinction might help the learners to distinguish between two sounds:for example, �veal - wheel, fought - thought, sing - thing, bed - bad�. In order toimprove the listener�s ability to understand, more practice should be given andexplanations provided.

Rhythm, stress and intonation also create certain difficulties for the listener. Itis well worth explaining all these things to the students so as to make them believethat understanding will be impossible without them. Certain exercises, includingstrong and weak forms in which auxiliary verbs, pronouns, prepositions are notstressed, will help the listener to become used to this fact. The listener may fail tounderstand reduced forms of words, which are normally found in the full form inwritten English - �cause (because), it�s, I�d, didn�t, shouldn�t, wasn�t. Such formsare often so reduced in the stream of speech that non-native listeners do not evenhear them. The word �are� will easily be recognised by a native speaker in [´ði:z ¶h¶ pe¶r¶nts], while a foreign listener may fail at first.

The difference between formal and informal language is one more aspect thatshould be taken into account. Informal situations are very often a problem for aforeign learner as the language in them is less structured and not so well organised.A language learner may be exposed to �errors�, such as unfinished utterances,pauses, moments of silence, false-starts, repetitions, self-corrections, fillers-in. Spon-taneous conversation often contains language structures that may not be gram-

* Jeremy Harmer, Steve Elsworth. �The Lietening File�, Longman, 1990 File 4 �The Teacher�, PartOne

55

matical. All these create difficulties for inexperienced learners, while a competentspeaker learns to ignore or tolerate them. If this aspect of spoken language is ex-cluded, listening comprehension becomes more complicated. Thus, Learning moreof the language will help the learner become more competent in understandingformal or informal spoken discourse. The interference of environment is an im-portant aspect as well. A listener has to cope with some sort of background noisewhile listening to announcements at such places as airports where he has to pickthe message from the hum of surrounding conversation and the noise of traffic. Heis often placed in a situation where he has to guess and fill in what he did not hear.

Why is it important to teach listening? The listening abilities of many learnersof foreign languages are not always as competent as they think. It especially be-comes obvious when learners make the first contact with native speakers. Increas-ing communication between countries through business links, the increase in holi-day travel makes it very important to develop listening skills.

Many learners of English sooner or later find themselves in a variety of situa-tions where they will need or want to listen to English being used in real life for anumber of purposes. The reasons for listening will be varied, depending on whatthey wish to do: to exchange or get information, to engage in social rituals, to shareemotions or feelings, to enjoy themselves. Learners should be prepared for otherdifferent listening situations that may include:

� listening to live conversations in which one takes no part;� listening to announcements at airports, railway stations where the lis-

tener is interested in extracting or confirming the relevant information;� listening to the news on the radio, the weather forecast;� watching television, a film in a cinema;� listening to music;� attending a lecture or a seminar;� speaking on the phone.

To hear what a speaker says is insufficient for communication to occur. Com-munication breaks down if the listener fails to understand the message. Effectivelistening will enable foreign learners to take part in oral communication.

Learners gain in time and efficiency if they learn this skill with teacher�s guid-ance and help. The teacher should support the students� attempts to become betterat listening. In teaching to listen with understanding successfully, the teacher should:

� use a number of different listening texts (dialogues, stories, talks, etc.),taking into account a variety of language (spoken by native speakers orforeigners, spoken formally or informally, delivered slowly or quickly);

� make texts realistic and motivating;

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� help the students to understand the necessity of the process of listening;� encourage students� confidence in successful listening;� give a poissibility in turn-taking (speaker-listener, listener-speaker);� give immediate feedback.

The teacher should ensure that listening proceeds in a productive way and thatstudents perform listening tasks with security and pleasure. This can be achieved ifthe teacher is well methodically prepared to conduct a listening lesson. Studentsmust first of all have some idea of what they expect to hear, the context in whichthe speakers occur and the relations between the speakers. The teacher should as-sist the students by giving them prior knowledge, background information, organiselistening activities that would help them cope with different situations in real life.In other words, the teacher should give the students things to do before they hear orlisten. It would be unfair to plunge them straight into the listening passage. Thiskind of preparatory work is called �pre-listening� that may include:

� predicting the vocabulary that will be used in the text;� using key-words to predict the contents;� asking and answering questions in pairs or questionnaires;� discussing a topic or a situation;� reading a passage similar to a listening text;� looking at pictures, maps;� completing charts or lists of things;� marking the stress on words in a column using a dictionary;� matching the words with their dictionary definitions;

This sort of listening work activates students� prior language knowledge, stimu-lates the use of known lexis and syntax. The choise of listening activities is deter-mined by the listening text. The preliminary work required to provide support forthe student will, of course, depend on the students� ability and previous experienceof listening to spoken English.

The preparation for listening sets up the following stage of listening activitywhich is referred to as �while - listening� or �general listening� (for global infor-mation) during which the learners have to extract the meaning from spoken lan-guage. This may be quite complicated and discouraging for inexperienced learn-ers, because they will have to listen and carry out certain activities. However, thosewho know more, will lose interest, as the teacher will spend more time filling gapsin student�s knowledge and less time on the listening work. So it is very importantfor the teacher to arrange activities in such a way that all students could find solu-tions in the listening text without much difficulty. While-listening work should besimple. Students become frustrated if they have to sort out too many items while

57

listening. This is especially true with �true/false questions� or �multipe-choicequestions�, because very often the listener starts sorting things out only at the endof the listening text. The number of written items should be reduced taking intoaccount the learners� level of knowledge, the content of the text, the speed of therecording and the complexity of lexis and syntax.

During while-listening work the teacher may engage students in the followinglistening activities:

� completing charts, grids;� recognising �right� pictures;� arranging pictures in order;� answering true/false questions (for global information);� multiple - choice questions (for detailed information);� filling gaps;� spotting the change in the text;� reconstructing a song out of the jumbled lines;� finishing a story;� spotting mistakes;� predicting words, etc.

During the while-listening stage the students should demonstrate whether theyhave understood the information in the text. However it is not enough to under-stand only the gist of what is said. In real-life situations, details play a great role aswell. For this reason the text should be listened to again with a before-task toextract information from details.

Further extension of before listening and while-listening work is the �post-listening� activity or �follow-up�. During this stage the teacher makes sure whetherthe students understood what they needed and whether they fulfilled the tasks suc-cessfully. Some places of the text or the whole of it may be played once more inorder to give students an opportunity to understand the manner of speaking and therelations between the speakers, to make sure that they expand the topic and lan-guage in another context, to allow them to express their own opinion, agreementsor disagreements. This stage is called critical (evaluative) listening.

Post-listening work gives time for students to think, to write, to discuss. It maybe the most interesting part of listening comprehesion but only if the teacher ishighly successful in sustaining students� interest and motivating. At this stage oflistening the students might be engaged in a number of activities:

� decision-making or problem-solving (smoking, drugs);� role-play (the students may be asked to imitate the situation or create a

new one using the newly learned language);

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� writing essays, summaries, reports, articles (a short article about afavourite radio programme);

� jigsaw-listening (several witnesses may speak about a road accident andan interviewer has to put things together to get a real view of what hadhappened);

� writing tape dictation;� making interviews (students prepare questions to ask a well-known per-

son), etc.The teacher can make up other listening activities. Each of the above men-

tioned listening activities (pre-listening, while - listening and post-listening), pro-vides opportunities for listening to be integrated with all the other skills in learninga foreign language. Listening comprehesion will be successful if the teacher keepsin mind the following rules:

� The tasks for listening must be realistic and motivating;� Listening activities should vary to retain the learners� interest;� Listening activities should reflect the listeners level of knowledge, age

interests;� Listening activities should stretch over the whole period of language

learning;� The recorded material must be clear, loud enough, not too long;� Finally, it is the teacher�s task to explain, that sometimes even native

speakers fail to understand completely. The learners should be encour-aged and told not to worry when they fail to hear or understand whatthey are listening to.

In constructing a listening comprehension course it is important to select strat-egies and tasks, to grade the texts building a set of menus for each particular lesson- short extracts in the early stages and long texts later whose content is made acces-sible to students by careful preparation. A course for teaching listening comprehesionshould consist of varied authentic dialogues and monologues. They should be cho-sen to illustrate different things that language is used for in real life. Thus thestudent is gradually prepared to encounter a spoken text, provided with all possiblesupports. This support will enable the listener to construct a reasonable interpreta-tion of what is said.

REZIUME

MOKYMAS SUPRASTI TEKSTÀ IÐ KLAUSOS

Nagrinëjama mokymas suprasti tekstà ið klausos. Riðlios kalbos srautà

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klausytojas atpaþásta kontekste, kuris leidþia jam prognozuoti ávykiø eigà, tiekkalbiniu, tiek prasminiu lygiu. Iðskiriami trys klausymo mokymo etapai:parengiamasis, vykdomasis ir baigiamasis. Jiems pateikiamos atitinkamos uþduotys.

LITERATURE1. Underwood, 1990 - Underwood M. Teaching Listening. -Longman, 1990.2. Rixon, 1991 - Rixon Sh. Developing Listening Skils. -ELTS, 1991.3. Nicholas, 1988 - Nicholas L. N. Teaching Listening Comprehension. -ETF,

January 1988.4. O�Neill, Scott, 1977 - O�Neill R., Scott R. Viewpoints: Inerviews for Lis-

tening Comprehesion. London, 1977.5. Harmer, Elsworth, 1990 - Harmer J., Elsworth S. The Listening File.

Longman, 1990.6. Roach, 1995 - Roach P. English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge, 1995.

ÏÅÐÅÂÎÄ ÊÀÊ ÑÐÅÄÑÒÂÎ

ÏÐÅÄÌÅÒÍÎÉ ÈÍÒÅÃÐÀÖÈÈ

Ä. ÑÀÁÐÎÌÅÍÅ

Â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ âñå ÷àùå ãîâîðèòñÿ î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïðåäìåòíîéèíòåãðàöèè â îáó÷åíèè íåðîäíîìó ÿçûêó. Ïðåæäå âñåãî ýòî ïðÿâëÿåòñÿâ òîì, ÷òî ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèå òåêñòîâ õóäîæåñòâåííîéëèòåðàòóðû íà óðîêàõ èëè çàíÿòèÿõ íåðîäíîãî ÿçûêà.Ðàññìàòðèâàòüõóäîæåñòâåííîå ïðîèçâåäåíèå ðåêîìåíäóåòñÿ êîìïëåêñíî, â åäèíñòâåÿçûêîâåä÷åñêîãî è ëèòåðàòóðîâåä÷åñêîãî ïîäõîäîâ. Ïîä ÿçûêîâåä÷åñêèìïîäõîäîì îáû÷íî ïîíèìàþò ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé è ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèé àíàëèçõóäîæåñòâåííîãî òåêñòà. Îäíàêî, íà íàø âçãëÿä, ïîìèìîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî è ôèëîëîãè÷åñêîãî àíàëèçà õóäîæåñòâåííîãî òåêñòà,ìîæåò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàí è ïåðåâîä. Ê ñîæàëåíèþ, âîïðîñ îâîçìîæíîñòÿõ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïåðåâîäà êàê ñðåäñòâà èíòåãðàöèè âîáó÷åíèè ÿçûêó è ëèòåðàòóðå î÷åíü ìàëî èçó÷åí.

Ïåðåâîäó îáû÷íî ïðèñâàèâàþò äâå ôóíêöèè: êîììóíèêàòèâíóþ èîáó÷àþùóþ. Â íàøåì ñëó÷àå ïåðâîñòåïåííîå çíà÷åíèå ïðèîáðåòàåòîáó÷àþùàÿ ôóíêöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ ïðè èñïîëüçîâàíèè ïåðåâîäà êàê ñðåäñòâà

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èíòåãðàöèè íà óðîêàõ íåðîäíîãî ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû íîñèò 1)îçíàêîìèòåëüíûé è 2) ñîçèäàòåëüíûé õàðàêòåð.

1. Îçíàêîìèòåëüíûé îáó÷àþùèé ïåðåâîä ìîæåò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíâ òîì ñëó÷àå, êîãäà íà óðîêàõ ïî ëèòåðàòóðå íåò âîçìîæíîñòè ïðî÷èòàòüâåñü òåêñò õóäîæåñòâåííîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ íà íåðîäíîì ÿçûêå. Òîãäà÷àñòü òåêñòà ÷èòàåòñÿ ó÷àùèìèñÿ â ïåðåâîäå íà ðîäíîì ÿçûêå.

2. Íàèáîëåå âàæíûì ïðè îáó÷åíèè íåðîäíîìó ÿçûêó ÿâëÿåòñÿîáó÷àþùèé ïåðåâîä ñîçèäàòåëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà. Ñîçèäàòåëüíûé ïåðåâîäÿâëÿåòñÿ áîëåå ñëîæíûì è çíà÷èìûì, îí ðåàëèçóåòñÿ íà áàçå íåñêîëüêèõóðîâíåé ñîïîñòàâëåíèé, î÷åíü âàæíûõ äëÿ àíàëèçà õóäîæåñòâåííîãîòåêñòà, òàê êàê òðåáóåò âûõîäà â ýñòåòèêó è ïñèõîëîãèþ, òðåáóåòïîíèìàíèÿ ýñòåòè÷åñêîé ôóíêöèè ñëîâà. Êàê èçâåñòíî, ñëîâî âõóäîæåñòâåííîì ïðîèçâåäåíèè ñòàíîâèòñÿ ýëåìåíòîì îñîáîé ñèñòåìû,êàæäûé ðàç íîâîé, ñâÿçàííîé ñî ñòèëèñòèêîé òåêñòà, ïîíèìàåìîé âñàìîì øèðîêîì ñìûñëå ýòîãî ñëîâà.

Ïðîäóìàííîå è óìåñòíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïåðåâîäà (ãîòîâîãî èëèâûïîëíåííîãî ñàìèì èçó÷àþùèì íåðîäíîé ÿçûê) êàê ñðåäñòâàèíòåãðàöèè ÿçûêîâåä÷åñêîãî è ëèòåðàòóðîâåä÷åñêîãî àíàëèçàõóäîæåñòâåííîãî òåêñòà ìîæåò óñêîðèòü è óãëóáèòü ïîíèìàíèå òåêñòà,èçìåíèòü ñòàòóñ àíàëèçèðóåìîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ, ïðåäëàãàåìîãîïðîãðàììîé, ïîâûñèòü ñîçíàòåëüíîñòü è âíèìàòåëüíîñòü ê ñëîâó âèçó÷åíèè ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû, óñêîðèòü ïðîíèêíîâåíèå â �ïîýçèþ�ñëîâà ðîäíîãî è íåðîäíîãî ÿçûêîâ. Ïåðåâîä (êàê ïðîöåññ, òàê èðåçóëüòàò) ìîæåò ïîìî÷ü ãëóáæå îñîçíàòü ñâîåîáðàçèå èçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà,åãî ñòðóêòóðó, ëåêñèêó, ñèíòàêñèñ, ôðàçåîëîãèþ, ñèñòåìû êîííîòàöèé.À. À. Ïîòåáíÿ, ãîâîðÿ î ñâÿçè ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû, â ñâîå âðåìÿâûñêàçàëñÿ îá ýòîì òàê: �ßçûê íå åñòü òîëüêî ìàòåðèàë ïîýçèè, êàêìðàìîð - âàÿíèÿ, íî è ñàìà ïîýçèÿ...� (Ïîòåáíÿ, 1926, 15). ßçûê, êàêèçâåñòíî, ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç ñðåäñòâ ðåàëèçàöèè äóõîâíîãî ìèðà÷åëîâåêà, âàæíîé ôîðìîé ïðîÿâëåíèÿ êîòîðîãî ñ÷èòàåòñÿ õóäîæåñò-âåííàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà. Ïîýòîìó íåìàëîâàæíîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò îñîçíàíèåèçó÷àþùèìè íåðîäíîé ÿçûê ñâÿçè ìåæäó ÿçûêîì è ëèòåðàòóðîé.

Îáðàùåíèå ê ïåðåâîäó ëó÷øå âñåãî, íà íàø âçãëÿä, íà÷èíàòü ñèñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî âûïîëíåíûõ ïåðåâîäîâ íåáîëüøèõ ïîîáúåìó öåëüíûõ òåêñòîâ êàê ïðîçû, òàê è ïîýçèè. Ïîíÿòíî, ÷òî ïåðåâîäûäîëæíû áûòü òùàòåëüíî îòîáðàíû, ñ÷èòàòüñÿ óäà÷íûìè. Ê òàêèì ìîæíîîòíåñòè ïåðåâîäû À. Ïóøêèíà, âûïîëíåííûå À. Âåíöëîâîé, À. Õóðãè-íàñîì, ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ èëè îòðûâêè èç òâîð÷åñòâà Ì. Ëåðìîíòîâà,

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ïåðåâåäåííûå Â. Áëîæå, ïåðåâîäû ñòèõîòâîðåíèé À. Áëîêà - ïåðåâîä÷èêÀ. Áàëòàêèñ, À. Àõìàòîâîé - ïåðåâîä÷èê Ñ. Íåðèñ è äð.

Ïåðâîå çíàêîìñòâî ñ ïåðåâîäîì ìîæåò èìåòü îçíàêîìèòåëüíûéõàðàêòåð: ó÷àùèåñÿ ñëóøàþò èëè ÷èòàþò ïåðåâîä.

Íåñîìíåííî, ÷òî ïåðåâîä, äàæå îçíàêîìèòåëüíûé, ìîæåò îáîãàòèòüñàì ïðîöåñ îáó÷åíèÿ, ñîêðàòèòü ïóòü ê ïîçíàíèþ è ïîíèìàíèþ òåêñòà,ðàñøèðèòü êðóãîçîð, êîíòåêñò àíàëèçèðóåìîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ.

Âòîðîé ýòàï èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïåðåâîäà ìîæíî íàçâàòü ïîçíàâàòåëüíûì.Îí îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíîì àíàëèçå òåêñòà îðèãèíàëà èïåðåâîäà. Ñîïîñòàâëåíèå ìîæåò ïðîâîäèòüñÿ äâîÿêî: 1) ïàðàëåëüíî ñàíàëèçîì òåêñòà îðèãèíàëà èëè 2) âñëåä çà àíàëèçîì. Îáðàùåíèå êñîïîñòàâèòåëüíîìó àíàëèçó îðèãèíàëà è ïåðåâîäà - �áëàãîäàòíåéøàÿâîçìîæíîñòü êîíêðåòíî óâèäåòü âñå äîñòîèíñòâà ñòèëÿ îðèãèíàëà,çíà÷åíèå êàæäîé ìåëî÷è, ïîñòè÷ü ãàðìîíèþ, åäèíñòâî ôîðìû èñîäåðæàíèÿ èçó÷àåìîãî â øêîëå ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ� (Ñèäåðàâè÷þñ, 1990,No 1, 10). Êðîìå òîãî, ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíûé àíàëèç ïåðåâîäà è îðèãèíàëàìîæåò ïîñëóæèòü îñíîâîé ñîïîñòàâëåíèÿ íå òîëüêî ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿìûñëè è ñîçäàíèÿ õóäîæåñòâåííîãî îáðàçà ïðè ïîìîùè ðàçíûõ ÿçûêîâ,íî è îñíîâîé ñîïîñòàâëåíèÿ äâóõ êóëüòóð, äâóõ ëèòåðàòóð, îïðåäåëÿÿïðè ýòîì íàöèîíàëüíóþ ñïåöèôèêó êàæäîé èç íèõ.

Ñîïîñòàâëåíèå îðèãèíàëà è ïåðåâîäà ïîýòè÷åñêîãî òåêñòà ìîæíîíà÷èíàòü êàê ñ îïðåäåëåíèÿ îñîáåííîñòåé ôîðìû, òàê è ñ îñîáåííîñòåéñîäåðæàíèÿ. Ñîïîñòàâëåíèå áóäåò áîëåå ãëóáîêèì, åñëè àíàëèçèðóåìûéòåêñò ïåðåâîäèëñÿ íå îäíèì ïåðåâîä÷èêîì. Â ñëó÷àå ñîïîñòàâèòåëüíîãîàíàëèçà ñòèõîòâîðåíèé ñëåäóåò ïîìíèòü, ÷òî ôîðìà, ðèòìèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîå ÷ëåíåíèå â ñòèõîòâîðíîì òåêñòå ëåæèò íà ïîâåðõíîñòè,ïîýòîìó, î÷åâèäíî, ëåã÷å âñåãî íà÷èíàòü èìåííî ñ íèõ. Ïðè ýòîìíåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòûâàòü, ÷òî äëÿ ðóññêîãî è ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêîâ îäíèìèç óñëîâèé àäåêâàòíîñòè ïåðåâîäà ÿâëÿåòñÿ ýêâèìåòðèÿ - ñîáëþäåíèåðèòìè÷åñêîãî ïîñòðîåíèÿ òåêñòà îðèãèíàëà (ò. å. ñîîòâåòñòâèå â ðàçìåðå,â êîëè÷åñòâå ñëîãîâ, îñîáåííîñòÿõ ðèôìîâêè). Ðóññêèé è ëèòîâñêèéÿçûêè ÿâëÿþòñÿ áëèçêîðîäñòâåííûìè ÿçûêàìè, ïîýòîìó ìîãóò áûòüèñïîëüçîâàíû òå æå ñèñòåìû ñòèõîñëîæåíèÿ, à çíà÷èò, ñîõðàíåíà èðèòìèêî-èíòîíàöèîííàÿ âûðàçèòåëüíîñòü îðèãèíàëà, â íåêîòîðûõñëó÷àÿõ - äàæå èíòîíàöèîííîå ÷ëåíåíèå ôðàçû.

Ñëåäóþùàÿ ñòóïåíü â ñîïîñòàâëåíèè îðèãèíàëà è ïåðåâîäà -îïðåäåëåíèå ñîîòíîøåíèÿ ïîýòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ íà óðîâíåôîíåòèêè (îíîìàòîïåÿ, àëèòåðàöèÿ, àññîíàíñ), ñëîâîîáðàçîâàíèÿ,

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ìîðôîëîãèè, ñèíòàêñèñà. Òàêîé àíàëèç äîëæåí ïîìî÷ü ïîíÿòü íå òîëüêîõóäîæåñòâåííîå ñâîåîáðàçèå îðèãèíàëà è ïîëíîöåííîñòü ïåðåâîäà, íîè óãëóáèòü, çàêðåïèòü è îáúåäèíèòü çíàíèÿ ïî ëèòåðàòóðå ñî çíàíèÿìèïî ÿçûêó íà óðîâíå ñîïîñòàâëåíèÿ äâóõ ñèñòåì, ðåàëèçóþùèõñÿ âõóäîæåñòâåííîé ôóíêöèè ñëîâà, ïîìî÷ü ñîîòíåñòè òåêñòû ñ òðåáî-âàíèÿìè è òåíäåíöèÿìè ðàçâèòèÿ àíàëèçèðóåìîé ëèòåðàòóðû, èõâçàèìîäåéñòâèåì. Êàê èçâåñòíî, î÷åíü ÷àñòî âçàèìîäåéñòâèå è âçàè-ìîâëèÿíèå ëèòåðàòóð íà óðîâíå ïåðåâîäà áûëî òàê ñèëüíî, ÷òî â íåêî-òîðûõ ñëó÷àÿõ ïåðåâîä ïðèçíàâàëñÿ êàê ôàêò òîé èëè èíîé íàöèî-íàëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðû. Â äàííîì ñëó÷àå èìåþòñÿ ââèäó ïåðåâîäû Ãåòå,âûïîëíåíûå Ëåðìîíòîâûì (�Ñîñíà�, �Ãîðíûå âåðøèíû�), ïåðåâîäñòèõîòâîðåíèÿ À. Àõìàòîâîé �Õîðîíè, õîðîíè ìåíÿ, âåòåð!�, ñäåëàííûéÑ. Íåðèñ (Daujotytë, 1995, 24). Î ïåðåâîäå Ëåðìîíòîâà �Ãîðíûåâåðøèíû� À. Õóðãèíàñ ïèñàë: �ß áîëüøîé ïîêëîííèê Ãåòå, íî ðóññêîåñòèõîòâîðåíèå êàæåòñÿ ìíå äàæå áîëåå ãëóáîêèì è ïîýòè÷íûì, ÷åìíåìåöêîå� (Õóðãèíàñ, 1986, 297).

Â êà÷åñòâå îáðàçöà, êàê ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü ïåðåâîä íà óðîêàõëèòåðàòóðû, ñëåäóåò ñ÷èòàòü ñòàòüþ Ð. Ñèäåðàâè÷þñà �Ïåðåâîä âïðåïîäàâàíèè ëèòåðàòóðû� (Ñèäåðàâè÷þñ, 1990, No 1, 10-14).

Òðåòèé ýòàï èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïåðåâîäà êàê ñðåäñòâà èíòåãðàöèè èìååòñóãóáî êîíñòðóêòèâíûé, ñîçèäàòåëüíûé õàðàêòåð. Ýòî ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíûéïåðåâîä. Äëÿ âûïîëíåíèÿ ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîãî ïåðåâîäà ëó÷øå âñåãî áðàòüòàêèå òåêñòû èëè îòðûâêè, êîòîðûå óæå àíàëèçèðîâàëèñü íà óðîêàõ ïîëèòåðàòóðå.

Ïîäãîòîâêà ê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîìó ïåðåâîäó ïðåäïîëàãàåò íå òîëüêîëèòåðàòóðîâåä÷åñêèé, íî è ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé àíàëèç. Àíàëèçó ïðåæäåâñåãî ïîäâåðãàþòñÿ ëåêñèêî-ñåìàíòè÷åñêèå è ãðàììàòè÷åñêèåîñîáåííîñòè òåêñòà: âûÿâëÿþòñÿ ïåðåíîñíûå çíà÷åíèÿ ñëîâ, îïðåäåëÿåòñÿó÷àñòèå ñëîâ èëè ôîðì ñëîâ â ñîçäàíèè ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèõ ôèãóð,ôóíêöèîíàëüíûå è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè ñëîâ, ñëîâîñî÷å-òàíèé, ôðàçåîëîãèçìîâ è äàæå îòäåëüíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé, îáñóæäàþòñÿâîçìîæíûå âàðèàíòû ïåðåâîäà. Ïåðåâîä ìîæåò áûòü ïîëíîñòüþ èëè÷àñòè÷íî ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíûì.

×åòâåðòûé ýòàï - àíàëèç ïåðåâîäà, âûïîëíåííîãî ó÷àùèìèñÿ, åãîîáñóæäåíèå, âîçìîæíî, ÷åðåç ñîïîñòàâëåíèå ñ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûìïåðåâîäîì. Ïåðåâîä îöåíèâàåòñÿ ñ ó÷åòîì òî÷íîñòè ïåðåäà÷è ñîäåðæàíèÿòåêñòà, åãî ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèõ îñîáåííîñòåé è îòäåëüíûõ ýëåìåíòîâ.

Â ïðîöåññå ðåàëèçàöèè ñîçèäàòåëüíîé ôóíêöèè ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîãî

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ïåðåâîäà ó÷àùèåñÿ ãëóáæå ïîçíàþò çíà÷åíèÿ ñëîâà, êîòîðûå âîçíèêàþòâ êîíòåêñòå è íå äàþòñÿ â ñëîâàðÿõ. Ýòè ïîçíàíèÿ ÿâëÿþòñÿ ãëóáèííûìè,ñâÿçàííûìè íå òîëüêî ñ êóëüòóðîé ðå÷è, íî è ñ îáùåé êóëüòóðîé íàðîäà,ÿçûê êîòîðîãî èçó÷àåòñÿ. Ïåðåâîä ìîæåò áûòü îïðåäåëåí êàêñâîåîáðàçíûé òâîð÷åñêèé ýêñïåðèìåíò, ïðîâîäèìûé ó÷àùèìèñÿ,ýêñïåðèìåíò, íà áàçå êîòîðîãî îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ ñîâïàäåíèÿ è ðàñõîæäåíèÿâ ÿçûêîâûõ ñðåäñòâàõ âûðàæåíèÿ âîñïðèÿòèÿ ìèðà, ïðîáóæäàåòñÿèíòåðåñ ê ïðåäìåòó, òâîð÷åñêîå íà÷àëî, êðèòè÷åñêîå îòíîøåíèå èîñîçíàíèå ìîòèâàöèè ñâîåãî âûáîðà.

Ïåðåâîä ó÷àñòâóåò â ôîðìèðîâàíèè ðå÷åâîãî îïûòà ó÷àùèõñÿ,êîòîðûå îáó÷àþòñÿ ñâÿçûâàòü ÿçûêîâûå çíàíèÿ ñ èõ ðå÷åâûìèðåàëèçàöèÿìè, ðàçâèâàþò óìåíèÿ ïîñòðîåíèÿ ñèòóàòèâíî,ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêè è ôóíêöèîíàëüíî ñâÿçíîé ðå÷è. Â ðåçóëüòàòå ýòîãîíåéòðàëèçóåòñÿ ôîðìàëüíûé ïîäõîä ê èçó÷åíèþ ÿçûêà, ëó÷øåóñâàèâàþòñÿ îñîáåííîñòè ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ ÿçûêà â ðå÷è,äèôôåðåíöèðóþòñÿ ôóíêöèîíàëüíûå îñîáåííîñòè ñëîâ è ôîðì ñëîâ âðîäíîì è íåðîäíîì ÿçûêàõ, ïîâûøàåòñÿ óðîâåíü îñîçíàííîñòèóïîòðåáëåíèÿ òåõ èëè èíûõ ôîðì â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ â ðàçíûõ òèïàõñâÿçíîé ðå÷è ñ ó÷åòîì æàíðîâî-ñòèëèñòè÷åñêîé ñïåöèôèêè.

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïåðåâîä ìîæåò ïîìî÷ü ïîíÿòü çíà÷åíèÿ ñëîâ íà:1) óðîâíå ãðàììàòè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû, 2) óðîâíå ñèòóàöèè ðå÷è è 3) óðîâíåñìûñëà òåêñòà, ñâÿçàííîãî ñ îïðåäåëåííûìè òðàäèöèÿìè èñïîëüçîâàíèÿñëîâà, æàíðîì, ëèòåðàòóðíûì íàïðàâëåíèåì.

Êðîìå òîãî, ïåðåâîä ñïîñîáñòâóåò ïðàêòè÷åñêîìó ïðèìåíåíèþ çíàíèéâ îáëàñòè ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû, èíòåãðàöèè íå òîëüêî ñëîâà è îáðàçà,íî è èíòåãðàöèè ÿçûêà è èñêóññòâà, îñîçíàíèè ÿçûêà êàê îäíîãî èçñðåäñòâ ñîçäàíèÿ èñêóññòâà ñëîâà.

REZIUME

VERTIMAS KAIP DALYKØ INTEGRAVIMO PRIEMONË

Straipsnyje pateikiamos vertimo kaip dalykø integravimo priemonës bendrosiospritaikymo galimybës ir privalumai negimtosios kalbos mokymo procese, siejantjuos su literatûriniu lavinimu.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ1. Daujotytë, 1995 - Daujotytë V. Salomëjos Nëries ruduo. Vilnius, 1995.2. Ïîòåáíÿ, 1926 - Ïîòåáíÿ À. À. Ìûñëü è ÿçûê. Ïîëí. ñîáð. ñî÷.,

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ò. 1. Õàðüêîâ, 1926.3. Ñèäåðàâè÷þñ, 1990 - Ñèäåðàâè÷þñ Ð. Ïåðåâîä â ïðåïîäàâàíèè

ëèòåðàòóðû // Ñëîâåñíèê, 1990, Ío 1.4. Õóðãèíàñ, 1986 - Õóðãèíàñ À. Òÿæêèé òðóä, òðåáóþùèé

ñàìîçàáâåííîñòè è ñàìîïîæåðòâîâàíèÿ // Õóäîæåñòâåííûé ïåðåâîäïðîáëåìû è ñóæäåíèÿ. Ñá. ñò., Ì., 1986.

ÒÅÑÒ ÊÀÊ ÑÐÅÄÑÒÂÎ ÊÎÍÒÐÎËß ÍÀ

ÓÐÎÊÅ ÐÓÑÑÊÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀ

Á. ÑÈÍÎ×ÊÈÍÀ

Â ïîñëåäíèå ãîäû òåñòèðîâàíèå êàê äåéñòâåííûé ñïîñîá êîíòðîëÿçíàíèé è óìåíèé ó÷àùèõñÿ âñå øèðå âõîäèò â øêîëüíóþ ïðàêòèêó.Âñå ìíîãîîáðàçèå òåñòîâ, ïðèìåíÿåìûõ â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ ó÷èòåëÿìèèíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ, ìîæíî ñâåñòè ê ðÿäó îïïîçèöèé ïî îïðåäåëåííûìïàðàìåòðàì. Ïåðå÷èñëèì âàæíåéøèå èç ýòèõ îïïîçèöèé /Finocchiaro,Sydney, 1983; Madsen, 1983/. Ïðåæäå âñåãî, òåñòû ìîãóò ïðîâåðÿòüçíàíèÿ î ÿçûêå èëè âëàäåíèÿ ÿçûêîì. Äàëåå, îíè ìîãóò âûÿâëÿòüñòåïåíü ñôîðìèðîâàííîñòè àñïåêòíî-ÿçûêîâûõ íàâûêîâ /ôîíåòèêà,ëåêñèêà, ãðàììàòèêà/ èëè æå êîììóíèêàòèâíî-ðå÷åâûõ óìåíèé /àóäèðîâàíèå, ãîâîðåíèå, ÷òåíèå, ïèñüìåííàÿ ðå÷ü/.

Ïî ñòåïåíè àêòèâíîñòè ïðåäóñìàòðåâàåìîé òåñòîì ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëü-íîñòè îíè ïîäðàçäåëÿþòñÿ íà ïðîäóêòèâíûå, òðåáóþùèå ñàìîñ-òîÿòåëüíûõ òâîð÷åñêèõ îòâåòîâ /ðàññêàç íà çàäàííóþ òåìó, ñî÷èíåíèå/è ðåöåïòèâíûå, îñíîâàííûå íà âûáîðå, îïîçíàíèè èçâåñòíûõ åäèíèö.

Òåñòû, äàëåå, äåëÿòñÿ íà ñóáúåêòèâíûå è îáúåêòèâíûå. Ñóáúåêòèâ-íûå òåñòû /èçëîæåíèå, ïåðåâîä/ îáëàäàþò òåì ïðåìóùåñòâîì, ÷òî ðå÷åâûåóìåíèÿ ðåàëèçèðóþòñÿ â íèõ êîìïëåêñíî, à âûáîð ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñâîãðàíè÷åí, ïðàêòè÷åñêè, ëèøü ðå÷åâîé êîìïåòåíöèåé ó÷àùåãîñÿ. Îäíàêîòàêèå òåñòû òðóäíî îöåíèòü áûñòðî è ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî, ñîáëþäàÿ åäèíûåêðèòåðèè ïðè îöåíêå ðàáîò âñåãî êëàññà. Îáúåêòèâíûå òåñòû, â îòëè÷èèîò ñóáúåêòèâíûõ, ïðåäïîëîãàþò îäèí ïðàâèëüíûé îòâåò /÷àùå âñåãîáåç âàðèàíòîâ/, ÷òî çíà÷èòåëüíî óïðîùàåò èõ îöåíêó è îáåñïå÷èâàåò ååîáúåêòèâíîñòü.

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Ïî ñîäåðæàíèþ è ñòðóêòóðå òåñòû ìîãóò áûòü äèñêðåòíûìè èèíòåãðàëüíûìè. Äèñêðåòíûå òåñòû ñîñòîÿò èç îòäåëüíûõ çàäàíèé,íåñâÿçàííûõ ìåæäó ñîáîé, êàæäîå èç êîòîðûõ ïðîâåðÿåò îïðåäåëåííûéýëåìåíò ôîíîëîãèè, ãðàììàòèêè è ò.ï. Èíòåãðàëüíûå òåñòû /íàïðèìåð,äèêòàíò/ òðåáóþò ñîâîêóïíîãî âëàäåíèÿ ìíîãèìè êîììóíèêàòèâíûìèóìåíèÿìè.

Òåñòû ìîãóò áûòü îðèåíòèðîâàíû íà íîðìó èëè æå íà îïðåäåëåííûåêðèòåðèè. Â ïåðâîì ñëó÷àå òåñò îöåíèâàåò çíàíèÿ êàæäîãî ó÷åíèêàîòíîñèòåëüíî óðîâíÿ çíàíèé óñòàíîâëåííûì ñòàíäàðòàì áåçîòíîñèòåëüíîê óñëîâèÿì îáó÷åíèÿ è óñïåõàì ñîó÷åíèêîâ.

Ïîñëåäíåå ïðîòèâîïîñòîâëåíèå - ýòî òåñòû, ïðîâåðÿþùèå äîñòàòî÷-íîñòü êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê êîíêðåòíûìïðàêòè÷åñêèì íóæäàì, è òåñòû, ïðîñòî îöåíèâàþùèå äîñòèæåíèÿó÷åíèêà â ïðîöåññå îáó÷åíèÿ. Â øêîëàõ îáû÷íî ïðèìåíÿþòñÿ �òåñòûäîñòèæåíèé�, òîãäà êàê ïðè ïðèåìå íà ðàáîòó, ïðè ïîñòóïëåíèè âó÷åáíîå çàâåäåíèå èíîñòðàíöó ìîãóò ïðåäëîæèòü ïðîéòè òåñòèðîâàíèå�íà ñíîðîâêó�.

Äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû òåñòû ñëóæèëè äåéñòâåííîé ôîðìîé êîíòðîëÿ, èõíóæíî äîëæíûì îáðàçîì ïîäãîòîâèòü, ïðîâåñòè è îöåíèòü. Îïûòíûåó÷èòåëÿ ñîâåòóþò ïðèäåðæèâàòüñÿ ñëåäóþùèõ ïðîñòûõ ïðàâèë ïðèïðîâåäåíèè òåñòîâ:

1. Îáúÿâèòå î òåñòå çàðàíåå.2. Ñêàæèòå ñâîèì ó÷åíèêàì, ÷òî èìåííî âû ñîáèðàåòåñü

ïðîâåðÿòü.3. Ïðîâåðÿéòå /ó÷èòûâàéòå ïðè îöåíêå/ ëèøü ïðîéäåííûé

ìàòåðèàë.4. Íå âêëþ÷àéòå â òåñòû íè÷åãî ïðèíöèïèàëüíî íîâîãî äëÿ âàøèõ

ó÷åíèêîâ.5. Ñîáëþäàéòå ïðèíöèï �îò ïðîñòîãî ê ñëîæíîìó�. Â íà÷àëå

òåñòà äàéòå ñàìûå ëåãêèå çàäàíèÿ.6. Ñôîðìóëèðóéòå çàäàíèÿ ê òåñòó ÷åòêî è ïîíÿòíî. Äàéòå, ãäå

ýòî âîçìîæíî, îáðàçöû âûïîëíåíèÿ çàäàíèÿ.7. Èíñòðóêöèè ïî âûïîëíåíèþ, ñôîðìóëèðîâàííûå â òåñòå

ïèñüìåííî, ïîâòîðèòå â êëàññå óñòíî, ÷òîáû óáåäèòüñÿ, ÷òîîíè âåðíî ïîíÿòû âñåìè. Åñëè òðåáóåòñÿ, èñïîëüçóéòå äëÿîáúÿñíåíèÿ ðîäíîé ÿçûê ó÷àùèõñÿ.

Öåëü íàñòîÿùåé ñòàòüè - ïîçíàêîìèòü ÷èòàòåëÿ ñ íàèáîëååïîïóëÿðíûìè âèäàìè îáúåêòèâíûõ òåñòîâ è âîçìîæíîñòÿìè èõ

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èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ â ïðîöåññå øêîëüíîãî îáó÷åíèÿ. Îäèí èç òàêèõ òåñòîâ -òåñò ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà. Â òåõíèêå ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà,ïðèìåíÿåìîé ïðè îöåíêå ðàçëè÷íûõ àñïåêòíî-ÿçûêîâûõ íàâûêîâ èêîììóíèêàòèâíûõ âàðèàíòîâ îòâåòà åäèíñòâåííûé âåðíûé.

Òàêèå òåñòû ëåãêî ïðîâåðÿòü /ñâåðèòü îòâåòû ó÷åíèêà ñ êëþ÷îì ìîæåòêòî óãîäíî/, íî òðóäíî ãîòîâèòü.

Îïèøåì âêðàòöå ïðîöåäóðó ïîäãîòîâêè ñëîâàðíîãî òåñòà ìíîæåñ-òâåííîãî âûáîðà. Ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñëåäóåò îòîáðàòü ëåêñè÷åñêèå åäèíèöû,óñâîåíèå êîòîðûõ ïîäëåæèò ïðîâåðêå. Çàòåì íàäî âïèñàòü èõ âàäåêâàòíûé êîíòåêñò, èñêëþ÷àþùèé ìíîãîçíà÷íîñòü. Ïðåäëîæåíèå íåäîëæíî áûòü ñëèøêîì òðóäíûì äëÿ ïîíèìàíèÿ. ×òîáû ñâåñòè íà íåòâàðèàòèâíîñòü îòâåòà, èíîãäà ïðèõîäèòñÿ â êà÷åñòâå êîíòåêñòà äàâàòüáîëåå îäíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ / ñì. ïðèìåð íèæå/.

Íåâåðíûå âàðèàíòû îòâåòîâ, îòâëåêàþùèå âíèìàíèå ó÷åíèêîâ,-äèñòðàêòîðû - íå äîëæíû âûãëÿäåòü ÿâíî íåïîäõîäÿùèìè. Òàê, ïëîõèìèäèñòðàêòîðàìè áóäóò ñëîâà, îòíîñÿùèåñÿ ê èíîé, íåæåëè êëþ÷åâîåñëîâî òåñòà, ÷àñòè ðå÷è: îíè çàâåäîìî íå âïèøóòñÿ â ïðåäëàãàåìûéêîíòåêñò. Óäà÷íûìè äèñòðàêòîðàìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñëîâà, çàôèêñèðîâàííûåðàíåå ó÷èòåëåì êàê òèïè÷íûå îøèáêè â ðå÷è ó÷àùèõñÿ. Ñðåäèäèñòðàêòîðîâ íå äîëæíî áûòü ñëîâ, êîòîðûå ïðèåìëåìû â äàííîìêîíòåêñòå, õîòÿ áû è êàê ìàëîâåðîÿòíûå.

Â àóäèîòåñòàõ îáû÷íî ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ 3 âàðèàíòà îòâåòà, â ÷èòàåìûõòåêñòàõ - 4.

Ïðèâåäåì íåñêîëüêî ïðèìåðîâ òåñòîâ ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà.Çàäàíèå: Ïðî÷èòàéòå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ. Çàïîëíèòå ïðîïóñêè, âûáèðàÿ

èç äàííûõ /À, Á, Â, Ã/ ñëîâ îäíî, êîòîðîå áîëüøå âñeãî ïîäõîäèò ïîñìûñëó. Îáâåäèòå êðóæêîì áóêâó ïðàâèëüíîãî îòâåòà.

Ìû ............... íà ðûíêå âñå ñâîè äåíüãè.À êóïèëè Á ïîñëàëè Â èñòðàòèëè Ã âûïóñòèëè

Ïåòð î÷åíü ............... Îí âåðèò âî âñå ïðèìåòû.À îñòîðîæíûé Á ñóåâåðíûé Â äîâåð÷èâûé Ã ðåëèãèîçíûé

Â òåõíèêå ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà ìîæíî îñóùåñòâëÿòü íå òîëüêîâñòàâêó, íî è ïîäñòàâêó:

Ìû îñìîòðåëè äðåâíèé çàìîê.À êàìåííûé Á öåííûé Â èíòåðåñíûé Ã ñòàðûé

Îí ïðèâûê ðàáîòàòü ñïóñòÿ ðóêàâà.À íåáðåæíî Á ñòàðàòåëüíî Â ôèçè÷åñêè Ã ìíîãî

Ìîæíî ñî÷åòàòü ïåðèôðàç ñî âñòàâêîé:

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Ìîÿ ìàìà ïîðòíèõà. Îíà ............À ó÷èò äåòåé Á øüåò îäåæäó Â âîäèò òðîëëåéáóñ Ã ëå÷èò ëþäåé

Òåñòû ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà ïîçâîëÿþò óâèäåòü ïðîãðåññ,äîñòèãíóòûé ó÷åíèêàìè äàæå çà ñðàâíèòåëüíî êîðîòêèé /2-3 íåäåëè/ñðîê îáó÷åíèÿ, ñ èõ ïîìîùþ ìîæíî îöåíèòü, íàñêîëüêî õîðîøî óñâîåíêîíêðåòíûé ïðîãðàììíûé ìàòåðèàë.

Êëîóç-òåñòû, íàïðîòèâ, îïðåäåëÿþò îáùåå âëàäåíèå ÿçûêîì, óðîâåíüêîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåíöèè ó÷àùèõñÿ. Êëîóç-òåñò ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñîáîé äåôåêòíé òåêñò, â êîòîðîì ÷åðåç ðåãóëÿðíûå ïðîìåæóòêè îïóùåíûñëîâà. Çàäà÷à ó÷åíèêîâ - âîññòàíîâèòü ïðîïóñêè.

Îáúåì è òðóäíîñòü òåêñòà, âûáèðàåìîãî äëÿ êëîóç-òåñòà, çàâèñèò îòâîçðàñòà ó÷åíèêîâ, óðîâíÿ èõ çíàíèé. Äëÿ òåêñòà íå ãîäÿòñÿ îòðûâêè,ïåðåãðóæåííûå èìåíàìè ñîáñòâåííûìè, öèôðàìè è äàòàìè. Íå ãîäÿòñÿòàêæå òåêñòû ñ îáèëüíûì öèòèðîâàíèåì, òàê êàê ÿçûê öèòàò çà÷àñòóþñëèøêîì îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ÿçûêà îñíîâíîãî òåêñòà.

Ïåðâîå è ïîñëåäíåå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ òåêñòà îáû÷íî ñîõðàíÿþò âíåïðèêîñíîâåííîñòè, ÷òîáû ó÷àùèìñÿ áûëî ëåã÷å ïîíÿòü îáùèé ñìûñëîòðûâêà. Ïðîìåæóòêè ìåæäó ïðîïóñêàìè ñîñòàâëÿþò îáû÷íî îò 5 äî10 ñëîâ. Åñëè ïðîïóñêè äåëàòü ñëèøêîì ÷àñòàìè, òåêñò áóäåò íåâîçìîæíîâîññòàíîâèòü, à åñëè îíè ñëèøêîì ðåäêè - òåñò ñòàíîâèòñÿ ÷ðåçìåðíîðåäêèì. Èíòåðâàë â 7 ñëîâ ìåæäó ïðîïóñêàìè ñ÷èòàåòñÿ îïòèìàëüíûì.Òåêñò â 200 ñëîâ ìîæåò ñîäåðæàòü äî 25-30 ïðîïóñêîâ.

Ó÷åíèêè âíà÷àëå áåãëî ïðî÷èòûâàþò âåñü òåêñò, à çàòåì, ïðè áîëååâíèìàòåëüíîì ÷òåíèè, çàïîëíÿþò ïðîïóñêè.

Ïðèâåäåì ïðèìåð êëîóç-òåñòà:Â äâåíàäöîòîì ÷àñó íî÷è ÿ øåë ïî ïóñòûííîé óëèöå Ìîñêâû. Ó

ïóøêèíñêîãî òåàòðà íàãíàë äåâî÷êó ............. /1/ äåñÿòè. ß íå ñðàçóïîíÿë, ÷òî ïåðåäî ............. /2/ ñëåïàÿ. Îíà ............. /3/ íåðîâíûìèøàãàìè ïî êðàþ òðîòóàðà. Ñòîëá îíà .............. /4/, íà ìãíîâåíüå çàñòûâïåðåä íèì. ß .............. /5/ ñëåïóþ è îãëÿíóëñÿ: ïðèñëóøèâàÿñü ê ìîèìøàãàì, îíà ............ /6/ ñëåäîì. Ó ïëîùàäè Ïóøêèíà ÿ çàâåðíóë çà............. /7/, íî îãëÿíóëñÿ, ÷òîáû ïîñìîòðåòü, êóäà ............. /8/ ñëåïàÿ.

Äåâî÷êà îñòàíîâèëàñü íà ïîâîðîòå è ............... /9/ íàïðÿæåííîñëóøàòü. Âèäèìî, îíà æäàëà ïðîõîæèõ, ÷òîáû ............. /10/ âñëåä çàíèìè. Íèêòî íå øåë. À â äâóõ ............. /11/ ïðîíîñèëèñü ìàøèíû. ßâåðíóëñÿ è ............. /12/ ê äåâî÷êå.

- Âàì êóäà?- .......... /13/ ìåíÿ, ïîæàëóéñòà, ÷åðåç óëèöó.

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- ß ïðîâåë åå è ............ /14/:- À òåïåðü?- Òåïåðü ìíå íåäàëåêî. ß ñàìà ............ /15/. Ñïàñèáî.

Îíà ìãíîâåíüå ïîñòîÿëà è ............ /16/, ïðèñëóøèâàÿñü ñíîâà êøàãàì ðåäêèõ ïðîõîæèõ. Òàê ............/17/ ýòà âñòðå÷à. À ÿ ïîäóìàëïîñëå: ìû ÷àñòî ........... /18/, ÷òî çà íàìè îñòàþòñÿ îòçâóêè íàøèõøàãîâ. È íóæíî âñåãäà ïðàâèëüíî èäòè, ÷òîáû íå îáìàíóòü äðóãèõëþäåé, êîòîðûå äîâåðèëèñü íàì è èäóò ñëåäîì.

Êëþ÷: /1/ ëåò, /2/ ìíîé, /3/ øëà, /4/ îáîøëà, /5/ îáîãíàë, /6/ øëà, /7/óãîë, /8/ ïîéäåò, /9/ ñòàëà, /10/ ïîéòè, /11/ øàãàõ/ ìåòðàõ, /12/ ïîäîøåë,/13/ Ïåðåâåäèòå, /14/ ñïðîñèë, /15/ äîéäó, /16/ ïîøëà, /17/ îêîí÷èëàñü,/18/ çàáûâàåì.

Êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, êëîóç-òåñò îöåíèâàåò ïðåæäå âñåãî ðå÷åâóþêîìïåòåíöèþ: îáùåå ïîíèìàíèå ïðî÷èòàííîãî, çíàíèå ëåêñèêè. Îäíàêîåñëè â êëîóç-òåñòå àêöåíò ñäåëàòü íà ïðîïóñêå íå ïîëíîçíà÷íûõ, àñëóæåáíûõ ñëîâ, òî îí ñòàíîâèòñÿ â áîëüøåé ìåðå ãðàììàòè÷åñêèìòåñòîì. Ïðèâåäåì îòðûâîê ïîäîáíîãî òåñòà:

Âïåðâûå ýëåêòðè÷åñêàÿ òðåëü âîçâåñòèëà ..... ïðèõîäå ãîñòÿ áîëüøåñòà ëåò íàçàä, ..... Ôðàíöèè. Äî ýòîãî áûëè ìåõàíè÷åñêèå çâîíêè,ïðèìåðíî òàêèå æå, êàê ..... ñîâðåìåííûõ âåëîñèïåäàõ. Òàêèå çâîíêèèíîãäà ìîæíî óâèäåòü ..... äîìàõ è ñåãîäíÿ - êàê íàïîìèíàíèå îâðåìåíàõ, ..... ýëåêòðè÷åñòâîì ïîëüçîâàëèñü äàëåêî íå âñåãäà.

Ïîñêîëüêó â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå ôîðìà ñëîâà ÷àùå âñåãî ïîäñêàçûâàåò,ñ êàêèì ïðåäëîãîì îíî óïîòðåáëåíî, ìîæíî óñëîæíèòü çàäàíèå êëîóç-òåñòà, îïóñêàÿ íå òîëüêî ïðåäëîãè, íî è îêîí÷àíèÿ ïàäåæíûõ ôîðì.Êðîìå òîãî, ìîæíî îñòàâèòü ïðîáåëû è â áåñïðåäëîæíûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ,à â çàäàíèè ê òåñòó îãîâîðèòü, êàêèì çíàêîì ñëåäóåò îòìå÷àòü îòñóòñòâèåïðåäëîãà. Íèæå ïðèâîäèòñÿ îáðàçåö ãðàììàòè÷åñêîãî êëîóç-òåñòà:

Áûëî âðåìÿ, êîãäà ...... Ðîññ..... íå çíàëè, ÷òî òàêîå êàðòîôåëü.Îäíàæäû îäèí ïîìåùèê ïðî÷èòàë â èíîñòðàííîì æóðíàëå ......êàðòîôåë....... Âûïèñàë ïîìåùèê ...... ãðàíèö...... êàðòîôåëü, ïîñàäèë...... ñâî...... îãîðîä...... Âûðîñ êàðòîôåëü è ïîÿâèëèñü ...... í..... öâåòû.Ðàäóåòñÿ ïîìåùèê ..... íîâ...... ðàñòåí......

Êàê ãðàììàòè÷åñêèå ìîãóò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíû íà óðîêàõ ïî ðóññêîìóÿçûêó è òåñòû, ïðåäñòàâëÿþùèå ñîáîé êîìáèíàöèþ êëîóç-òåñòà è òåñòàìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà:

Ðàññêàçûâàþò, ÷òî â 1912 ãîäó, êîãäà /îòìå÷àëàñü, îòìåòèëàñü/ñòîëåòíÿÿ ãîäîâùèíà Áîðîäèíñêîé áèòâû, â Ìîñêâå /ðåøàëè,ðåøèëè/

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óñòðîèòü áàíêåò. Îäèí èç ïîâàðîâ /õîòåë, çàõîòåë/ ïðèãîòîâèòü äëÿýòîãî áàíêåòà �âêóñíûé ñþðïðèç�: Îí /áðàë, âçÿë/ òðè ñòàêàíà ìóêè,òðè ÿéöà, ïîëîâèíó ÷àéíîé ëîæêè ëèìîííîé êèñëîòû,òðè ÷åòâåðòèñòàêàíà âîäû è 300ã ìàñëà. Èç ýòèõ ïðîäóêòîâ îí ñòàë /äåëàòü, ñäåëàòü/òåñòî.

Îïîðû, äàâàåìûå ó÷åíèêó â âèäå ìíîæåñòâåííîãî âûáîðà, äåëàþòêëîóç-òåñò áîëåå ðåöåïòèâíûì, çàòî ïîçâîëÿþò îïåðàòèâíî îöåíèòüãðàììàòè÷åñêèå íàâûêè â ñâÿçíîé ðå÷è, ÷òî áåç ýòèõ îïîð âðÿä ëèáûëî áû îñóùåñòâèìî.

Åñëè æå ìû õîòèì, îñòàâàÿñü â ïðåäåëàõ ãðàììàòèêè, ñòèìóëèðîâàòüïðîäóöèðîâàíèå ðå÷è, ìîæíî ïðèìåíèòü òåõíèêó �ðóáêè�, êîãäà èçïîëíîçíà÷íûõ ñëîâ, äàííûõ â èñõîäíîé ôîðìå, íàäî ñîñòàâèòüïðåäëîæåíèå, äîáàâèâ, ãäå òðåáóåòñÿ, ñëóæåáíûå ñëîâà:

ß/ õîäèòü / øêîëà / êàæäûé / äåíüß õîæó â øêîëó êàæäûé äåíü.Çàâòðà / ìû / ïèñàòü / êîíòðîëüíûé / ðàáîòà / ìàòåìàòèêàÇàâòðà ìû áóäåì ïèñàòü êîíòðîëüíóþ ðàáîòó ïî ìàòåìàòèêå.

Â áîëåå ñëîæíîì âàðèàíòå òåñòà ïîðÿäîê ñëîâ óñòàíàâëèâàþò ñàìèó÷åíèêè:

êèíî / ìû / õîäèòü / ïîäðóãà / â÷åðàÂ÷åðà ìû ñ ïîäðóãîé õîäèëè â êèíî.

Çàìåòèì, îäíàêî, ÷òî ïðè ñâîáîäíîì ïîðÿäêå ñëîâ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêåýòî äîïîëíåíèå ïðèíîñèò ýëåìåíò ñóáúåêòèâíîñòè â äàííûé òåñò, ÷òîíåñêîëüêî óñëîæíÿåò åãî ïðîâåðêó è îöåíêó.

Â öåëîì æå ïðåèìóùåñòâà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ îáúåêòèâíûõ òåñòîâ ïåðåäòðàäèöèîííûìè ôîðìàìè ïðîâåðêè íà óðîêàõ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà /óñòíûéîïðîñ, äèêòàíò, èçëîæåíèå, ñî÷èíåíèå/ î÷åâèäíû. Ïåðå÷èñëèì, âçàâåðøåíèå, îñíîâíûå äîñòîèíñòâà òåñòîâ êàê ñðåäñòâà êîíòðîëÿ.

1. Òåñò ïîçâîëÿåò ïðîâåðèòü íå òîëüêî íàëè÷èå ó ó÷àùåãîñÿîïðåäåëåííûõ çíàíèé î ÿçûêå, íî è ñôîðìèðîâàííîñòü ðå÷åâûõíàâûêîâ è óìåíèé.

2. Òåñòèðîâàíèå äàåò âîçìîæíîñòü îïðåäåëèòü êàê îáùóþêîììóíèêàòèâíóþ êîìïåòåíöèþ ó÷àùåãîñÿ, òàê è ñòåïåíüóñâîåííîñòè êîíêðåòíîãî ìàòåðèàëà ïðîãðàììû. Ó÷àùèéñÿ ïðèýòîì ëèøåí âîçìîæíîñòè �îáîéòè� â óïîòðåáëåíèèïðîâåðÿåìûé ýëåìåíò.

3. Êîíòðîëü ïðè ïîìîùè òåñòîâ íîñèò îáó÷àþùèé õàðàêòåð.4. Òåñòû ìîæíî ëåãêî è áûñòðî îöåíèòü, ñîáëþäàÿ ïðè ýòîì

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ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü è îáúåêòèâíîñòü.5. Ðåçóëüòàòû ðåãóëÿðíîãî òåñòèðîâàíèÿ ïîçâîëÿþò ó÷àùèìñÿ

óâèäåòü ñâîè óñïåõè, ÷òî çàìåòíî ïîâûøàåò ìîòèâàöèþ ó÷åíèÿ,à ó÷èòåëþ äàþò âîçìîæíîñòü îöåíèòü ýôôåêòèâíîñòü ñâîåãîòðóäà è âíåñòè, ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè, êîððåêòèâû â ïðîöåññîáó÷åíèÿ.

Èçìåíèâøèåñÿ óñëîâèÿ îáó÷åíèÿ ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó /óìåíüøåíèåêîëè÷åñòâà ó÷åáíîãî âðåìåíè, ñíèæåíèå ìîòèâàöèè, ñóæåíèå ñôåðîáùåíèÿ è ò.ï./ ïðè îñòàâøèõñÿ â îñíîâíîì ïðåæíèìè öåëÿõ äåëàþòïåðåõîä ê ñîâðåìåííûì ìåòîäàì êîíòðîëÿ îñîáåííî àêòóàëüíûì.

REZIUME

TESTAI KAIP ÞINIØ KONTROLËS PRIEMONË RUSØKALBOS PAMOKOSE

Straipsnyje nagrinëjami testai kaip efektyvi þiniø kontrolës priemonë,apþvelgiama jø tipologija, nurodomi objektyviø testø privalumai. Apraðomi testai,labiausiai tinkantys rusø kalbos mokëjimo kontrolei, nurodoma, kaip parengti testà,atlikti testavimà ir ávertinti jo rezultatus.

LITERATYRAFinocchiaro, Sydney, 1983 - Finocchiaro, Mary and Sydney Sako. Foreign Lan-

guage Testing. A Practical Approach. Regents Publishing Company, NewYork, 1983.

Madsen, 1983 - Madsen, Harold S. Techniques in Testinq. Oxford University Press,1983.

ADJECTIVES: ASSOCIATIVE FIELDS IN

ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN

S. STEPONAVIÈIENË

I. INTRODUCTIONRecent investigation in nativist and interactionist theories of language acquisi-

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tion shows that morhology and syntax acquisition is governed by developmentalsequences, which follow each other by way of overcoming psycholinguistic cogni-tive constraints (see, e.g., Krashen�s developmental sequences, ZISA Multidi-mentional model). Environmentalist theories rely on habit formation. But in thesphere of vocabulary there are very few explanations of the process. Larsen-Free-man and Long (1992, 73) write: �When it comes to semantic dimension, neitherhabit formation nor rule formation may be applicable. Instead, verbal accociation,multiple discrimination and concept learning (Gagne 1965) are more likely to haveexplanatory power.�

Thus, one of the conditions of incorporating a vocabulary item in the semanticmemory is its inclusion into the associative field. In order to do that we ought to beclear about at least two points: 1/ what the word associative field actually is. Usu-ally we choose the surrounding for the word in an arbitrary way, thinking mostoften in terms of our native and individual experience; 2/ whether word associativefields of the words denoting the same things or phenomena are identical in differ-ent languages.

As it is acknowledged that word associative fields are parts of mental lexicon,it is also an issue of the systems of the mental lexicon. Gairns and Redman (1991,88) write this about mental lexicon systems: �Most researchers (albeit from vary-ing viewpoints) appear to agree that items are arranged in a series of associativenetworks�.

The issue of the mental lexicon in bilingualism is a controversial one. Primarilythat is the problem of the coverage of the conceptual space in bilingualism. Thequestion posed is whether the lexical store is single or whether there are separatelistings for the two or more languages. Aitchison (1987) holds that different lan-guages may require different organization of the mental lexicon. Meara (1984)also writes that different languages produce different word-handling, storage andrecognition problems. Whereas Fay and Cutler (1982) maintain that there must bea single mental lexicon, phonologically arranged, and accessed by two differentnetworks, one phonological and one semantic.

Thus, analysis of word associative fields of different languages, their contras-tive analysis may: 1) throw some light on the theoretical problem of the mentallexicon; 2) be helpful in practical applications, i.e., vocabulary learning whilemastering a second language. Meara (1993, 294) writes: �What the bilingual lexi-con desperately needs is a modern equivalent of the Kent-Rosanoff word associa-tion test, something that would allow us to compare different types of L2 learnerson a set of standard indices.�

The aim of this article is to show the results of the analysis of the word associa-

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tive fields of 29 adjectives in English and their counterparts in Lithuanian.

II. METHOD OF OBTAINING AND PROCESSING DATA.Getting at word associative fields is a complicated issue. The most often used

method is that of free verbal association. By means of this method we get to knownot only the social or individual peculiarities of the associative fields. If the dataare sufficiently large, we may consider that data to be the source of psychologicaland linguistic information (Leontyev, 1977).

The data for the analysis of adjectives were taken from Russel and JenkinsMinnesota word association norms (Postman, 1970) and dictionary of verbal asso-ciation in Lithuanian (Steponavièiene, 1986). Both the experiments where carriedout using the method of free verbal association and the same Kent-Rosanoff wordlist. 1,008 subjects participated in the Englich experiment (American variant), and1,000 subjects of similar ages and educational standards in its Lithuanian counter-part.

The adjectives investigated were: afraid, beautiful, bitter, black, blue, cold, dark,deep, green, hard, heavy, high, hungry, light, long, loud, quiet, red, rough, short,slow, smooth, soft, sour, sweet, swift, thirsty, white, yellow. Their Lithuanian coun-terparts: baisu, graþi, kartus, juodas, mëlynas, ðaltas, tamsi, gilus, þalias, kietas,sunkus, aukðtas, alkanas, ðviesus, ilgas, garsus, tylus, raudonas, ðiurkðtus, þemas,lëtas, lygus, minkðtas, rûgðtus, saldus, greitas, iðtroðkæs, baltas, geltonas.

In cases when in Lithuanian dictionaries two words were given as possibletranslations of the English word, one of them was left for the comparative pur-poses. Besides, either feminine or masculine gender was chosen.

Here is an example of part of the associative fields of the word �cold� in En-glish and Lithuanian (up to frequency 11):

Cold (1008) Ðaltas (1000)1 hot 348 1 ledas 217 - ice2 snow 218 2 oras 130 - weather3 warm 168 3 vanduo 120 - water4 winter 66 4 vëjas 50 - wind5 ice 29 5 ruduo 42 - autumn6 Minnesota 13 6 ðiltas 36 - warm7 wet 13 7 speigas 30 - severe frost8 dark 10 8 kambarys 27 - room9 sick 9 9 þiema 25 - winter

10 heat 8 10 lietus 24 - rain11 weather 8 11 paltas 15 - coat

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Before the analysis two questions had to be answered.First, what amount of responses should be taken into consideration. As low

frequency responses are less informative and may be more individual or acciden-tal, the first three responses in English, constituting 62 per cent of the total numberof responses, and the corresponding percentage of the most frequent responses inLithuanian (ten most frequent responses constitute 62 per cent of all responses inLithuanian) were considered. As it was shown by Entwisle (1966), approximatelythat number shows the commonality of response and is representative of the asso-ciative field of the word.

Second, according to what should the fields be contrasted. Concrete words,their coincidence or non-coicidence cannot be the unit of measure, because con-crete words are too much dependent upon a variety of social and individual factors.Types of association were taken into consideration. They may be thought to reflectthe peculiarities of the inner form of the language.

Thus, 19,673 responses to 29 adjectives in English and 19,157 responses to thesame 29 adjectives in Lithuanian were considered. The links between the stimuliand responses were classified according to the types of association, and the per-centage of each type was established.

III. THE RESULTS.1/ Types of associative links of English adjectives.In the associative fields of English adjectives the links of contrast clearly pre-

vail. They are coordinative in nature. They constitute 57.72 per cent of the re-sponses considered. In the majority of cases the antonym is the most frequent reac-tion. For example: bitter - sweet 625; black - white 751; cold - hot 348; dark - light829; deep - shallow 318; hard - soft 674; heavy - light 583; high - low 675 etc.

The second largest group of responses are also coordinative in nature; those arelinks of contiguity. They constitute 16.77 per cent of responses considered. Forexample: bitter - sour 125; blue - red 160; deep - dark 131; green - red 216; short -fat 76; smooth - hard 135 etc.

The third group are thematic, the majority among them symbolic links. Theyconstitute 11.09 per cent of the responses considered. Examples: cold - snow 218;hungry - food 362; hungry - eat 174; loud - noise 210; thirsty - water 348; thirsty -drink 296 etc.

The fourth group are situational descriptive links. They constitute 6.79 per centof the responses considered. Examples: beautiful - girls 142; dark - room 33; green -grass 262; deep - water 101; rough - road 44; soft - pillow 81 etc.

The fifth group are coordinative links, based on similarity. They constitute

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5.54 per cent of the responses considered. Examples: swift - fast 369; light - bright30; black - dark 54; beautiful - pretty 144; smooth - soft 206 etc.

Superordinate links constitute only 0,76 per cent of the links considered inEnglish. They are not characteristic of adjectives.

The remaining links, e.g. linguistic: adjective - corresponding noun, constitute1.33 per cent of the cases considered.

2/ Types of associative links of Lithuanian adjectives.In the associative fields of Lithuanian adjectives the situational descriptive links

overwhelmingly prevail. They constitute 72.57 per cent of the responses consid-ered. Examples: juodas - katinas 143; ðaltas - oras 130; ðaltas - vanduo 120; gilus -ðulinys 274; þalias - medis 132; þalias - miðkas 92; þalias - lapas 85; þalias - þolë79; alkanas - þmogus 122; ilgas - kelias 362 etc.

Next come thematic/ symbolic links. They constitute 17.81 per cent of the re-sponses considered. Examples: ðaltas - speigas 30; alkanas - valgyti 27; garsus -triukðmas 20; iðtroðkæs - gerti 155; iðtroðkæs - vandens 308 etc.

Coordinative links of contrast constitute 5.83 per cent of the links considered.Not in a single case was the link of contrast the most frequent in Lithuanian, whereasin English there were 19 such cases out of 29. Examples: juodas - baltas 119 (butafter �katinas�, �vëjas�, �ruduo�); ðaltas - ðiltas 36 (after �ledas�, �oras�, �vanduo�);ilgas - trumpas 83 (after �kelias�) etc.

Coordinative links based on similarity constitute 1.64 per cent of the links con-sidered. Examples: juodas - tamsus 66; ðviesus - skaistus 32; tylus - ramus 32;þemas - maþas 50; ðiurkðtus - grubus 27 etc.

Coordinative links based on contiguity constitute 1.11 per cent of the responsesconsidered. Examples: gilus - tamsus 21; ilgas - plonas 20; þemas - storas 23;geltonas - þalias 24 etc.

Superordinate links constitute only 0.38 per cent of the links considered. Theyare not characteristic of adjectives.

The remaining links (linguistic - grammatical, e.g., garsus - garsas, or phonetic,e.g., baltas - paltas) constitute 0.79 per cent of the cases considered.

3/ Contrastive analysis of the English an Lithuanian data.If we keep to the current classification of the associative links into superordinate,

coordinative, descriptive and symbolic, the data received may be represented inthe following table:

Table I. Types of associative links of English and Lithuanian adjectives (in percent), 19,673 responses to 29 adjectives in English, and 19,157 responses to thesame 29 adjectives in Lithuanian considered.

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Types of links English Lithuanian

Coordinative links of contrast 57.72 5.83Coordinative links of contiguity 16.77 80.03 1.11 8.58Coordinative links of similarity 5.54 1.64Thematic/symbolic 11.09 17.81Situational descriptive 6.79 72.57Superordinate 0.76 0.38Others 1.33 0.79

IV. CONCLUSIONS.From the received data the following conclusions can be drawn.The contrastive analysis of the associative fields of 29 adjectives in English

and the associative fields of the same 29 adjectives in Lithuanian shows that thetypes of associative links are the same in both the languages, but their distributiondiffers.

In English the coordinative links, first of all those of contrast, prevail. InLithuanian situational descriptive links prevail.

We may only try to guess at the reason of this discrepancy. It shows that thereare differences not only in individual word associative fields. There are also lin-guistic peculiarities of word associative fields. Members of certain linguistic com-munities show regular differences from the structures characteristic of members ofother linguistic communities. Those differences depend, most probably, upon thenational peculiarities of the linguistic community, its ways of behaviour, its val-ues, treatment of reality, which are constituent parts of national identity.

The results of the contrastive analysis of the associative fields of 29 adjectivesin English an Lithuanian corroborate the hypothesis that the mental lexicon may bedifferently arranged in different languages. If so, it has important implications inlearning vocabulary.

REZIUMË

BÛDVARDÞIØ ASOCIACIJØ LAUKAI ANGLØ IRLIETUVIØ KALBOSE

Gretinti ta paèia tyrimø metodika gauti anglø (amerikieèiø variantas) ir lietuviøkalbø 29 bûdvardþiø asociaciniai laukai. Asociaciniø ryðiø tipai abiejose kalbose

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tie patys, taèiau jø distribucija ne ta pati. Anglø kalboje vyrauja koordinaciniairyðiai pagal kontrastà, lietuviø kalboje - situaciniai deskriptyviniai ryðiai. Gautiduomenys yra indëlis á mentalinio leksikono teorijà bei antrosios kalbos þodynomokymo teorijà.

REFERENCESAitchison, 1987 - Aitchison J. Words in the Mind. Oxford: Blackwell.Carter and McCarthy, 1991 - Carter R. and McCarthy M. Vocabulary and Lan-

guage Teaching. Longman group UK limited.Cutler and Fay, 1982 - Cutler A. and Fay D. One Mental Lexicon Phonologically

Arranged. Linguistic Inquiry 13/1, 107-113.Entwisle, 1966 - Entwisle D.R. Word Associations in Young Children. Baltimore,

Maryland: John Hopkins Press.Gairns and Redman, 1991 - Gairns R. and Redman S. Working with Words. Cam-

bridge Univesity Press.Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1992 - Larsen-Freeman D. and Long M.H. An Intro-

duction to Second Language Acquistition Research. Longman.Meara, 1993 - Meara P. The Bilingual Lexicon and the Teaching of Vocabulary. -

The Bilingual Lexicon. Ed. Schreuder R. and Weltens B. Amsterdam, Phila-delphia: John Benjamins Pulishing Co.

Postman and Keppel, 1970 - Postman L. and Keppel G. Norms of Word Associa-tion. New York: Academic Pess.

Steponavièienë, 1986 - Steponavièienë S. Lietuviø kalbos þodiniø asociacijøþodynas. Vilnius: Mokslas.

Leontjev, 1977 - Ëåîíòüåâ À.À. Îáùèå ñâåäåíèÿ îá àññîöèàöèÿõ è àññî-öèàòèâíûõ íîðìàõ. - Ñëîâàðü àññîöèàòèâíûõ íîðì ðóññêîãîÿçûêà. Îòâ. ðåä. Ëåîíòüåâ À.À. Èçä-âî Ìîñêîâñêîãî Óíèâåð-ñèòåòà.

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ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈÅ ÏÐÎÔÅÑÑÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎ -

ÏÅÄÀÃÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÎÌÓ ÎÁÙÅÍÈÞ

ÁÓÄÓÙÈÕ Ó×ÈÒÅËÅÉ

ÈÍÎÑÒÐÀÍÍÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀ

Ò. ×Å×ÅÒ

Ïðîôåññèîíàëüíàÿ ïîäãîòîâêà áóäóùèõ ó÷èòåëåé èíîñòðàííîãîÿçûêà, â òîì ÷èñëå è ðóññêîãî, ïðåäïîëàãàåò îâëàäåíèå ñòóäåíòàìèïðîôåññèîíàëüíî - ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé êîìïåòåíöèåé, íåîáõîäèìîé äëÿóñïåøíîé ðåàëèçàöèè ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïî îáó÷åíèþ ÐÊÈ.

Ïðîôåññèîíàëüíàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ ó÷èòåëÿ-ðóñèñòà ðåàëèçóåòñÿ âïðîöåññå ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà, êîòîðîå, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâîñ÷èòàþò ïñèõîëîãè, îñóùåñòâëÿåòñÿ â òðåõ îñíîâûõ àñïåêòàõ: �à)âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ó÷èòåëÿ ñ ó÷åíèêàìè; á) âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ó÷åíèêîâ äðóãñ äðóãîì â ñîâìåñòíîé ó÷åáíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè; â) âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ó÷èòåëåéâ ñèñòåìå ìåæïðåäìåòíûõ ñâÿçåé� [Ìåòîäèêà..., 1990, ñ. 247].

Âñå óêàçàííûå ôîðìû âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ, îñíîâàííûå íàïðîôåññèîíàëüíîì ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîì îáùåíèè, ïðåäïîëàãàþò îâëàäåíèåñîîòâåòñòâóþùèìè êîììóíèêàòèâíûìè íàâûêàìè, ïîä êîòîðûìèïîíèìàþòñÿ ñëåäóþùèå:

- óìåíèå óñòàíàâëèâàòü ðàâíîïðàâíûå ðå÷åâûå âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿìåæäó ó÷èòåëåì è ó÷àùèìèñÿ;

- óìåíèå ëåãêî âõîäèòü â ðå÷åâîé êîíòàêò ñ ó÷åíèêàìè,èìåþùèìè ðàçíûé âîçðàñò è èíäèâèäóàëüíî - ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèåîñîáåííîñòè;

- óìåíèå ñîçäàâàòü îñîáóþ ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêóþ àòìîñôåðó,ñòèìóëèðóùóþ òâîð÷åñêèå âîçìîæíîñòè îáó÷àåìûõ;

- óìåíèå óñòàíàâëèâàòü îáðàòíóþ ñâÿçü è ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü�ïðèîáðåòåíèþ óâåðåííîñòè â ñåáå ïðè èñïîëüçîâàíèèèçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà� [Øåéçë, 1995, ñ. 3].

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îáó÷åíèå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîìó îáùåíèþ- çòî ôîðìèðîâàíèå êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êîìïåòåííöèè áóäóùåãî ó÷èòåëÿ-ðóñèñòà â ñèòóàöèÿõ, õàðàêòåðíûõ äëÿ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî îáùåíèÿ,

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îñíîâàííûõ íà ñîâìåñòíîé òâîð÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ó÷èòåëÿ è ó÷àùèõñÿ.Ýôôåêòèâíîñòü ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà íà îñíîâå

êîëëåêòèâíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ íîäòâåðæäàåòñÿ ìíîãî÷èñëåííûìèèññëåäîâàíèÿìè â îáëàñòè ïåäàãîãèêè, ìåòîäèêè, à òàêæå îïûòîìèíòåíñèâíîãî îáó÷åíèÿ, âîñõîäÿùèì ê ìåòîäèêå. Ã.Ëàçàíîâà èÃ.Êèòàéãîðîäñêîé. Êîëëåêòèâíûå ôîðìû ðàáîòû â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíèñïîñîáñòâóþò ñîçäàíèþ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêè íàïðàâëåííîãî îáùåíèÿ,ôîðìèðîâàíèþ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ íàâûêîâ ó÷àùèõñÿ. Îäíàêî ïðè ýòîìâåäóùàÿ ðîëü îñòàåòñÿ çà ó÷èòåëåì, ÷òî òðåáóåò îò íåãî îñîáûõëè÷íîñòíûõ êà÷åñòâ è ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ íàâûêîâ, òàê êàê íåëüçÿçàáûâàòü, ÷òî äëÿ ó÷èòåëÿ ÐÊÈ õàðàêòåðåí ðÿä äîïîëíèòåëüíûõñîöèàëüíî-ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ, ëè÷íîñòíûõ è ýòèêî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõêà÷åñòâ, çíà÷èòåëüíî îòëè÷àþùèõñÿ îò òåõ, êîòîðûìè õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿó÷èòåëÿ äðóãèõ ïðåäìåòîâ.

×òî æå ñïîñîáñòâóåò ôîðìèðîâàíèþ òàêèõ ëè÷íîñòíûõ êà÷åñòâó÷èòåëÿ ÐÊÈ è óìåíèþ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî îáùåíèÿ? Êàê ôîðìèðîâàòüèõ ó ñòóäåíòîâ - áóäóùèõ ðóñèñòîâ?

Íå îòðèöàÿ ðîëè ñàìûõ ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ òåîðåòè÷åñêèõ çíàíèé âîáëàñòè ïñèõîëîãèè, ïåäàãîãèêè, ëèíãâèñòèêè, ñëåäóåò îòâåñòèâàæíåéøóþ ðîëü è òàêèì ñïåöèôè÷åñêèì ïðèåìàì, êàê àóòîòðåíèíã,ñïåöèàëüíàÿ ïðåäêîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ òðåíèðîâêà, èñïîëüçîâàíèå ðîëåâûõè äåëîâûõ èãð. ×òî êàñàåòñÿ ïåðâûõ äâóõ ïðèåìîâ, òî íåîöåíèìóþïîìîùü ìîæåò îêàçàòü êíèãà Ê.Ñ.Ñòàíèñëàâñêîãî �Ðàáîòà àêòåðà íàäñîáîé�, òàê êàê ïðîöåññ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ìàñòåðñòâà ïåäàãîãà èìååò ìíîãîîáùåãî ñ ôîðìèðîâàíèåì àðòèñòè÷åñêîãî ìàñòåðñòâà. Ïîýòîìó áóäóùèìó÷èòåëÿì ÐÊÈ íåîáõîäèìî ïðîñëóøàòü ñïåöêóðñ î ïðèåìàõ àêòåðñêîãîìàñòåðñòâà, îðèåíòèðîâàííûé íà ïåäàãîãè÷åñêóþ àóäèòîðèþ. Ýòîïîìîæåò ñòóäåíòàì â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè ðåøèòü ïðîáëåìû îáùåíèÿ,ñ êîòîðûìè îíè ñòàëêèâàþòñÿ óæå íà ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîé ïðàêòèêå.

Áîëüøóþ ïîìîùü â ïëàíå îáó÷åíèÿ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîìó îáùåíèþ ìîæåòîêàçàòü äåëîâàÿ è ðîëåâàÿ èãðà. Òàê, äåëîâàÿ èãðà àêòèâèçèðóåò óìåíèÿè íàâûêè, íåîáõîäèìûå äëÿ áóäóùåé ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè,ìîäåëèðóåò ñîîòâåòñòâóþùóþ ñèñòåìó îòíîøåíèé ìåæäó ó÷èòåëåì èó÷àùèìèñÿ. Ýôôåêòèâíîñòü äåëîâîé èãðû îáùåïðèçíàííà ìåòîäèñòàìèè îáóñëîâëèâàåòñÿ ñëåäóþùèìè ïñèõîëîãî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèìè ôàêòîðàìè:

- èãðà ïîçâîëÿåò ìîäåëèðîâàòü îïðåäåëåííûå àñïåêòûïðîôåññèîíàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ, èìèòèðîâàòü äåÿòåëüíîñòüó÷èòåëÿ;

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- èãðîâàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü ñïîñîáñòâóåò ñîçäàíèþ áëàãîïðèÿòíîãîïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîãî êëèìàòà, ñòèìóëèðóþùåãî òâîð÷åñêîåâçàèìîäåéñòâèå ñòóäåíòîâ äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ ïîñòàâëåííûõ çàäà÷;

- èãðîâûå öåëè ÿâëÿþòñÿ îäíîâðåìåííî è ñðåäñòâîìôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ íàâûêîâ.

Äëÿ áóäóùèõ ó÷èòåëåé ÐÊÈ äåëîâàÿ èãðà - ýòî èìèòàöèÿ ðåàëüíîéäåÿòåëüíîñòè ó÷èòåëÿ â ðàçëè÷íûõ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ. Ïîýòîìóýòîò âèä ðàáîòû îðãàíè÷íî âïèñûâàåòñÿ â ñòðóêòóðó ïðàêòè÷åñêèõçàíÿòèé ïî ìåòîäèêå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Äåëîâàÿ èãðà òðåáóåò òùàòåëüíîéïîäãîòîâêè êàê ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, òàê è ñòóäåíòîâ - ó÷àñòíèêîâ èãðû, àòàêæå ïîñëåäóþùåãî àíàëèçà è êîììåíòàðèÿ.

Ïðèâåäåì ïðèìåð äåëîâîé èãðû, ïðîâîäèìîé íà çàíÿòèÿõ ïî ìåòîäèêåðóññêîãî ÿçûêà è íàçûâàþùåéñÿ �Óðîê ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà êàêèíîñòðàííîãî�. Ó÷åáíàÿ öåëü èãðû - óñâîåíèå è ðåàëèçàöèÿ â èãðîâîéäåÿòåëüíîñòè îñíîâíûõ òðåáîâàíèé, ïðåäúÿâëÿåìûõ ê óðîêó ðóññêîãîÿçûêà êàê èíîñòðàííîãî, âûðàáîòêà óìåíèé àíàëèçà è îöåíêè óðîêà.Èãðà ïðîâîäèòñÿ ïîýòàïíî.

Ïåðâûé ýòàï - ââåäåíèå â èãðó - ïðåäïîëàãàåò îïèñàíèå ñèòóàöèè èðàñïðåäåëåíèå ðîëåé. Ñèòóàöèÿ îïèñûâàåòñÿ ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: �Âû- ÷ëåíû ìåòîäè÷åñêîé ñåêöèè ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Âàì ïðåëàãàåòñÿ äëÿîáñóæäåíèÿ âèäåîçàïèñü óðîêà ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â ëèòîâñêîé øêîëå.Ïðîñìîòðåâ åå, âû äîëæíû îáñóäèòü óðîê è äàòü çàêëþ÷åíèå îá eãîýôôåêòèâíîñòè ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ òðåáîâàíèé, ïðåäúÿâëÿåìûõ ê óðîêóèíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà�. Ðîëè ðàñïðåäåëÿþòñÿ òàêèì îáðàçîì: 1) ñòóäåíò,çàùèùàþùèé äàííûé óðîê; 2) äâà-òðè îïïîíåíòà; 3) ÷ëåíûìåòîäè÷åñêîé ñåêöèè ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà.

Âñå ñòóäåíòû, ó÷àñòâóþùèå â èãðå, îðèåíòèðóþòñÿ íà ñëåäóþùèåòðåáîâàíèÿ, ïðåäúÿâëÿåìûå ê óðîêó èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà:

1) Êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ íàïðàâëåííîñòü óðîêà:- ââåäåíèå ó÷àùèõñÿ â àòìîñôåðó èíîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ âíà÷àëå óðîêà: ó÷èòåëü èñïîëüçîâàë (íå èñïîëüçîâàë) äèàëîãè,ìèêðîáåñåäû, ñîîáùåíèÿ ñ öåëüþ �ðàçìèíêè�;- ó÷èòåëü ñìîã (íå ñìîã) ñîçäàòü òâîð÷åñêóþ äåëîâóþàòìîñôåðó, áëàãîïðèÿòíûé ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèé êëèìàò;- íîâûé ìàòåðèàë ââîäèòñÿ â êîììóíèêàòèâíîé (òðàäèöèîííîé)ôîðìå - ÷åðåç òåêñòû, äèàëîãè, òâîð÷åñêèå çàäàíèÿ;- íîâûé ìàòåðèàë ââîäèòñÿ â ðå÷åâóþ ïðàêòèêó: ðàçâèâàþòñÿ(íå ðàçâèâàþòñÿ) óìåíèÿ ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ èì â ãîâîðåíèè,

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àóäèðîâàíèè, ÷òåíèè, ïèñüìå;- ïðàâèëüíîå (íåïðàâèëüíîå) ñîîòíîøåíèå ðå÷åâûõ è ÿçûêîâûõóïðàæíåíèé;- òåêñò èñïîëüçóåòñÿ (íå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ) êàê èñòî÷íèêèíôîðìàöèè, ñòèìóë ê ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè.

2) Ôîðìû ðàáîòû íà óðîêå:- èñïîëüçîâàëèñü (íå èñïîëüçîâàëèñü) ôðîíòàëüíàÿ, ãðóïïîâàÿðàáîòà (â ïàðàõ, â òðîéêàõ, ïî öåïî÷êå è ò.ä.); èíäèâèäóàëüíàÿ(ó÷åíèê - ó÷èòåëü, ó÷åíèê - ó÷åáíèê, ó÷åíèê - ó÷åíèê è ò.ä.).

3) Ðàöèîíàëüíàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî ïðîöåññà:- ó÷èòûâàåòñÿ (íå ó÷èòûâàåòñÿ) ôàêò ñíèæåíèÿ ðàáîòîñïîñîá-íîñòè ó÷àùèõñÿ ê êîíöó óðîêà;- âðåìÿ èñïîëüçîâàíî ó÷èòåëåì ýôôåêòèâíî (íåýôôåêòèâíî);- íàëè÷èå (îòñóòñòâèå) ëîãè÷åñêîé çàâåðøåííîñòè óðîêà.

4) Êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ïîâåäåíèå ó÷èòåëÿ:- óñòàíîâèë (íå óñòàíîâèë) êîíòàêò ñ êëàññîì;- ïîîùðÿåò (íå ïîîùðÿåò) âçàèìîïîìîùü ó÷àùèõñÿ;- èñïðàâëÿåò (íå èñïðàâëÿåò) ðå÷åâûå îøèáêè (â êàêîé ôîðìå);- âñòóïàåò (íå âñòóïàåò) â ïàðòíåðñêèå îòíîøåíèÿ ñ ó÷åíèêàìè;- óïðàâëÿåò (íå óïðàâëÿåò) ó÷åáíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòüþ â êëàññå.

5) Êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ïîâåäåíèå ó÷àùèõñÿ:- ïðîÿâëÿþò (íå ïðîÿâëÿþò) èíòåðåñ ê óðîêó;- àêòèâíû (ïàññèâíû) â ïðîöåññå ó÷åáíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè;- íå ñóùåñòâóåò (ñóùåñòâóåò) ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèé áàðüåð âîáùåíèè.

Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñòóäåíòû çàðàíåå çíàêîìÿòñÿ ñ ïðåäëàãàåìîéñõåìîé àíàëèçà óðîêà (äî ïðîñìîòðà âèäåîçàïèñè óðîêà).

Âòîðîé ýòàï ïðåäïîëàãàåò ïðîñìîòð âèäåîçàïèñè óðîêà.Òðåòèé ýòàï âêëþ÷àåò îáñóæäåíèå äàííîãî óðîêà ïî ñëåäóþùåìó

ïëàíó:1) Âûñòóïëåíèå ñòóäåíòà, çàùèùàþùåãî äàííûé óðîê.2) Âûñòóïëåíèå îïïîíåíòîâ (2-3 ñòóäåíòà).3) Äèñêóññèÿ, â êîòîðîé ïðèíèìàþò ó÷àñòèå âñå ñòóäåíòû - ÷ëåíû

ìåòîäè÷åñêîé ñåêöèè. Âî âðåìÿ äèñêóññèè âîçìîæåí ïîâòîðíûéïðîñìîòð ôðàãìåíòîâ óðîêà, âûçâàâøèõ íåîäíîçíà÷íóþîöåíêó.

×åòâåðòûé ýòàï ïðåäïîëîãàåò èíñöåíèðîâêó îäíîãî èç ôðàãìåíòîâóðîêà, ïîñòðîåííîãî ïî ñîáñòâåííîìó ñöåíàðèþ. Ïðè ýòîì ðîëè

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ðàñïðåäåëÿþòñÿ ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: 1) ó÷èòåëü, âåäóùèé óðîê; 2)âñå îñòàëüíûå ñòóäåíòû - ó÷åíèêè.

Ïîñëå îêîí÷àíèÿ èãðû ïðîâîäèòñÿ åå êðàòêèé àíàëèç. Âûÿñíÿåòñÿìíåíèå ñòóäåíòîâ î òîì, áûëè ëè äîñòèãíóòû öåëè èãðû, âûñëóøèâàþòñÿèõ êðèòè÷åñêèå çàìå÷àíèÿ, ïîæåëàíèÿ. Îñîáåííî èíòåðåñíûì ìîìåíòîìèãðû ÿâëÿåòñÿ äèñêóññèÿ, â êîòîðîé ñòàëêèâàþòñÿ ðàçëè÷íûå ìíåíèÿ îìåòîäèêå ïðîâåäåíèÿ óðîêà, î ðîëè ëè÷íîñòè ó÷èòåëÿ â ïðîöåññåîáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó. Âñå ýòî ïîäòâåðæäàåò ýôôåêòèâíîñòüäàííîãî âèäà ðàáîòû â àñïåêòå ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõíàâûêîâ ñòóäåíòîâ.

Íå ìåíåå âàæíîå çíà÷åíèå â ýòîì ïëàíå èìååò è ðîëåâàÿ èãðà. Ðîëåâûåèãðû ìîãóò âêëþ÷àòüñÿ â ïðàêòè÷åñêèå çàíÿòèÿ ïî ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó, âçàíÿòèÿ ïî êóëüòóðå ðå÷è è äðóãèå. Ïðè ýòîì îíè íå òîëüêî íåïðåïÿòñòâóþò ðåàëèçàöèè îñíîâíîé öåëè çàíÿòèé, íî è õîðîøîñîãëàñóþòñÿ ñ ñîäåðæàíèåì ó÷åáíîãî ïðîöåññà, ôîðìèðóÿ êîììóíè-êàòèâíûå, ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå íàâûêè ñòóäåíòîâ. Âêà÷åñòâå ïðèìåðà ðàññìîòðèì ïðàêòè÷åñêîå çàíÿòèå ïî ðå÷åâîé òåìå�Çíàåòå ëè âû íàø óíèâåðñèòåò�, êîòîðîå áûëî ïðîâåäåíî â ôîðìåðîëåâîé èãðû. Ìàòåðèàëîì ïîñëóæèëà ñòàòüÿ ïðîô. À.Ïàêåðèñà�Mokytojø universitetas�, íàïå÷àòàííàÿ â æóðíàëå �Mokslas ir gyvenimas�(1995, No 8-9) è ïîñâÿùåííàÿ 60-ëåòíåìó þáèëåþ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãîóíèâåðñèòåòà. Ôîðìà ïðîâåäåíèÿ èãðû - ïðåññ-êîíôåðåíöèÿ. Çàðàíååáûëè ðàñïðåäåëåíû ðîëè: ðåêòîð ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà,ïðîðåêòîð, ðåêòîð �ñòàðîãî� óíèâåðñèòåòà; îñòàëüíûå ñòóäåíòû -ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ëèòîâñêîé è çàðóáåæíîé ïðåññû.

Ñòóäåíòàì áûëî ïðåäëîæåíî ïîäãîòîâèòü ê çàíÿòèÿì ìàòåðèàë,ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèé èõ ðîëè. Ïðè÷åì ñòóäåíòû - �ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ëèòîâñêîéè çàðóáåæíîé ïðåññû� - ïîäãîòîâèëè âîïðîñû, òðåáóþùèå àðãóìåí-òèðîâàííûõ îòâåòîâ, íåñòàíäàðòíûõ ïîäõîäîâ ê ðàçëè÷íûì ïðîáëåìàì.Ñîöèàëüíûå ðîëè - �ìàñêè� - ïîçâîëèëè ñíÿòü ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå áàðüåðûâ îáùåíèè, àêòèâèçèðîâàòü äèàëîãè÷åñêîå îáùåíèå, ñîçäàòü àòìîñôåðóíåôîðìàëüíîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Ïðè ýòîì áûëè äîñòèãíóòû ñëåäóþùèåöåëè: ïåðâîêóðñíèêè ïîëó÷èëè èíôîðìàöèþ îá óíèâåðñèòåòå;êîëëåêòèâíàÿ ôîðìà ðàáîòû ïîçâîëèëà íàèáîëåå èíòåðåñíî ïðåäñòàâèòüèçó÷àåìûé ðå÷åâîé ìàòåðèàë, âûðàáîòàòü íàâûêè äèàëîãè÷åñêîãîîáùåíèÿ. Ðå÷åâàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü ó÷àùèõñÿ îöåíèâàëàñü ïðåïîäàâàòåëåìè ñàìèìè ó÷àùèìèñÿ, ïðîâîäèëàñü êîððåêöèÿ îøèáîê.

Íå ìåíåå ýôôåêòèâíîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ ðîëåâàÿ èãðà, ïðîâîäèìàÿ íà

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ñîâìåñòíîì ïðàêòè÷åñêîì çàíÿòèè ïî ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó - ñ ó÷àñòèåìñòóäåíòîâ-ðóñèñòîâ èç Âðîöëàâñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà è ñòóäåíòîâôàêóëüòåòà Ñëàâèñòèêè ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà. Â îñíîâå èãðû- âñòðå÷à äâóõ äåëåãàöèé: ðåêòîð, äåêàí, ïðåïîäàâàòåëè, ñòóäåíòû.Çàðàíåå ðàçðàáàòûâàåòñÿ ïðîãðàììà âñòðå÷è, ñ êîòîðîé çíàêîìÿòñÿ âñåó÷àñòíèêè èãðû. Îäíàêî çàðàíåå çàäàííàÿ ïðîãðàììà, äàâàÿâîçìîæíîñòü ïîäãîòîâèòü ìàòåðèàë, íå èñêëþ÷àåò è èìïðîâèçàöèè, ÷òîäåëàåò êîììóíèêàöèþ íåôîðìàëüíîé è áîëåå ýìîöèîíàëüíîé. Êàêïîêàçûâàåò ïðàêòèêà, òàêèå çàíÿòèÿ î÷åíü ýôôåêòèâíû â ïëàíåôîðìèðîâàíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ íàâûêîâ, íåîáõîäèìûõ áóäóùèìó÷èòåëÿì èíîñòðàííîãî ÿçûêà.

Òàêèì îáðàçîì, íå òîëüêî íà çàíÿòèÿõ ïî ìåòîäèêå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà,íî è íà ìíîãèõ äðóãèõ, íà÷èíàÿ ñ ïåðâîãî êóðñà, ìîæíî ðåøàòüîïðåäåëåííûé êîìïëåêñ çàäà÷ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî-ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîéïîäãîòîâêè áóäóùåãî ó÷èòåëÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Ðàçâèòèå ó ñòóäåíòîâíàâûêîâ êîììóíèêàöèè, àíàëèçà ñèòóàöèè, îñìûñëåíèÿ ñîáñòâåííîéó÷åáíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ñïîñîáñòâóþò ïîâûøåíèþ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîéìîòèâàöèè è ëó÷øåìó óñâîåíèþ ìàòåðèàëà ïî ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó.

REZIUME

PROFESINIO-PEDAGOGINIO BENDRADARBIAVIMOASPEKTAI RENGIANT SVETIMØJØ KALBØ

VOKYTOJUS

Straipsnyje nagrinëjamos problemos, susijusios su profesinio-pedagoginiobendravimo aspekto taikymu rengiant svetimosios kalbos mokytojus. Visos darbogrupëse formos yra pagrástos pedagoginiu profesiniu bendradarbiavimu ir reikalaujakad mokytojas bûtø ávaldæs komunikacijos bûdus ir turëtø specifiniø svetimujøkalbø mokytojo savybiø. Tokiu bûdu, komunikacinis ir asmenybës savybiø ugdymoaspektas turëtø tapti vienu ið pagrindiniø rengiant mokytojus. Straipsnyjenagrinëjami bendrieji ir specifiniai bûdai (dalykiniai ir vaidybiniai þaidimai), skirtiformuoti komunikacinius ir asmenybës ugdymo broþus.

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ1. Ìåòîäèêà..., 1990 - Ìåòîäèêà ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà êàê

èíîñòðàííîãî// Ðóññêèé ÿçûê è ëèòåðàòóðà â îáùåíèè íàðîäîâìèðà: ïðîáëåìû ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ è ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ. - M.: Ðóñ.ÿç., 1990.

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2. Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé, 1985 - Ñòàíèñëàâñêèé Ê.Ñ. Ðàáîòà àêòåðà íàäñîáîé. - Ì., 1985.

3. Øåéçë, 1995 - Øåéçë Ä. Êîììóíèêàòèâíîñòü â îáó÷åíèèèíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì. - Ñîâåò Åâðîïû, 1995.

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Svetimos kalbos:teorija ir praktika

Tir. 150 egz. Sp. l. 5,25. Uþsak. Nr. 15.Iðleido, rinko, maketavo ir spausdino VPU leidykla.

Kaina sutartinë.

ISBN 9986-869-23-4

Svetimosios kalbos:

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