Suvianita Khanis Citizenship and Identity Construction Among Three Generations of Chinese Women in Indonesia

8/11/2019 Suvianita Khanis Citizenship andIdentity Construction AmongThree Generations of Chinese Women in Indonesia

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Graduate School of Development Studies

A Research Paper presented by:

Suvianita Khanis

(Indonesia)

in partial fulllment of the requirements for obtaining

the degree of

MAS!RS "# ARS I$ %!&!'"PM!$ S%I!S

Specialiation:

Women Gender and Development

(WGD)

Members of the e*amining committee:

%r+ Ratna Saptari ,Super-isor.

%r+ hanh/%am ruong ,Second Reader.

he 0ague1 he $etherlands

$o-ember1 2343

Citizenship and Identity Construction

Among Three Generations of Chinese Women

In Indonesia


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Disclaimer:

his document represents part of the author5s study programme

6hile at the Institute of Social Studies+ he -ie6s stated thereinare those of the author and not necessarily those of the Institute+

Inquiries:

Postal address: Institute of Social StudiesP.O. Box 297762502 LT The a!ueThe "etherlands

Location: #ortenaer$ade %225%& '( The a!ueThe "etherlands

Tele)hone: *+% 70 ,26 0,60-ax: *+% 70 ,26 0799

ii


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Acknowledgement

This research has een a /e/orale learnin! ex)erience

for /e oth acade/icall and )ersonall. 1an hands

inole To /a$e this )a)er achieale3 for that I 4ould li$e

to ex)ress / dee) !ratitude to4ards:

%. r. atna Sa)tari3 / su)erisor for the su))ort3 and

/otiation

2. r. Thanha/ Truon!3 / second reader for the

aluale in)ut and su))ort+. 'lice "eli/a and i$a3 / discussants for the

constructie feedac$,. 'll infor/ants 4ho 4ant to share their stories and

their hos)italit5. 1 -a/il here3 'lan and 8ster for their hos)italit6. 1 friends3 aelan! o3 nthia Ba;eno and "ora

Stradition?3 es)eciall / /o/ 4ho al4as su))orts

and elief 4ith / choices

iii


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Contents

Acknowledgement iii

List of Acronyms vi

Abstract vii

Chapter 1he Research Setting:

4+4 Introduction

4+2 A brief o-er-ie6 of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen

4+9 he Statement of Research Problem

4+ Research "b;ecti-e and Research


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7hapter 9 0istorical Images: he ?acground of he 7hinese

Indonesians 49

9+4 7itienship and $ational Identity: he 7onception of the

7hinese in Indonesia $ation/State

49

9+2 he 7hinese Indonesian and the $ation of Indonesia

4=

9+9 7hinese #amily and Cender Identity

4@

9+ hree Cenerations of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen

4B

4D93/4D=3: 7olonial period/he rst generation

4B4D=4/4DB3: "ld "rder to $e6 "rder E he second

generation 4D

4DB4/today: $e6 "rder E Post Soeharto E the third

generation 4D

9+ 7oncluding Remars

23

7hapter + !*periences and Memories of hree Cenerations of7hinese Indonesian 8omen

24

+4 7hinese 6omen 6ithin the family 24

+2 8omen5s e*periences

2

+9 Sense of identity

2D

+ Religion E a ne6 identity94

+= 7oncluding Remars

99

7hapter =+ 7onclusion: %iFerent Meaning of hree Ceneration

9


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Appendices 40

Appendi* 4: ReGectionA mirror to myself: Self/reGecti-ity in the oral history

process 3

Appendi* 2 :'ist of Informants

9

References 37

i


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List of Acronyms

B'#O1 P#B :Peres/ian Badan #o/uni$asi Pen!haatan#esatuan Ban!sa

@The oordinatin! Bod for "ational AnitB'P8#I : Badan Per/us;a4aratan #e4ar!ane!araanIndonesia @The Bod of the Indonesianiti


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AbstractThis stud exa/ines ho4 three !eneration of the hinese

Indonesian 4o/en )erceie and de=ne their situation ased

on their !ender and ethnicit. Deneration sho4s theco/)lexit of constructin! their citiIndonesian?

has /ainl deter/ined the state and the social relations

et4een and a/on! hinese the/seles and other

ethnicities.

Keywords

Giti


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Chapter 1The Research Setting: Introducing the concern and the background

The )role/ of citi


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=e )roides initial conclusions and so/e thou!hts on the hinese

Indonesian 4o/enCs status.

1.1 IntroductionThe curiosit underlin! / choice of research to)ic co/es fro/ / o4n

ex)eriences as a hinese 4o/an. Hhen I 4as a child3 I could notunderstand 4h / /other could not ex)lain clearl 4hat the /eanin! of

>hineseness? 4as. I re/e/er at that ti/e3 4hen I as$ed / /other 4hat

hinese /eant3 she onl said3 >ou are Indonesian and 4e are Indonesian3?

ut I 4as not satis=ed 4ith her ex)lanation. I as$ed re)eatedl and then /

/other said3 >ou /ust not as$ /e a!ain ecause if ou as$ it a!ain the

/ilitar 4ould co/e to our ho/e. ou are scared3 arenCt ouM? Then in

%99&3 as / /other and I 4atched the ne4s of the 1a riots %on teleision3

she said >see3 ho4eer stron!l ou tr to e Indonesian3 one da )eo)le

4ill al4as reco!nithe a)artheid? of the utch

olonial )olicies the hinese )o)ulation 4as then seen as a >hinese

%The 1a riots ha))ened in %99& 4hen Soeharto fell. 't that ti/e /an hinese4o/en 4ere ra)ed and %3%9& )eo)le died accordin! to the "ational o//ission ofu/an i!hts on une3 23 %99&. The riots ha))ened in a$arta3 Suraaa ut thereis no data on ho4 /an hinese )eo)le died. 1uch hinese )ro)ert 4as thetar!et of )illa!e and so/e 4as urned /os. To this da no !oern/ent hasadocated these cases and een the eidence that 4as collected TDP- hasdisa))eared.

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/inorit? @in oon3 200&3 ).+. The hinese3 throu!hout Indonesian histor3

hae een ie4ed as outsiders3 as forei!ners or aliens (Vreemde

Oosterlingen.

In the context of the Indonesian nation uildin! )rocess3 the Old Order

!oern/ent of Soe$arno tried to include hinese as )art of the nation

ecause of the a4areness that Indonesia 4as ased on /ulticultural

identities. Throu!h the ideolo! ofPancasilaand the national /otto

Bhinneka Tunggal Ika @unit in diersit3 he atte/)ted to unite the

diJerent ethnic !rou)s @'!uilar3 200% Thus in this )eriod3 the hinese 4ere

ale to ex)ress their collectie identities3 culturall and )oliticall.

onersel3 in the "e4 Order !oern/ent3 Soeharto i/)osed assi/ilation

)olicies and at the sa/e ti/e rou!ht in a sti!/atimasalah cina? @the hinese )role/ and this ulti/atel

classi=ed the/ as a ho/o!enous !rou) @1ac$ie3 %976 #4artanada3 2006On!ho$ha/3 200&. This sti!/atiIndonesiani


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not choose their )osition @#ahin3 %9,6. '/on! these !rou)s3 there 4ere

tensions re!ardin! their )olitical orientations and 4hat should the do or

should not do.

1.2 A brief overview of Chinese Indonesian women

hinese Indonesian 4o/en hae lied for ears in Indonesia3 althou!haccordin! to 1ac$ie @%976 the started to /i!rate to Indonesia in the late

%9thcentur. o4eer3 efore the hinese 4o/en /i!rated3 /an 4ere

orn fro/ /ixed /arria!es et4een hinese /en and local 4o/en. The

descendants of this !rou)3 called hinese peranakan3 lied in a hrid

culture3 /ixed et4een hinese3 utch and 1ala3 4here /ost of the/

used the local lan!ua!e or a /ixture of hinese dialect and utch lan!ua!e

in eerda life @Suradinata3 %997. Then3 in the 20thcentur3 /an

hinese decendents 4ere orn fro/ the hinese cou)les that later eca/e

the !rou) called totok4ho s)ea$ hinese dialect and identif 4ith hineseculture. In !eneral3 4ithin the hinese fa/il3 hinese 4o/en3 oth

peranakanand totok3 lie 4ithin the structures of onfucian ideolo!+in a

)atriarchal sste/ that eliees that 4o/enCs )osition should e under

/enCs control3 4hile the /en are seen as >!old? for the fa/il.

Sociolo!icall3 hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs )osition are inEuenced

!ender3 culture3 reli!ion and ethnicit in eerda life. The for/ation of

their identit is also inEuenced those factors in the do/estic and )ulic

s)heres. o/esticall3 4o/en hae a critical role to )rotect and care for

their fa/ilies. 1oreoer3 all )olicies to4ard hinese )eo)le 4ill inEuencethe do/estic arena3 for instance ho4 the /ana!e their fa/ilies. Therefore3

their histor has een situated et4een these t4o di/ensions: =rst3 the

external )rocesses 4here state3 societ and co//unit sha)e their identit

constructions3 and in ho4 others de=ne the/ and ho4 the )erceie others.

Second3 the Ninternal )rocessesC 4here the construct their identities

throu!h an understandin! of the/seles. These contexts )lace the/ in an

a/i!uous situation 4here the actiel ne!otiate 4ith others. Tan hee

Ben! @200% sas3 >8thnic identities of hinese in South 8ast 'sia hae

een sha)ed their local ex)eriences and )rocesses of localihinese IndonesiansC identities hae een /ulti)lied in

accordance 4ith their de!rees of ada)tation and acculturation to their local

circu/stances? @in oon3 200&3 ). 2&.

+See 1el D. Tan3 %997 on The 8thnic hinese in Indonesia : Issues of Identit

,


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1. Statement of the Research !rob"em

The status of hinese citiuniKue? !rou) ecause the hae a lon! histor of iolence and

discri/ination @1ac$ie3 %976. The >masalah cina? @the Chinese pro!lem#is

a )role/ that casts the/ as >forei!ners? or >other?. This sti!/ati


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others hae studied the hinese IndonesiansC identit. Studies on hinese

Indonesia 4o/en are ho4eer li/ited. This stud 4ill atte/)t to =ll the

!a)s of hinese Indonesians studies es)eciall on the inter!enerational

as)ects of hinese Indonesian 4o/en. Hhen !ender is e/odied in histor

and the hinese Indonesians situated in diJerent re!i/es3 it 4ill aJect

!enerations diJerentl and ho4 the ex)erience eerda life. Denerations

sho4 ho4 diJerent ti/es and )laces contriute to the notion of identit

each !eneration has their o4n /eanin! of their life althou!h the co/e

fro/ the sa/e ethnic !rou). Therefore3 an !enerational stud of hinese

4o/en 4ill contriute to the understandin! of the co/)lexit of the

hinese Indonesian 4o/anCs identit. Anderstandin! the hinese

Indonesian 4o/anCs ex)eriences in eerda life is necessar ecause as

oan Scott @%9&& )oints out3 understandin! 4o/enCs narraties /eans

reco!ni


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4o/an ecause )olicies hae ruled us in the sa/e 4as. o4eer the 4as

IF4e res)ond and ne!otiate to structure not onl de)end on / ethnicit

and !ender ut also ti/e3 a!e3 and context. In these senses3 I could e an

outsider of the research. ealin! 4ith these issues3 I tr to e honest aout

/self durin! the )rocess of interie4s. I told so/e of / io!ra)h that

could assist co//onalit and fa/iliarit 4ith / infor/ants3 such as ho4 I

!re4 u) as a hinese 4o/an3 4hich clan I elon! to3 / education

ac$!round and / localit.

Tellin! oneCs life stor is not al4as eas3 es)ecial if the stor is )ersonal

in character3 i.e. aout fa/il3 herFhis self and also 4hen it is told to

stran!ers. 'lthou!h to so/e extent I a/ an insider3 infor/ants can not

al4as tell /e their lifestories easil. Perha)s as an insider I create unease

ecause 4e are the sa/e et diJerent3 and 4ithin oneCs o4n ethnic !rou)

so/e ad/issions can e sha/eful.

/ui"ding re"ations and Interviewing

In =ndin! infor/ants3 I used the sno4all techniKue that started fro/ /

contact )erson =rst. The techniKue hel)ed /e to =nd other infor/ants

Kuic$l3 ho4eer it is no !uarantee of re)resentatieness of infor/ants

@OLear3 200,3 as the /ethod is infor/antsdrien and connected to their

net4or$s3 researcher ias and s/)athies 4ill also hae an inEuence. I also

/ade contact directl 4ith so/e infor/ants 4ho/ I had $no4n )reiousl

and for these infor/ants it see/ed it 4as easier to tell their stories

co/)ared to those I had not /et efore. o4eer3 the de!ree of o)enness

4as diJerent et4een !enerations3 the second and the third !eneration 4as

easier to !et close to3 )erha)s ecause / a!e is closer to theirs.

I e!an introducin! /self and ex)lained the research ai/3 allo4in! the

infor/ants to as$ Kuestions. Then I added that the hae the o)tion to

ans4er / Kuestions or not if the feel unco/fortale 4ith the/. I

ex)lained that their stories @the records 4ould e $e)t in a safe )lace and

their identit 4ould e not )ulished. The trau/atic /e/or is real3 one of/ infor/ants told / contact )erson that she 4as afraid her stor 4ould

e )ulished in the /edia and she 4ould !et into troule as a result. I found

that infor/ants 4ho $no4 /e efore /ore easil o)ened u) and shared

their stories3 also infor/ants 4ho are third!eneration 4ere /ore o)en

co/)ared to the =rst and second !enerations.

7


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I diided !enerations accordin! to the )eriod of ti/e and )olitical

situation at the ti/e of their irth to cate!ori


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1.0 imitations of the Research

This stud is li/ited to onl fe4 of lifestories of hinese Indonesian 4o/en

4ith diJerent ac$!rounds of their life. I a/ a4are that this stud not to!enerali


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Chapter 2

Citienship and Identit+: A theoretica" framework of ana"+sis

This cha)ter 4ill discuss the conce)ts that I use to anal/inorit?. Then ca/e the conce)t of >dual nationalit?3 a le!ac ofcontinuin! olonial inEuence in the ne4 state in 4hich their loalt to the

state 4as Kuestioned. Indonesia3 a )ostolonial nationstate3 uild its

countr the s)irit of nationalis/ 4here ado)tin! the national identit

is the >ter/inal? of loalt to the nationstate as T$. Oo//en calls it@20063

).,%. 's 'nderson su!!ests3 the he!e/onic )o4er of nationalis/ is unale

allo4 for local >diJerences? and it for/ulates national societ throu!h

%0


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s)eci=c sites and social relations @aren #a)lan3 %999: ).7. The ar!u/ent

that 'nderson )osits ie4s natiaonalis/ as a )o4er that forces citiho/o!enous 4as of ein!? thus the hinese /ust understand

4hat the can and cannot do. To hinese 4o/en3 assi/ilation eco/es a

)role/ ecause the hinese are not haituated to >feel? as )art of the

Indonesian societ and ein! )art of the Indonesian nation. The re/e/er

historical antihinese senti/ent3 in )articular at the ti/es of re!i/e

chan!e. -or exa/)le3 under a)anese colonisation /an hinese 4ere

$illed3 and in the reolution )eriod the hinese 4ere laeled as >not )ro

nationalist?. 1an 4ere $illed and in %965 4hen co//unis/ 4as

associated 4ith hinese and other /ar!inali


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and the 4elfare state3 that ri!ht is the focus of a!enc. It /eans the su;ect

citiactie

citialien? and pri!umi

@indi!enous or natie as >authentic?. This assi/ilation )olic 4as a for/al

exclusion in that the 4ere unale to en;o their citi


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fro/ an interest3 it is a !a/e et4een assi/ilator that con=r/s his

cultural su)eriorit and racial ho/o!eneit3 and the toe assi/ilated 4ho

tries to otain cultural acce)tance and structural inte!ration. This

ar!u/ent su!!ests the ethnic senti/ents and the stru!!le of ethnicit can

e soled the feelin! of e/otional onds of ho/o!eneit. o4eer3 in the

hinese Indonesian context3 this assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/

do/inant !rou)s could not control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere

usin! so/e hineseCs econo/ic )osition to /aintain )o4er. This

encoura!ed een stron!er antihinese feelin!.

To hinese Indonesian 4o/en3 ad/ission is also ounded the

exclusion of SB#I @Indonesian citi


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si/)l re)eated ut it is a )rocess of selectiel reinented identit This is

as criticis/ to Stuart all @%997 4ho notes that identit is al4as

fra!/ented and continuousl in )rocess. It is created histor throu!h

chan!e and transfor/ation. Thus3 for hi/ identit as a )roduct is

)role/atic and inco/)lete. Identit also ex)lains s)eci=c )ositions3

diJerences3 ti/es3 and )laces so it 4ill e /ulti)le. In this sense3 the

hinese 4o/enCs identit can share their co//unalities in one ti/e ut not

in another ti/e not onl that3 it also reEects the )ast such as the olonial

)eriod3 and stories that the hinese 4o/en ex)erienced.

To !o dee)l into analsis I also use the conce)t of haitus and

structures and a!enc. I hae a))iled these conce)ts to analse the hinese

4o/enCs citifor/al? and >sutantie? citinature?. In this stud3

re!ardin! a!enc3 the lifestories sho4 it still 4or$in! 4ithin structures. -or

exa/)le3 the =rstsecond !eneration lie in the s/olic i/a!e of hu/le

%,


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4o/en. 's Ban hao @in 1ei;3 2009 ).6%3 a onfucian3 noted3 in the

%essons &or women' these can e seen throu!h hinese traditions 4hen

the 4elco/e their ne4orn dau!hters. B @% )uttin! their dau!hter under

a ed as a s/ol of 4o/enCs )osition under /en3 and ein! 4ea$3 @2

!iin! the/ a )ot to as s/olic of 4o/enCs ;o in the do/estic arena3 @+

)rain! to the ancestorsC souls and infor/in! the/ of the irth of the

dau!hter as a s/ol of 4o/enCs duties in $ee)in! tradition and ta$in!

care of the ancestral tale cult.

-orced identit QNnational identitC is a tool of the assi/ilation )olic.

o4eer3 this )olic 4as reacted to diJerentl hinese Indonesians.

So/e reall oeed the )olic and chan!ed their identit directl others

>;ust follo4ed? the rule in order to surie. It is also $no4n that so/e

hinese radicall conerted their reli!ion to Isla/ to $ee) their )ro)ertand for their )hsical securit Isla/ ein! s/olic of pri!umi

Indonesians @Suradinata3 %997. In contrast to the hinese in The

Phili)ines3 as aroline au ar!ues3 the could inte!rate their identit 4ith

the national naratie throu!h >naturaliecono/ic in;ustice?. Soeharto ear/ar$ed certain

areas of the econo/ as )laces for the hinese to earn their /one. This

created the i/a!e that all hinese are rich. -orced identit 4as a lan!ua!e

that sti!/atiother?. So these structures )ut hinese

4o/en in a ulnerale )osition. Bourdieu clearl ar!ues ho4 this could

ha))en to citithe state is one of the /ost i/)ortant a!ents of

identi=cation and cate!orisituates su;ectiit? it is a

)ractical sense of the/seles and their social 4orld Q selfunderstandin! of

4here the elon! in oneCs social location? @in oo)er3 20003 ).%7.

1oreoer3 Diddens3 throu!h his conce)t of structure and a!enc ar!ues

that >s)ace and ti/e are asic conditions for social sste/s and social acts?

@-al$hei/er3 20073 ) 2&&. Throu!h this conce)t he also )oints out that

a!ents o)erate 4ithin structural constraints 4ith >a reEection u)on 1arxCsoseration that N1en /a$e their o4n histor3 ut the do not /a$e it ;ust

as the )lease C @Baer3 %99%3 ) 22%. Ti/e and s)ace reEect on chan!in!

social structures that are transfor/ed and re)laced throu!h ti/e and

s)ace. In the context of the hinese 4o/en the re!i/es and !enerations as

structures chan!ed and 4ere re)laced and these structures li/ited their

choices. So3 structures li/it the ailit of a!ents to reach their !oals. 's

%5


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oo)er )oints out3 identit is >a cate!or of eerda social )ractice 4hich

is deelo)ed diJerent actors? @oo)er3 20003 ).%0.

2. Conc"uding Remarks

Therefore3 the aoe conce)ts are / analtical tools to exa/ine3

reEect and delierate on the construction of citi


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Chapter

7istorica" /ackground of the Chinese Indonesians

hinese identities are a )roduct of diJerence and exclusion that aree/edded in histor3 4hich is a construction of )olicies. The )o4er is

i/)osed on the/ as a !rou) of hinese3 althou!h internall the

diJerentiate the/seles as diJerent $inds of hinese cate!ories. In the

/oral collectie /e/or of the nations of Indonesia it see/s that hinese

Indonesians are asent as a cate!or of orang Indonesia asli@natie

Indonesian. The olonial and )ostolonial )eriod contriuted to

conce)tuali @aliens or forei!ners and )uttin! the/ in a sin!le cate!or

of >orang cina? @hinese )eo)le. The )olicies i!nored their histories that

hae een inte!rated into societ and sha)in! a/i!uous identities for

!enerations. It is ar!ued that histor and social chan!e deter/ined the

)o4er relation of ethnicit and !ender that aJect the hinese IndonesianCs

identit.

This sho4s the social )o4er relations that inEuence the construction of

the hinese IndonesianCs identities3 )articularl of 4o/en. hinese

Indonesian 4o/en hae to follo4 alues and eliefs that traditionall

started fro/ onfucian )ractices 4ithin hinese fa/ilies3 e theperanakan ortotok.

.1 The Conception of the Chinese in the Indonesian 8ation5State

T# O//en @%9973 ).2 ar!ues that the notion of nationstate is a conEation

that /edia and scholars hae used. o4eer3 onnor @%99, in O//en3

%9973 ).2+ ex)lains the conEation of state and nation ecause of the idea

that the inhaitants of a state should e a sin!le cate!or and its cate!orcould e called nationals. Therefore3 the stateCs culture has to the one that

)eo)le ado)t or assi/ilate the/seles. Thus3 the >)urit? or the >natie

ness? of the state are issues that )erha)s aJect )eo)leCs lies. hinese3 in

the context of Indonesia3 are warga negara asing@H"' alien citi


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Since the olonial )eriod3 in the utch Indies3 hinese hae een a

controersial su;ect re!ardin! their citi


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Chiao Tsung )ui3 and )rohiited hinese actiities and /oe/ents. The

)olic re;ected the histor that so/e hinese had local roots3 and did not

distin!uish et4een peranakanand totok. The ho/o!eni


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Indonesians orn after %962 4ould eco/e Indonesian iti


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deiants that could e !uided to >ethnic cleansin!? and excludes the/ fro/

)o4er resources.

The hinese in the olonial )eriod actiel deated the status of

hinese 4ithin the "etherlandsIndies. o4 should the hinese react

)oliticall and sociall to the olonial !oern/ent that related to the

hineseCs life and the pri!umislifeM The deates aout hinese /atters are

)ulished in the /edia 3 /ostl at that ti/e in aa3 includin! Suraaa.

Therefore3 at that ti/e the hinese )olitical and cultural orientation can e

easil reco!niIndonesianiforei!nness? and situated the/ as a

ulnerale race 4hich /eans )scholo!icall hinese are constructed as

a/i!uous identities and a tar!et of antihinese actions such as the chaos

in %9&& @Suradinata3 %999 oon3 200&. Ander Soeharto3 hinese

Indonesians held Indonesian citiIndonesian na/e? or een did not hae a hinese na/e

ad/inistratiel theirKartu Tanda Penduduk@#TP or identit card hae a

s)ecial code and their irth certi=cate is diJerent fro/ other races%5.

'Kuilar r @200% ar!ues that the codin! sste/ as a tool 4as used the

%,Ba)er$i 4as a /ass hinese or!ani


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ureaucrac3 )olice and /ilitar to discri/inate a!ainst and /ani)ulate

the/. The state created oundraries et4een pri!umi@natie )eo)le and

non0pri!umi @as hinese are usuall assu/ed to e as a diJerentiatin!

cate!or3 in the sa/e 4a it also ho/o!enipri!uminisi?. In this sense3 the state can e descried as:

>a od of institutions 4hich are centrall or!anionce a hinese3 al4as

a hinese?. It is assu/ed that hinese 4ill neer e Indonesians ho4eer

stron!l the tr. So3 >hineseness?? is also constructed societ%6.

1oreoer the /th of >pendatang1 @ne4 co/er and >penumpang1

@)assen!er is ex)ressed )ulicl3 such as on %2 Octoer 20063 usuf #alla

the ice President of Indonesia3 in a /eetin! 4ith hinese Indonesian

8ntre)reneurs stated that hinese 8ntre)reneurs should not treat

Indonesia as a >hotel? and run a4a 4hen the countr in crisis @-oru/

Budaa Tion!hoa3 2006.. 'lthou!h at that ti/e the Indonesian

!oern/entCs )osition 4as that hinese are not treated as non0pri!umi this

state/ent i/)lies that hinese are al4as >pendatang?

. The Chinese 9ami"+ and ender Identit+

onfucian )atriarch is a foundation of hinese fa/il dail life3 althou!hthe /a not hold onfucianis/ as their reli!ion. hinese fathers hae

)o4er oer their 4ies and children therefore 4o/en hae to e loal to

and res)ect their husands. >)auw? @loalt is one of onfuciusC

%61isdeeds hinese Indonesians are )resented the /edia as hinesere)orts on )raise4orth deeds do not /ention the hinese an!le. 1an hineseIndonesians hide their hinese identit to safe!uard their usiness careers.

22


31/68

teachin!s children hae to !ie their loalt to )arents and fa/il

ancestors. hinese fa/ilies eliee that >uhauw? @ein! loal is )art of

hinese culture the >uhauw? conce)t /a$es 4o/en oedient to the fa/il

order. u Shih @200% in 1ei;3 20093 ). 5& )oints out that onfuciusC >rule

/an not rule la4?%73 can /ean that 4hateer father3 elder and rother

sas in ter/s of social relations /a not e o))osed. Traditionall 4o/en

4ho are /arried hae to /oe to the husandCs house ut 1el D. Tan

@%997 /entions that hinese )erana$an 4o/en ado)t aanese culture3 for

exa/)le hinese )erana$an fro/ Su$au/i use the ilateral fa/il as their

fa/il sste/3 that /eans the dau!hters after /arria!e could lie 4ith their

o4n )arents 4ith their husands.

urin! the utch olonial )eriod so/e hinese 4o/en3 ex)eciall

fro/ the /idle class3 could attened school /ost 4ent to hinese or utch

schools. -e4 hinese Indonesian 4o/en )artici)ated in )olitical actiitieseen in the Soe$arno )eriod%& ho4eer )ost the Soeharto )eriod /an

hinese Indonesian 4o/en eca/e dentists3 la4ers3 and a fe4 "DO

actiists hae e/er!ed )ulicl @Tan3 %997.

In %9003 the hinesePeranakanestalished Tiong )oa )wee Koan

@T#%9in a$arta 4ith one of its /issions to $ee) hinese tradition and

cultures alie estalishin! hinese schools. The 4ord >tion!hoa? 4as

introduced T# in %92& as a )olitical decision. 'nother institution

4ith a si/ilar /ission 4asKhong Kauw )wee @onfucius eli!ion Societ#3

4hich 4as estalished in %9%& in Solo and is no4 $no4n as 1'T'#I"

@1a;elis Tin!!i '!a/a #hon! ucu Indonesia. Its /ission 4as to )ro/ote

onfucian reli!ion in the dail life of hinese fa/ilies. Lie/ Sin! 1ei;Cs

research on >hinese Ho/en Professionals in the )rocess of the chan!in!

identit? ar!ues education and ein! a )rofessional are 4as for 4o/en to

chan!e their )osition 4ithin the fa/il and societ to construct a >ne4

identit? that is a!ainst the construction of hinese as ? other?. She

%7In hina it is also $no4n as the Kuan xi custo/ of social relation in doin!usiness the four /ain rules are @% relationshi) et4een )arents and children

@hCen!FaJection @2 elationshi) et4een !oern/ent and )eo)le@IFri!hteousness @+ relationshi) et4een husands and 4ies @)iehFdistinction@, relationshi) a/on! iolo!ical silin!s%&Of )ro/inent Indonesian hinese3 onl 22 are fe/ale /ostl in s)ort and thearts @Tan3 %997%9The estalishin! of T# also has critics fro/ the hineseperanakanthe/seles4ho thou!ht it onl follo4ed hinese custo/ and alues3 4hereas hinese

Peranakan arenot the sa/e as hinese fro/ the /ainland. "ot all hinese senttheir children to T# schools. See #4ee in! T;iat @Suradinata3 20%0

2+


32/68

ex)lains that )rofessional hinese Indonesian 4o/en can create a ne4

identit ado)tin! local cultures. ere3 the hinese 4o/en not onl

acce)t the identit i/)osed on the/3 the also actiel create their identit

as a 4a to co/at exclusion.

Ti/es and !enerations contriute diJerentl to for/attin! the identit of

hinese 4o/en ecause the contexts of histor chan!e /atters of

econo/ics3 societ3 )olitics and location. ere3 the identit of the hinese

4o/en can e seen as a )rocess 3 oth collectiel and indiiduall.

.# Three enerations of Chinese Indonesian omen

1;


33/68

peranakanshould identif the/seles asIndonesier2%3 ho4eer so/e other

pri!umileaders started to Kuestion the loalt of the hinese to the ne4

countr. In the a)anese olonial )eriod /an hinese 4ere $illed and

the 4ere structured as one cate!or of hinese. It 4as a er diJicult ti/e

for /ost )eo)le.

ulturall3 4o/en at this ti/e 4ere stron!l situated hinese

tradition to ful=ll the roles of hinaCs ancient tradition3 to e oedient

dau!hters and 4ies. DirlsC education 4as restricted and onl fe4 4o/en

had o))ortunities to stud. Those 4ho did 4ere /ainl of peranakan

descent that 4ere oriented to4ards the utch 8ast Indies so/e een

studied in olland. Oerall3 fe4 peranakanand totok 4ent to school and

fe4er !raduated3 so/e ecause of unstale )olitical situations and 4ars.

1ost 4ere forced their )arents and /atch /a$ers to /arr at an earl

a!e.

1;'151;=co//unist? and forced identit 4as started. The "e4 Order deelo)ed its

)o4er )rohiitin! all left 4in! ideolo! or actiities that had sus)ected

relations to co//unis/. Thus3 the hinese 4ere forced to eco/e a)olitical

)ersons and 4ere constructed as /orall not )art of the nation3 des)ite

liin! in Indonesia. 1ilitar )o4er 4as used to control hinese actiit and

assi/ilation 4as forced. Hithin the fa/il reli!ion @onfucianis/ started to

eco/e an i/)ortant issue. Hhen the hinese schools 4ere closed /an of

the/ continued their stud in atholic /issionar schools and 4hen the

had to chan!e their reli!ion /an hinese eca/e atholic or Protestant.

't that ti/e3 reli!ions 4ere extre/el se!re!ated and institutionali


34/68

1;=15toda+: 8ew $rder > !ost Soeharto > the third generation

't the end of Suhartos rei!n3 in %990 the di)lo/atic relationshi) et4een

the P and Indonesia 4as reuilt a!ain after ein! fro


35/68

Chapter #

?4periences and *emories of Three enerations of the

Chinese Indonesians

This cha)ter 4ill )resent arious as)ects of citi


36/68

in la4 4ere in oth cases er )o4erful. -or Lie3 her relationshi) to her

/other in la4 4as diJicult and full of conEict. er husand 4as alued as a

loal son to his )arents 4ho considered hi/ uhauw. Hhen Lie !ae irth to

her seenth dau!hter her /other in la4 as$ed her husand to !ie a4a her

dau!hter to anod 4ho 4anted her. She 4as reall disa))ointed 4hen her

husand a!reed 4ith the idea. To )rotect her dau!hter she fou!ht alone

a!ainst her husandCs fa/il. She !ies as the reason:

>4h should I !ie / dau!hter if 4e can feed herM I =!ht 4ith / husand

and to su))ort the idea he een said that the dau!hter 4as not his and it

4as as a result of / aJair to other /en. It 4as er hurt /e. o4 can he

sa that 4hile I a/ onl 4or$in! to feed / childrenM It 4as ecause her

/o/3 I hate it?. @Lie3 6F&F%0

This occurred3 she assu/ed3 ecause her )arents er )oor. She thou!ht if

the 4ere rich she 4ould not e so treated. o4eer she also /entionsthat so/e of her friends 4ho 4ere rich also suJered iolence fro/ )arents

in la4 es)eciall fro/ /other in La4. These ex)eriences a))l to BanCs life

stories too. She suJered iolence fro/ her /other in la4 as lon! as she

lied 4ith her althou!h she ca/e fro/ a rich fa/il and her father

so/eti/es hel)ed her fa/il econo/icall. This continued for around 20

ears and ecause of it she al4as felt unhealth and eer 4ee$ sa4 a

doctor. Both of the/ thou!ht it 4as ecause the 4ere a totokfa/il3 and

their )arents in the context of /arria!e 4ere >3er$ totok1. 1c"aCs

criticis/ @200, to Bourdieu is that class also inEuences !ender haitus3

ho4eer in the cases of Lie and Bun3 class did not al4as 4or$ in the sa/e

4a. all /entions that identit is fra!/ented in the context of the =rst

!eneration and this is true here their identit is fra!/ented ut hierarch

also )las a )art. This hierarch is deter/ined the context and ti/e3 as

T$. Oo/een @2006 /entions3 identit is not si/)l /ulti)le ut it also

hierarchical.

'lthou!h LieCs ex)eriences are /iserale3 she still tau!ht her dau!hters

that after the /arried the /ust oe their husandCs rules. 'lthou!h this

)laced her in a er )ainful situation3 as she sas:

>It is our custo/3 ou hae to e uhauw and e a !ood 4o/an.

Ho/en in fa/il /ust understand their )osition 4e do not hae an

ri!hts. It is diJerent fro/ aa or 1ela traditions3 4o/en are /ore

e res)ected. I $no4 it is een stu)id ut ho4 do 4e chan!e. He are

hinese. He /ust res)ect to our traditions? @Lie3 6F&F%0

2&


37/68

-an! 4as also forced to !ie a4a her child to her rother in la4 4ho 4as

childless. She tells that 4hen she ex)erienced the situation3 as her /other3

of !iin! a4a her child3 she understood 4h her /other had er hurt

feelin!s to4ard her father for such a lon! ti/e. -or her3 ein! a dau!hter in

a hinese fa/il /eans ein! read to sacri=ce her life ut she also

/ention that toda is not the ti/e an/ore for 4o/en to e iolated. She

said3 >4e are not totokan/ore3 4h should 4e follo4 the rules of hauw

and !ood 4o/enM?. She fou!ht 4hen the second ti/e her husand did the

sa/e thin!3 as$in! her a!ain to !ie >our?C @her child a4a een efore she

deliered a a. She said3 >I =!ht to / husand and / father in la43 the

do not $no4 ho4 diJicult it is for /e3 een 4hen I a/ )re!nant?. Self

understandin! is i/)ortant in ho4 the or!ani


38/68

Lie acce)ted the totokscultural elief 4hereas her dau!hter did not.

This contradiction is clearer 4hen >national identit? is forced on the/

throu!h the assi/ilation of Soeharto )olic. The second!eneration see/ed

to ado)t the >national culture? ecause 4e >/ust? and at the sa/e ti/e

also >need? to )rotect ourseles and out of traditions. I 4ill elaorate on

this in the reli!ion )art.

Ho/en >should e? sacri=ced =rst in the fa/il this is the lifestor of "io3

a =rst!eneration. She 4as orn into a peranakanfa/il 4here hinese

dialect had neer een used. Hhen she 4as %0 ears old her )arents 4ere

an$ru)ted ecause the PP %0F%95922)olic aJected her fa/il in 4hich

hinese 4ere )rohiited to run their usiness in illa!es. The lied in a

illa!e in Blora. She 4as sent to her auntieCs house. It 4as her uncleCs

decision fro/ her /otherCs side. She told her stor sain! : >If I could e

a /an I 4ould li$e to e one?. Since she 4as a child she had to hel) her

/other 4or$in! at ho/e and on the far/. If her /other needed her hel) on

a school da3 she 4as )rohiited fro/ !oin! to school 4hereas oth of her

rothers 4ent freel. The situation eca/e 4orse 4hen she lied in her

auntieCs house ecause she 4as treated li$e a /aid. Then after %5 ears she

!ae u) and decided to /arr a /an she arel $ne43 a fa/il of her

nei!hor3 ut her uncle did not a!ree 4ith her decision ecause she 4as too

oun!3 %7 ears. She ;ust 4anted to leae the house3 as she said >I 4as er

tired?. Then she left the house for her /otherCs house in Blora 4here a

4ee$ after the /an follo4ed her and 4ithin a /onth3 the 4ere /arried and

ac$ to Suraaa a!ain to her husandCs house. o4eer3 her life did notchan!e /uch. The "ioCs ex)eriences reeal that !ender identit is not

al4as deter/ined social cate!or of totok and peranakanut ti/e and

identi=cation of elon!in! inEuence the 4as of their life. It also

distin!uishes et4een 4hat the should do and should not do as hinese

4o/en either as peranakanor totok.

The )olic of PP %0F%959 aJected three other infor/ants fro/ =rst

!eneration and their stories are Kuite si/ilar to "ioCs3 the also a!reed to

/arr a )erson the arel $ne4 or 4ho 4as introduced to the/. 1arria!e

is in the )arentsC hand3 or of elders 4ithin the fa/il. o4eer all this/arria!e did not hel) the/ a!ainst iolence and ta$e the/ out of )oert.

elationshi)s 4ith )arents in la4 4ere decisie. Those stories could refer to

22Peraturan Pe/erintah @Doern/ent )olic "o. %0F%959 is a )olic desi!n 1ilitar institution that anned the hinese to run their usiness exce)t in cit.Hhile at that ti/e /an hinese lie in illa!e and also it 4as >in the na/e? ofnational securit3 to )rotect pri!umisecono/ic )osition.

+0


39/68

BourdieuCs conce)t that a!enc 4or$s 4ithin the structures. 1arria!e 4as

a 4a to otain their freedo/ ut the structures located the/ in si/ilar

situations ut in diJerent contexts.

Those ex)eriences 4ere not ex)erienced the third!eneration

ecause the class )ositions of so/e infor/ants are chan!in! ut for thosein the sa/e class the for/s are si/ilar ut the issues altered3 the still hae

li/ited choices. -or exa/)le in the cases of I$a3 I$aCs /other is /arried to

aanees /an. The /arria!e is unha))3 her husand is unale to feed the

fa/il. This )role/ e/)hases the stereot)e of ethnic diJerences and

raises Kuestions to the assi/ilation )olic. "io3 I$aCs !rand/other3

encoura!ed her to /arr a hinese /an. Bein! third!eneration the can

i!nore >the rules?. "io understood that she 4as a peranakandescendant

ut she feel that societ treated her as >al4as? hinese3 /eanin! as orang

totok. She identi=es herself as hinese Qtotok. 'fter our second /eetin!

she told /e the stor of her dau!hter3 I$aCs /other3 4ho /arried a aaness

Qpri!umi /an. She 4as e/arrassed to tell her dau!hterCs stor as she

ex)lained later to /e that it 4as sha/eful for her fa/il ecause as hinese

the should not /arr to other races. Later she ex)lained that at =rst3 she

did not $no4 her dau!hter /arried the /an3 it 4as 4ithout her a))roal.

o/)are this to Luc3 a second !eneration3 pearanakan3 4ho is also afraid

that her dau!hter /a /arr a /an fro/ another race3 she could ne!otiate

the race issue as lon! as the are in the sa/e class. o4eer3 she also

4onders if a /an fro/ another ethnic !rou) fro/ a si/ilar class 4ould

4ant to /arr a hinese 4o/an.

#.2 omen3s e4periences

The hinese3 in the context of Indonesia3 are /ar!inali


40/68

this elon!in! 4or$s 4ithin the line of the oundaries of exclusion and

inclusion fro/ the state and the societ een et4een the/seles and

other ethnic !rou)s. The /oe/ent of elon!in! is not onl et4een

!enerations ut also 4ithin !eneration itself. The 4as these !enerations

construct their su;ectiit is not eas as )uttin! the/ into cate!or3 it is

)scholo!ical3 cultural and social /atters that create certain conEicts

et4een !enerations in de=nin! the/seles3 een 4ithin the/seles.

The assi/ilation that assu/es as a )rocess of acce)tance /a;orit

!rou) as #4o$un @2005 /entions )reiousl in cha)ter t4o3 in the

context of I$a3 a third!eneration 4o/an of /ix/arried descendants3 the

notion of assi/ilation does not see/ to 4or$ since it is a )lain! !a/e

et4een do/inant and suordinate in order to !ain acce)tance3 . 's an

>assi/ilation? )roduct she feels a/i!uit in her identit3 et4een aanese

and hinese. The do/inant !rou)3 aanesepri!umi does not al4as

acce)t her as )art of the co//unit ecause her a))earance does not reall

loo$ as aanese ut /ore as a /ixed race. She sas3

>It is confusin!3 if I a/ to!ether 4ith / pri!umifriends the see /e ashinese3 also it ha))ens the sa/e 4hen I !ather 4ith / hinese friends3the see / ees as aanese or pri!umi. Both3 so/eti/es do not reallacce)t /e3 ut I feel /ore co/fortale 4ith / pri!umi friends ecause4ith the/ I feel /ore free and the hinese friends usuall )la too /anroles that I donCt li$e. The associate the/seles /ost ti/es exclusiel4ith hinese !rou)s onl. @I$a3 %5F&F%0

The ar!u/ent !oes that assi/ilation can reduce ethnic senti/ents and

the feelin! of e/otional onds of ho/o!eneit can sole the stru!!le of

ethnicit. o4eer3 in the hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs context3 this

assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/ the do/inant !rou) could not

control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere usin! >so/e hineseCs

econo/ic )osition? to /aintain )o4er. This >usin! so/e? een encoura!es

stron!er antihinese feelin!. Both the hinese /iddlehi!h class and the

do/inants richl internalirich?3 es)eciall /iddle class and the failed to reali


41/68

unco/fortale ecause neither !rou) reall acce)ts her as a >nature?. In

the context of I$a3 hence3 assi/ilation does not al4as 4or$ fro/ ethnic

senti/ent.

-orced identit is a /atter for hinese 4o/en 4ho hae /ulti)le

identities3 a!enc is not a /atter of )olitical )artici)ation ut /ore ho4the can surie culturall and sociall in a situation 4hen throu!hout the

histor of the hinese3 the )olitical re!i/es do not !uarantee their

citiun=nished usiness?. es)ite the fact

that historicall the peranakanhae clai/ed that the hae co//onalities

4ith other !rou)s 4ithin the Indonesian nation state3 the ne4 !eneration is

still stru!!lin! for the reco!nition of their citi4e are Indonesians 4ho hae the

sa/e ri!hts as other ethnic !rou)s ut 4h should the diJerentiate /e as

hineseM?.

-irstsecond !enerations exercise their a!enc 4ithin the fa/il nor/s3

4ith re!ard to /arital custo/. 1arria!e in the hinese tradition see/s the

/ain drea/ of )arents for their children es)eciall their dau!hters 4here it

can lin$ to the i/a!e of 4o/en. 1arria!e is i/)ortant to hinese 4o/en

ecause it ful=lls their !ender roles and hel)s their )arents to acco/)lish

their oli!ation /arrin! their children oJ. The lifestories of ein! a

>!ood 4o/an? reEect on their a!enc and resistance. But this =rst

!eneration case sho4s that ListerCs conce)t of citiusiness? or econo/ is not the onl ;o areas for

hinese. o4eer3 for the /iddle class3 such as Re3 1ar and Ste)3 4ho are

all actie in ca/)us actiities3 and used to 4or$in! 4ith pri!umi3 their)erce)tion is chan!in! as a result of their actiities 4hich !ie the/

$no4led!e of ethnic identit and critical ex)eriences aout their )osition

4ithin the societ3 and a critiKue to their )arents on hineseness as 4ell as

on Indonesianness. So/eti/es for the/ ein! hinese and ein! Indonesia

are si/ilar. The feel the dichoto/ identit 4ill e/er!e 4hen so/eone

as$s their ethnicit or 4hen their )arents constrain the/ to =nd hinese

++


42/68

/en co/)lete 4ith a si/ilar reli!ion. -or so/e fa/ilies oth criteria /ust

e ful=lled ut /ost second!eneration infor/ants sa ethnicit could e

ne!otiated ut not reli!ion. Sur)risin!l3 fro/ / oseration peranakan

descendants ho)e /ore that their children 4ill /arr to the sa/e ethnic

!rou) rather than totokdescendants 4ho tau!ht that reli!ion is /ore

i/)ortant. Interestin!l3 if Leo Suradinata sas peranakanare /ore ound

to their localit3 in this stud3 the lifestories of infor/ants sho4 that

peranakandescendants are /ore ound to their ethnicit co/)are to totok

descendants 4ho are /ore o)en to their localit. ence3 these peranakan

descendants tr to reinent their ethnic identit rather than totok.This is

can e seen in sense of identit )art3 ReCs case and I elaorate in the

reli!ion session in this cha)ter too.

Lac$ of reco!nition of hinese historical roots in Indonesia3 in

)articular in the Soeharto )eriod3 contriutes to the hinese citi


43/68

=!ht 4ith the oJicers ecause the ta$e /uch ti/e to 4or$ on /

docu/ents and as$ aout / >hinese )ass)ort?. Of course I do not

hae ecause I a/ Indonesian3 een I cannot s)ea$ an hinese

dialect and neer een to hina and do not $no4 / hinese

ancestors. I said all that facts to the oJicers and 4h do the still

thou!ht that I a/ hinese 4hile in fact I a/ trul Indonesian. The

are also as$ed /e /one3 I had ex)lained that I a/ not rich ut the

do not eliee /e? @un %9F&F%0

unCs lifestories clearl de=ne the citi


44/68

SB#I3 it is easier for the/ access certain ;os and education3 althou!h

ta$in! education /ostl in )riate schools3 a citi


45/68

The sti!/a as >co//unist? 4as stron!l ex)erienced the =rstsecond

!eneration in the %960s. Bun3 =rst!eneration3 ex)erienced it 4hen the

/ilitar ins)ected her house and she /ade sure that fa/il did not hae

an connection 4ith co//unists re/oin! all hinese s/ols. Ho/en

in the house had to ensure that the house 4as alread clean of all si!n of

hineseness3 for exa/)le een the hinese character of ha))iness Q4ing&u

/ust e hidden. Bun and Lie sa4 their friendsC house 4here the /ilitar

thre4 a4a their ancestral cult taleFaltar3 4hichs for hinese it is er

aluale and er i/)ortant ecause the altar is a s/ol of their res)ect

for ancestors and a /ediu/ of co//unication et4een the/ and the

ancestors. Those ex)eriences re/ind the/ that the countr Q>their ho/e?

>does not al4as acce)t? the/ as the are. Therefore3 I 4ould ar!ue that

the construction of >other? in this context of the hineseCs citi


46/68

Buddhist actiities ecause her /other 4anted her to e actie in reli!ion

actiities. er )arents hae diJerent reli!ions her /other has conerted to

Buddhis/ for %7 ears3 4hile her father is onfucian and is actie doin! its

rituals althou!h in )rinci)le he cannot ex)lain the /eanin! of his reli!ion to

his children. In the Post Soeharto )eriod3 her father forced her to stud

hinese lan!ua!e ecause she is of hinese descent so a))ro)riatel she

$no4s 1andarin and in future /arried a hinese Indonesian /an. In fact3

her )arents cannot s)ea$ hinese3 and are descendants of /ixed lood

fa/il. Re feels 1andarin is not her lan!ua!e and it is unnecessar to lean it

4hile she uses !ahasa @Indonesian lan!ua!e in datoda life. She

ex)eriences aanese /en /ore sensitie to 4o/enCs fellin! co/)ared to

hinese /en 4ho are onl us 4ith their usiness. The sa/e can e said

for third!eneration the consciousness of ethnic identit is sli!ht. 'lthou!h

she reall 4ant to /arr to a aaness /an she understand that it is diJicult

and her )arents er an!r3 she sas >a$u saan! /ere$a? @I loe the/3 Soshe 4ill follo4 4hat her )arents 4ant ecause it )erha)s !ood for her that

not !ie e/otional urden to the/. It is as a result of ein! loal and

res)ect to fa/il 0,uhauw0 still inEuence this !eneration ut the use the

4ord >sa$ang? @loe not >!er!akti? @uhauwQloal. The $no4led!e of the

hinese traditions is extre/el /odest the identi=ed the/seles as

Indonesians rather than hinese. This !rou) datoda lie 4ith other

diJerent races and do diJerent actiities to!ether at schools. This

ac$!round functions to rea$ the ethnic oundaries3 creates sa/eness of

feelin! as >Indonesian?3 and continuousl re!ulates their 4a of ein! to

ensure that the are connected and tied to each other @1artsin3 20%0. The

Sa/eness forces the/ to reEect that the are united3 ut it also creates

diJiculties to understand 4h their )arents @second!eneration forced

the/ to /arr hinese /en 4ho do not 4ith their ideals of /en. The $no4

so/ethin! aout the histor of exclusion of hinese in Indonesia. Hhen I

as$ed aout the 1ei riotC9&2,/an of this !rou) did not $no43 the thou!ht

it 4as onl in a$arta and Suraaa 4as )eaceful. The re/e/ered it as

the ti/e 4hen the 4ent ac$ earl fro/ school and it closed for t4o das

ut the en;oed their ti/e and )laed at ho/e. 'ccordin! to the/3 the

hinese hardl inte!rate the/seles to societ and hae diJiculties to ada)t4ith pri!umiecause the hae diJerent orientations. Hhile the ex)lain

their identit is diJerent fro/ their )arents and !rand)arents3 the used a

4ord >kuno? @oldfashion to distin!uish >the/? fro/ ?us?. The ex)lain3

2,The 1ei riot in %99& is the ti/e 4hen Soeharto fell also it is $no4n as racial riot4here /an hinese 4o/en 4ere ra)ed. 't the ti/e of 1ei riots /ost of the third!enerations 4ere around %0%+ ears old

+&


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toda is a )eriod 4here hinese should e o)en and inte!rate the/seles to

societ ecause the are Indonesians. Toda3 the o)enness of the hinese

ex)ression throu!h ne4 re!i/e3 for the/ is not such a i! issue ecause

the identif the/seles as hristianFatholic not onfucian. It see/s for

the/3 hinese traditions associate 4ith onfucianis/.

o4eer3 the second !eneration does not feel )articularl inte!rated or

4elco/e in the countr 4here the are citimeme cina? @hinese !irl on the streets. The actors are identi=ed as

pri!umi. -an! sas3 >it is ecause 4e are hinese that those /en @pri!umi

4ill do it3 and if it ha))ens to their o4n 4o/en3 eerone 4ill hit at that

/an3 ut 4hen it ha))en to hinese 4o/en the onl s/ile and let it

ha))en?. 8thnicit and !ender haitus situated the/ in a diJerent 4a of

ein!3 Q3 the SuhartoCs re!i/e le!iti/ates this identi=cation throu!h notonl )hsical force ut also s/olic 4as ia s)eci=c )olicies. -or exa/)le3

sha)in! se!re!ation of ;os3 schools3 laelin! the hinese in a )recise class3

and ad/inistratiel codin! the identit card 4hich is re!ulated for/all

and infor/all. Theses !enerations of 4o/en sho4 ho4 this ethnic identit

and !ender /oe in stale as 4ell as unstale 4as that interact 4ith

reaJir/ and con=r/ continuousl. -or exa/)le3 to )rotect her fa/il3 Luc3

second!eneration told that on certain occasions the i!nored their ethnic

identit and 4ere afraid to e $no4n as hinese. Hhen her )hsical

a))earance is confronted she ac$no4led!ed herself as 1enadonese @fro/

Sula4esi or aa$nese @fro/ #ali/antan 4hich hae si/ilar a))earance

to hinese. -or the third!eneration3 Re feels unco/fortale 4hen )eo)le

identif her as hinese ecause she feels as Indonesian. She lies in a

situation 4here her )arents and her !rand/a treat her as hinese.

8x)ressie identit can een seen throu!h the ex)eriences at ho/e

4here the could do their hinese traditions in the )ast and )ersonall feel

+9


48/68

a connection 4ith their ori!in Q their ho/eland. -or the second !eneration3

reli!ion is a >fronational identit?. o4eer this !rou) also see/s to hae reinented their

ethnic identit /ore stron!l than the =rst!eneration of hinese 4o/en3

)erha)s the exclusion due to their ethnic identit 4as /ore 4iderl

ex)erienced3 4hile =rst!eneration 4o/en had onl li/ited access to stud

and ;os. This NreinentedC identit is stron!l felt the third!eneration

4hen their /other @second!eneration forces the/ to =nd hinese /en.

The /e/ories and ex)eriences as a cate!or of hinese also 4ere

ex)erienced the =rst !eneration throu!h the son!25>cina loleng?3 4hich

fro/ the colonial to )ost colonial Soeharto re!i/e 4as a >)o)ular son!?.

The reaction to this son! is arieds so/e of the =rst !eneration told their

dau!hters to e cal/ and not a!ainst >the pri!umi? 4ho san! it

ex)lainin!3 >4e are diJerent and the @pri!umi do not understand >us? and

4e hae to re/e/er that 4e are ne4 co/ers in this land?. o4eer3 so/e

other infor/ants3 =rstsecond3 feel that the are Indonesian. -or the/

ethnicit onl distin!uishes so/e cultural diJerences ut does not exclude

the/ fro/ the nation. 1oreoer3 =rstsecond !enerations lie in a social

structure 4here at that ti/e the dichoto/ et4een the hinese the/seles

4ere er stron! Q cate!or totokand peranakanQas one criterion to choose

a husand. Then et4een totokalso the /ust a4are aout their clan and

4hich clan can =t 4ith the/ so3 distinction aout >the/? and >us? not onl

externall et4een Chineseand pri!umiut also internall the created

diJerent cate!ories of hinese in order to ful=ll their !ender roles. Lie @the=rst !eneration sas aout her situation 4hen she /arried:

>I 4as /arried in %9523 4hen Soe$arno era3 Indonesia has it inde)endent

alread. o4eer3 I had /iserale here @in Sa/)it3 her )lace efore /oe to

Suraaa3 / husand and his fa/il tortured /e 4here eer da I had to

coo$ for all )eo)le and do other do/estic thin!s. It 4as 4as of totokfa/il

treats their dau!hters in la4. 1 husand did not care of /e he onl

listened to his /other. 1 /other said3 it 4as / fate I could not leae it.

1 /other 4anted /e to acce)t hi/ ecause he is totokand)okcia

@hinese clan. 1 /other in la4 is / /otherCs cousin. 'ctuall it 4as

)eriod of 1ao Uedon! 4hen )eo)le hae their o4n dates ut I !ot /

husand throu!h a /atch/a$er >@Lie 6F&F%0

25ina Lolen!? is a >son!? that 4as sun! pri!umichildren and adults ashu/iliation to distin!uish other !rou)s . The son! is : cina lon!len!3 /a$an ai3$alau /ati /atana $eencelen!. This son! /ostl understood hinese indiJerent re!ions.

,0


49/68

-an!3 LieCs dau!hter3 said that3 >totokfa/ilies usuall 4ant to =nd totok

)artners for their children?. This 4as her ex)erience. ' /atch/a$er is

co//on for toto$ fa/il to =nd si/ilar ethnic. So in -an!Cs case3 a

/atch/a$er also introduced her to her husand as her )arentsC 4ishes. In

this sense3 selfunderstandin! of the/ as an a4areness of ein! diJerent

fro/ other hinese !rou)3 and =ndin! the sa/e !rou) to their dau!hters

althou!h it 4as /iserale for hinese 4o/en lie in toto$ tradition. Lie

continue to =nd totok/en for her dau!hters. It see/s as Bourdieu sas3

ha!itusis turn into nature @1cLeod3 2005 4here the ;ust continue the

structures auto/aticall. Later -an! turned a!ainst this structure sain!

>/ children do not hae to =nd totok or peranakanan/ore3 the i/)ortant

is the hae to =nd )ersons 4ho hae si/ilar reli!ion to the/3 atholic3

een the are not hinese )ersons?.

#.# Re"igion > a new identit+

In this stud3 accordin! to / oseration and listenin! to lifestories of the

infor/ants3 3 it see/s that toda reli!ion or Qreli!ious identit in the

context of the hinese 4o/en is an i/)ortant issue co/)ared to the

colonial and earl )ostcolonial )eriod. Since the colonial )eriod the

reli!ious identities of hinese Indies are dierse ut onfucianis/ is

do/inant. The hinese 4ho hold hristianitFatholicis/ as their reli!ion

at that ti/e 4ere identi=ed as peranakan3 althou!h not all peranakanare

hristian and een so/e totokare hristian. Isla/ is associated 4ith

pri!umi ' so hinese 4ho conerted their reli!ion to Isla/ 4ere seen to

chan!e their ethnic identit to e pri!umi. The assi/ilation )olic forced

the hinese3 to conert their reli!ion to the reli!ion ac$no4led!ed the

state such as hristian3 atholic3 Isla/3 Buddha3 and indu. This reli!ion is

)art of the >national identit? that eer Indonesian has to hold one of the

reli!ions. Indi!enous reli!ion 4as )rohiited.

In this stud3 the second !eneration is stron!l situated this )olic.

So/e infor/ants hae chosen reli!ion in school ecause reli!ion 4as one of

the /andator su;ects that all students /ust stud. -ar3 second!eneration3

orn in %9723 tells her ex)eriences aout reli!ion and ho4 did she

conerted:

>'t that ti/e is a chan!in! ti/e3 I 4as at , th!rade3 4e handed a for/ of

reli!ion that /ust e ta$en ho/e for )arents to =ll in 4hat reli!ion hae e

conerted. I sho4 the for/ to / /other ut she onl said that u) to /e.

,%


50/68

Therefore3 I select atholic3 / i! rother selects Buddha3 and / little

rother selects atholic. 1 /other does not care of reli!ion. 't that ti/e3

all students 4ho hold onfucius /ust choose one. @-ar %9F&F%0

In %96&3 4hen all hinese schools 4ere closed3 /ost of the/ /oed to

hristianFatholic /issionar schools ut /an of the/3 in )articular4o/en3 sto))ed studin!. Hhile datoda3 the 4ere structured in

ahristian eniron/ent and studied hristianit in schools3 so/e

oluntaril conerted their reli!ion fro/ onfucianis/ to hristianFatholic.

o4eer3 for the =rst!eneration the reasons the conerted reli!ion are

inEuenced their thin$in! )attern of onfucianis/ that eliees anone

4ho died /ust e )raed to and res)ected their descendants. Hhen their

children conerted their reli!ion3 the follo4 the childrenCs reli!ion. Lie

sas that as lon! as ou are hinese3 4hateer our reli!ion ou /ust not

for!et our tradition.

W.... So re/e/er it is hineseCs custo/s3 4e are hinese. These custo/scould not e lost. 'lthou!h3 4e eca/e a hristian the tradition as hineseshould not e lost?. @Lie3 5F&F%0

Sociall and econo/icall3 the >hinese reli!ion? as On!o$a/ /entions

is a urden for the fa/il. Ho/en hae to ta$e care of the altar and )roide

diJerent stuJ on the altar. So/e conerted for econo/ic reasons as in SunCs

lifestories. She conerted her reli!ion to hristian three /onths after her

husand died ecause she thou!ht it 4as too ex)ensie to )roide for the

altar. Thus3 hristianit in this sense3 !ies her a 4a to sole her econo/ic

)role/s. Later she also is actie in the church. The church su))ort her

4ith a /onthl allo4ance Q the call it rice /one3 to u rice onl3 if she is

actie in the churchCs actiities. Sociall3 it is also !iesfreedo/ to 4o/en

fro/ their !ender roles ecause the do not hae to follo4 Nhinese

traditionC carin! for the altar.

Therefore3 for =rstsecond !enerations3 this forced identit see/s to

/eet 4ith the 4o/enCs needs for the >ne4 identit?. This >ne4 identit? Q

/odern reli!ion can e said to e their a!enc to structures that situate

the/ in a )atriarchal sste/. o4eer3 this ne4 reli!ion Q

hristianFatholic is also ased on a )atriarchal ideolo! 4here /en are

do/inant. -an!3 Bin!3 and hin! tell si/ilar ex)eriences aout the

diJerence et4een the/. In onfucius elief3 /en can do anthin! to

4o/en and sho4 no res)ect to 4o/en3 4hile in hristianit )eo)le are

tau!ht to loe each other3 so for the/ 4ith this loe /en can res)ect and

,2


51/68

)ut 4o/en in etter )osition. Throu!h reli!ious identit3 the hinese 4ho

usuall distin!uish et4een the/seles could e united as >hinese and in

the sa/e ti/e as Indonesian?3 althou!h this identit still )uts the/ as a

>/inorit? cate!or 4hen Isla/ is do/inant. The hineseFethnic >/inorit>

is an unsafe cate!or co/)ared to reli!ious >/inorit? This >ne4 /inorit?

constructs their )scholo!ical condition to feel free to /oe as >Indonesian?

and so/eti/es as hinese Indonesian3 4ith easier accesses to the )ulic

s)here. Inclusie citi!ien? Qso/e cannot conert ecause their

)arents hold a reli!ion and the oJiciall hae een a)tiho/e?

and >4elco/e? and as the/seles3 4here hristianit !ies the/ >s)ace? to

articulate their ethnic identit.

#.' Conc"uding Remarks

The aoe analsis on the issues of su;ectiit of the hinese 4o/en dail

life sho4s that !eneration contriutes to the conce)tuali


52/68

Theoretical fra/e4or$s that hae een used are not linier that can

ex)lain all !eneration in the sa/e 4as ecause the context3 ti/e3

!eo)olitical inEuence ho4 each !eneration identif the/seles in the

context of Indonesia 4here in their /e/ories in )articular to secondthird

!eneration the chan!in! re!i/es contriutes to their )osition )oliticall and

sociall.

,,


53/68

Chapter '

Conc"usion: ,i@erent *eaning of Three eneration

This conclusion starts fro/ the Kuestions that I )osed in cha)ter % and lin$4ith theories and the =ndin! as 4ell as / reEection on the /ethodolo!

that I hae chosen. In !eneral3 ho4 do three !enerations of 4o/en

)erceie and de=ne their situation ased on !ender and ethnicit in

res)onse to the )rocess exclusion and inclusionM o4 does this inEuence

their o4n self)erce)tion in creatin! their citi


54/68

continuit of hinese traditions as their 4orld. On the other hand3 the

irtuall /ust leae fro/ their dail life as hinese co//unit3 and /oe to

the i! co//unit3 Indonesian nation. Thus3 the feelin! and ex)eriences as

local /oe to >national? leel forced the/ to i!nored their hineseness

)uttin! safet of their fa/il on the to) of their list.

Second!eneration !ies /eanin! diJerentl to the >nationalidentit?

that forced to the/. -or the/3 The reKuire/ent to e >Indonesian? 4ere

alued as a 4a to /oed out fro/ the urden of traditions as hinese

4o/en3 thou!h conert their reli!ion Qne4 identit the reli!ion identit as

a 4a ho4 the reinented their hineseness in relation to the state ut

silentl the forced their children to e hinese as their i/a!ination of

hinese. o4eer3 if hinese in =rst!eneration /ore fra!/ented in dierse

cate!ories accordin! to peranakanQ totok3 clan3 localit and )olitical

orientation3 in second!eneration this ne4 identit Q reli!ion identit see/sunited the/ as >hinese? een >hinese Indonesian?. 's I /ention in

cha)ter ,3 this reli!ion as s)aces for dialo!ue to identif the/seles in the

context of )resent.

iJerent fro/ second!eneration that translates reli!ion as choice and

freedo/3 third!eneration 4o/en loo$s at it as a !ien that cannot chan!e3

in the sa/e 4a that =rst!eneration 4o/en eliee that ethnicit is =xed.

The feelin! that the hae een assi/ilated to the nation is stron!er a/on!

third !eneration 4o/en co/)are to the second!eneration 4here it also

raises conEicts et4een the/ in ter/s of ethnic identit. 'lthou!h second

!eneration 4o/en thin$ reli!ious identit /eans freedo/ fro/

hineseness3 I thin$ it is onl at the leel of >hinese tradition? that is

eKuated 4ith onfucianis/3 that the feel free fro/. Therefore3 /e/ories

as hinese unconsciousl ind the/ stron!l ecause the ex)erience of

ein! forced to i!nore their o4n hineseness 4as an e/otional and

/e/orale one 4hich )laces the/ in a dile//atic situation re!ardin! their

ethnic identit3 i.e. et4een feelin! Indonesian and hinese at the sa/e

ti/e. Silentl to )rotect their ethnic identit Q their hineseness second

!eneration 4o/en tr to reinent their hineseness accordin! to their o4nersion forcin! their dau!hters @children to /arr 4ith hinese /en

4hicheer their clanHhile3 for third!eneration it is not i/)ortant an/ore3

for the/ ein! Indonesian /eans o)en to eer )ossiilities to =nd /en

fro/ diJerent ethnic !rou)s as their s)ouse. o4eer3 if the follo4 the

)arentsC 4ishes it is ecause the loe the/ 4hich it eKuialent to uhauw.

,6


55/68

Thus3 in so/e de!ree3 unconsciousl the third!eneration 4o/en are still

inEuenced onfucianis/ 3 i.e. of ein! loal to the fa/il.

Therefore3 three !eneration )oints out diJerent 4as of ein! althou!h

in so/e de!ree the are situated in si/ilar situations3 as I /ention in

)reious cha)ter3 the react diJerentl ecause indiiduall theirac$!rounds are diJerent and the o))ortunities to 4or$ and /eet 4ith

)eo)le fro/ other ethnic and class ac$!rounds are also diJerent.

Therefore to ans4er to the )rocess of exclusion and inclusion3 and

citi


56/68

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Appenices

5%


60/68

Appendi4 1

Reection

A mirror to m+se"f: Se"f5reectivit+ in the ora" histor+ process

This reEection starts fro/ the /ethodolo! this research and / o4n

)osition as a hineseIndonesian 4o/an. The interaction 4ith the

infor/ants hel)ed /e to understand the histor that 4as hidden fro/ /

!eneration. Listenin! their lifestories3 there are no clear oundaries of

4o/enCs /ulti)l identities ecause on the /ix and interact 4ith ti/e and

s)ace that are ex)erienced in eerda life. It can continuousl /oe and

chan!e ut certain ex)eriences caused the/ to >thic$en? or e >froour? histor as a /inorit and4o/en ut also stories of )o4er.

I 4as orn in the )eriod 4hen Suharto ca/e to )o4er3 4hen he 4as

ictorious and stron!. It 4as also the ti/e 4hen !raduall hinese

Indonesians started to !et a4a fro/ their cultural roots. -or exa/)le3 Leo

Suradinata said3 >I can e cate!oriorangtotok? @totok

)eo)le. 8er da I hae al4as to re/e/er that I a/ a)okcia'4ho are

$ind and ciili


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Cina' kalau memang cina' terus mau diapain5@hinese3 if it is3 so 4hatM3 In

Indonesia3 ein! >orang cina?2&and ein! ,orang Indonesia13 I hae to

sho4 not onl to fa/ilies ut also to the state3 thus3 to Indonesian state the

nationalist s)irit i/)ortantl has to e )roen follo4in! the co/)licated

rules that situate hineseIndonesians. The rules contriute to the suJerin!

of hineseIndonesians3 the 4o/en in )articular. This research sho4s /e

that the state )olicies hae diJerent i/)acts de)endin! on !ender and

class.

Then3 the /atter of reli!ion. In the )ast3 !enerall3 hinese fa/ilies cared

little aout reli!ious /atters. Before the %9&0s usuall in a hinese fa/il3

the held diJerent reli!ions and there 4as no conEict et4een children and

)arents or relaties. '/on! those 4ho ac$no4led!e onfucianis/3 /an

not )ractice its rituals3 ut the are enthusiastic to celerate imlek@hinese

"e4 ear. 'lthou!h in SoehartoCs )eriod it 4as done secretl in so/e

)laces ecause it 4as )rohiited. Sur)risin!l3 toda reli!ion eco/es /ore

i/)ortant and /ore )o4erful. It een eco/es one criterion to choose a

s)ouse.

This research allo4ed /e to trael and =nd the )ieces of >/self? throu!h

the narraties of infor/ants. 1an of the stories /ade /e shoc$ed3 sad3

and an!r ecause I neer assu/ed that these exclusie )olicies 4ould

re/oe the hineseIndonesians fro/ their >local rootsIndonesia?3

aJectin! the infor/antsC lies ne!atiel and )erha)s other hinese 4o/en

4hose oices are not heard. -or exa/)le3 the issue of the >)urit of thehinese?3 for /e3 is a result of >successful? assi/ilation )olicies. These

)olicies hae situated the/ in >the i/a!ined hinese as one co//unit?

althou!h in realit3 the are not a ho/o!eneous co//unit 4here silentl

the are creatin! cate!ories a/on! the/seles.

Hhen I listen to the narraties3 / /ind /oed ac$ and forth as I also

recalled / /e/ories Q relatin! / o4n ex)eriences that hae een $e)t

for lon!. 8x)eriences of ein! a hineseIndonesian 4o/an3 and at the

sa/e ti/e ein! >orang "ampit? @/ localIndonesia create a co/)licated

and dna/ic identit. Then a Kuestion a))ears in / /ind >4hich $ind ofhinese a/ IM? as if I follo4 the cate!ories of hinese throu!h their

narraties. 1ae unconsciousl3 the desire to listen the infor/antsC stories

is an atte/)t to =nd )ieces of hidden histor of hineseIndonesians that I

2&Tion!hoa is a ter/ that so/e hinese Indonesians use in )reference to >cina?ecause ina is the ter/ used in the Soeharto )eriod to insult hinese )eo)le andto create the su)eriorit of pri!umi. See@@PI3 20%0

5+


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had neer heard at schools and read fro/ Indonesian histor oo$s3 4hich

tend to stereot)e hinese as co//unist3 rich3 stin!3 unsociale3 and

neer thin$in! of the societ. The structures Qertical and horione i/a!e3 cina?

The stories of the )ast @collectie and indiidual of these 4o/en sho4 ho4

dierse the hineseIndonesians are3 )articularl the 4o/en. Throu!h the

infor/ants as 4ell3 4e could see the conce)t of identit and citihinese )urit?M Suddenl3 I re/e/er

/ stor 4hen I 4as in ;unior hi!h school. 't that ti/e3 the da of the

Scout3 the ice of )arlia/ent of / district3 a aanese /an3 an ar/3 isited/ school to celerate the da. Hhen I san! >Indonesia aa? @The national

anthe/ 4ith a stron! "ampitdialect3 he )unished /e and said loudl that I

san! li$e >orangcina?. I 4as the onl hinese in the choir of the school.

'lthou!h3 / collea!ues also san! the sa/e 4a as /e. I cried and 4as

an!r3 afraid to =!ht ac$ and instead ;ust hun! / head li$e a )erson 4ho

did 4ron!l in front of an authorit.

Listenin! to 4o/enCs stories also re/inded /e aout hinese /en. The

ri!id construction of !ender in a diJerent ti/e3 I thin$3 4ould aJect

diJerentl the /e/ories of /en and 4o/en on ho4 to e >orangtionghoa? and >orang Indonesia? or >orang "ampit?. Is /e/or of the

)riate s)here re/e/ered as )o4erfull as these infor/ants Q the

ChineseIndonesian 4o/enM Is the stor of /en fro/ the )ulic s)here

onlM o4 do the locate !ender in their /e/orM

29See Oo//en3 2006

5,


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Bein! an insider in this research )rocess /eant I /ust e )re)ared for

/e/ories of the )ast and the inner conEict that could ha))en oth in the

)rocess of collectin! data and at the ti/e of 4ritin! it. It /ade /e also

a4are aout the challen!in! dichoto/ of insiderFoutsider3 selfFother

throu!h / o4n res)onse. "eertheless3 ti/e has its o4n for/ and 4isdo/

and ti/e al4as /oes as 4e /a$e lon! ;ournes to =nd out 4ho are 4e

fro/ the co/)lexities of this dna/ic 4orld.

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Appendi4 2

ist of Informants8o

The (rstgeneration

The secondgeneration

The thirdgeneration

Time ofinterview

Co"onia" > ear"+post co"onia"period

@% utch thattreats ethnicitinto strati=ed

hierarch and)uttin! hineseon the secondleel of the ran$then the i/)actis creatin!hinese as>/inorit!rou)?.

@2 ual identit ofhinese 3 ashinese 8ast

Indies andhinese citioneethnic? cate!oriesthat refuseshinese histor inthe countr.@+ eolution)eriod is thestartin! of antihinese action

!ost co"onia": $"d$rder BSoekarno 58ew $rderBSoeharto period

@% Old Order!oern/ent

@Soe$arno : !iesfreedo/ for hinese toex)ress their cultureand )olitic@2 ual identitTreats hinese as )artof The "ations ofIndonesia@+ "aturali


65/68

descent she 4as atholicecause of the)arent Ba)tist her

2 8ioHas orn in %9,& in

Blora. She is 4hosent the uncle toother auntie ho/eto NsafeC fa/ilecause of the)olic PP %0F591arried ecausecannot stand fro/the suJerin! in theauntie house. Sheis onfuciusShe is -u$ien 4ho/arried 4ith#4antun! Q)erana$an

/ingHas orn in %970 in

Suraaa. She is4or$in! in Phar/acindustr . shese)arated fro/ herhusand ecause !ot)hsical iolence. Sheis hristian

IkaHas orn in %992

In Blora. She 4as astudent in catholichi!h school inSuraaa. er)arents are /ixed/arried et4eenSundaness andNchineseC. The/other is hristianand the father isIsla/ and she isatholic

%2F&2%F&

+ !hienHas orn in %9+6in Suraaa. Shehae dutcheducation 4hen she4as in )ri/arschool . in 2002 sheconerted herreli!ion to Buddhaut their childrenare hristianshe is #4antun! Q)erana$an 4ho/arried to ho$$ien)erana$an

anHas orn in %962In SuraaaShe is hristian. She ishouse4ife. erhusand is onfuciusand all the husandfa/il er do/inate

StepHas orn in %9&7In SuraaaShe is loo$in! for ane4 ;o after!raduate fro/)scholo! facult inSuraaa.She 4as hristian

%,F7%9F&

, watHas orn in %9+, inDresi$ and /oed

to 1alan! 4hile thea)aneseoccu)ation. She iscatholic ecause oftheir children studin catholic schooland she closed tocatholic nuns 4ho4ere her

ucHas orn in %955in 1alan!. She is

4or$in! as aninsurance a!ent in1alan!.She is catholic

*arHas orn in %9&7In 1alan!

She is 4or$in! inconsultant oJicePscholo! is her/a;or 4hen she 4ascolla!e.She 4as atholicsince she 4as a a.Since child she 4asstud in catholic

%7F7%9F&

57


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nei!horhood. She4as actie inchurch actiities.She sto))ed hereducation 4hile

a)anese

occu)ationShe is )erana$an

school in /iddle tou))er class

5 T%ienHas orn in hinain %9+2. She ca/eto Indonesia3 in#rian in %956 four

ears after she !ot/arried 4ith thehusand 4ho liedfor a lon! ti/e inIndonesia.Throu!h /atch/arried the /et inhina and four/onth after/arried theusand 4ent ac$to Indonesia.She has neernaturali


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father has >nai?efore /arried toher /other 4hoco/e fro/ hina.The >nai? had nota child and she

closed to nai eenher /other. "aistill lie 4ith herfa/il althou!h her/other there. She/oed 4hen she4as old.She is #4antun!

diorce and hasex)eriences asstateless for a lon!ti/e until in %999. Shehas t4o son that the=rst 4as /arried 4ith

'raic descent 4o/anand conerted thereli!ion to Isla/

& /anHas orn in %925In Suraaa. she4as stud in hina4hen she 4as %2

ear old and fourears later shereturned toIndonesia ecauseit 4as the =rst4orld 4ar3 andchina has 4ar as4ell. 'fter ac$ toIndonesia shesto))ed hereducation. Shea!ree /arried toher husandecause 4anted torun fro/ the ste)/other.She is ho$$ien

%9F72%F7

9 Sun4as orn in %9+0

in Suraaa. in%959 her fa/il/oed to hinaecause of PP%0F59. Onl she andher little sisterstaed in Indonesiaecause the had/arried. The restof her fa/il /oed

%2F&%7F&

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8/11/2019 Suvia

Suvianita Khanis Citizenship and Identity Construction Among Three Generations of Chinese Women in Indonesia

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