Sustaining Formative Assessment with Teacher Learning … · 2020. 10. 5. · Sustaining Formative Assessment with Teacher Learning Communities Dylan Wiliam and Siobhán Leahy ©2014

SustainingFormativeAssessmentwithTeacherLearningCommunities

DylanWiliamandSiobhánLeahy

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Introduction

InDylanWiliam’sEmbeddedFormativeAssessment(SolutionTree,2011)andinourforthcomingHandbookforEmbeddedFormativeAssessment(LSI,2015),wediscussanumberoftechniquesthatteacherscanusetoincreasestudentengagement,tocollectevidenceaboutstudentachievement,andtomaketheirteachingmoreresponsivetotheneedsoftheirstudents.Mostoftheseideashavebeenaroundformanyyears,andareeffectiveinraisingachievement.Yettheyarenotinwidespreaduse.Thissuggeststhatactuallyimplementingthesetechniquesismoredifficultthanitmightappear,andthereforeweneedtothinkcarefullyabouthowtosupportteachersindevelopingtheiruseofformativeclassroomassessment.Thatisthefocusofthispaper.

Content,thenprocess

In“KeepingLearningonTrack:ClassroomAssessmentandtheRegulationofLearning”(2007),DylanWiliampointedoutthatwhileinvestmentinteacherprofessionaldevelopmenthasbeenafeatureoftheeducationallandscapeformanyyears,evidencethatithasmadeanydifferencetostudentachievementhasbeendepressinglythin.MichaelFullanputitlikethis:“Nothinghaspromisedsomuchandhasbeensofrustratinglywastefulasthethousandsofworkshopsandconferencesthatledtonosignificantchangeinpracticewhenteachersreturnedtotheirclassrooms”(Fullan,1991,p.315).InEmbeddedFormativeAssessment,wesawthatpartofthereasonisthatmuchteacherprofessionaldevelopmenthasbeenfocusedonwhatiseasytodeliver,ratherthanwhatmakesadifferencetostudentoutcomes.Policymakershavebehavedratherlikedesperatehitterswhocomeuptotheplateandtrytohitahomerunoffeverypitch.Theresultis,ofcourse,alotofstrike-outs.Whatweneedinsteadis“smallball:”getawalktofirst,stealsecond,getbuntedovertothird,andscoreonasacrificefly.Butinprofessionaldevelopment,likeinsmallball,thedetailsmatter.Manypeoplehaveadvocatedprofessionallearningcommunities(PLCs)astheanswer,butthisistoputprocessbeforecontent.PLCsaregoodwaystoachievesomegoals,butmuchlesseffectiveforothers.Forexample,ifwewantedtoincreaseteachersubjectknowledge,thenprofessionallearningcommunitieswouldbearatherinefficientwaytodothat.Some

The5StrategiesofEmbeddedClassroomFormativeAssessment

1. Clarifying,Sharing,and

UnderstandingLearningIntentionsandSuccessCriteria

2. ElicitingEvidenceofLearners’Achievement

3. ProvidingFeedbackthatMovesLearningForward

4. ActivatingStudentsasinstructionalResourcesforOneAnother

5. ActivatingStudentsasOwnersoftheirOwnLearningSciencesInternational

FromEmbeddedFormativeAssessment(2011)

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formofdirectinstruction,byexperts,wouldbemoreeffective.Thatiswhyprocessshouldcomeaftercontent.Firstweshoulddecidewhatkindsofchangesinteachingwillmakethelargestimpactonstudentoutcomes,andthen—andonlythen—weshouldworkoutthebestwaytosecurethesechanges.

Inotherwords,weshoulddeterminethecontentofteacherlearningfirst,andtheprocessshouldthenbechosentomeetthatend.Ifwestartwithprocess,weare,in

effect,sayingsomethinglike,“Professionallearningcommunities(orcoaching,orwhateverelseistheflavorofthemonth)aretheanswer.Nowwhatwasthequestionagain?”Or,asAbrahamMaslowputit:“Hewhoisgoodwithahammertendstothinkthateverythingisanail.”Icallthisfundamentalprincipleofteacherprofessionaldevelopment“Content,thenprocess.”Tobesuccessful,teacherprofessionaldevelopmentneedstoconcentrateonbothcontentandprocess(Reeves,McCall&MacGilchrist,2001;Wilson&Berne,1999),butthecontentmustcomefirst.Inotherwords,weneedtofocusonwhatwewantteacherstochange,orchangeaboutwhattheydo,andthenwehavetounderstandhowtosupportteachersinmakingthosechangesThecontentelementwasthefocusofEmbeddedFormativeAssessment,andithastwocomponents.First,evidence:theresearchevidencesuggeststhatclassroomformativeassessmentcanhavesignificantimpactonhowmuchstudentslearn.Indeed,theevidencesuggeststhatattentiontoclassroomformativeassessmentcanproducegreatergainsinachievementthananyotherchangeinwhatteachersdo.Second,ideas:Ihavesharedanumberofpracticaltechniquesthatteacherscanusetobegintodeveloptheirpracticeofformativeassessment.However,knowingwhatwillhelpteachersmostisonlypartofthesolution,andthisiswherethequotationfromMichaelFullanaboveissoimportant.Theprofessionaldevelopmentthathedescribedwasnotmisguidedinitsaim.Muchofthecontentofthatprofessionaldevelopmentwasentirelyappropriate.Whatwasnotgivenenoughthoughtwashowtosupportteachersinmakingchangestotheirpracticewhentheyreturnedtotheirclassrooms—theprocessofteacherchange.Asaresultofextensiveworkwithteachersandadministratorsoverthelasttenyears,tryingtopromoteandsupportthedevelopmentofclassroomformativeassessment,Ihaveconcludedthattherearefivekeyprocesscomponents:choice,flexibility,smallsteps,accountabilityandsupport(Wiliam,2006).Eachoftheseisdiscussedinturnbelow.

“Weshoulddeterminethecontentofteacherlearningfirst,andtheprocess

shouldthenbechosentomeetthatend.”

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Choice

Inthelate1960s,MeredithBelbin,aresearcherattheUniversityofCambridge’sIndustrialTrainingResearchUnit,beganstudyingthewaythatpeopleinteractedwhileplayingbusinessgamesattheAdministrativeStaffCollegeatHenley-on-ThamesinEngland(whichlaterbecameHenleyManagementCollege).Heobservedthatwhenteamswereeffective,membersoftheteamwereabletocovereightteamroles:

CompanyworkerChairmanShaperPlantResourceinvestigatorMonitor-evaluatorTeamworkerCompleter-finisher

Belbinobservedthatindividualshadstrongpreferencesfortherolestheyplayedingroups.Whileeachindividualmighthavetwoorthreerolestheywerehappytoplay,whentheteamneededindividualstoplayotherroles,individualswererarelyabletosustainfocusinthese“non-preferred”rolesforlong.Themosteffectiveteamswerethereforethosewherethepreferencesofthememberscoveredtheeightteamroles(lateronBelbinaddedaninthrole:specialist).TheotherimportantpointthatBelbinmadewasthateachrolehadkeystrengthsandallowableweaknesses.Inotherwords,whenanindividualhadstrengths,theywouldalsohaveweaknessesthatwere,ineffect,theothersideofthesamecoin.Someonewhohaslotsofimaginativeideasmaynotbeverygoodatthinkingthroughthepracticalimplicationsoftheideas,andsomeonewhoisverydetail-orientedmayhaveatendencytoworryaboutsmall,andpossiblyirrelevantdetails.Asummaryofstrengthsandweaknessesoftheeightrolesisshownintable8.1.

Principalstrengths AllowableweaknessesCompanyworker Disciplined,hard-working LackofflexibilityChairman Valuingcontributions NotparticularlycreativeShaper Drive ImpatiencePlant Thinking“outsidethebox” ImpracticalResourceinvestigator Opennesstonewideas Shortattention-spanMonitor-evaluator Hard-headed PoormotivatorTeamworker Responsivetoothers NotgoodincrisesCompleterfinisher Detail-oriented Obsessive

Table8.1:KeystrengthsandweaknessofBelbin’seightteamrolesAlthoughthesignificanceofBelbin’sworkwasnotrealizedformanyyears,ithasrecentlygeneratedagreatdealofinterestinwhatiscalled“strengths-basedcapabilitydevelopment.”Themainpointhereisthatinthepast,muchprofessionaldevelopment

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hasfocusedonpeople’sweaknesses.Indeed,itisverycommontofindreportsfromperformanceevaluationsdividedintotwolists,headed“strengths”and“areasfordevelopment.”Belbin’sworkhighlightsthefactthat,forsomeindividuals,theirweaknessesmightbesoegregiousastorequireimmediateattention,butformost,theorganizationwouldbenefitmorefromhelpingthoseindividualsbecometrulyoutstandingatthethingstheyarealreadygoodat.Inasimilarway,itisoftenassumedthattoimprove,teachersshouldworktodeveloptheweakestaspectsoftheirpractice,andforsometeachers,theseaspectsmayindeedbesoweakthattheyshouldbethepriorityforprofessionaldevelopment.Butformostteachers,thegreatestbenefitstostudentsarelikelytocomefromteachersbecomingevenmoreexpertintheirstrengths.InearlyworkonformativeassessmentwithteachersinEngland(Black,Harrison,Lee,Marshall&Wiliam,2003),oneoftheteachers,Derek(this,likethenamesofallteachers,schools,anddistrictsmentionedinthispaper,isapseudonym)wasalreadyquiteskilledatconductingwhole-classdiscussionsessions,buthewasinterestedinimprovingthispracticefurther.Acolleagueofhisatthesameschool,Philip,hadamuchmore“low-key”presenceintheclassroom,andwasmoreinterestedinhelpingstudentsdevelopskillsofself-assessmentandpeer-assessment.BothDerekandPhiliparenowextraordinarilyskilledpractitioners—amongthebestIhaveeverseen—buttomakePhilipworkonquestioning,ortomakeDerekworkonpeer-assessmentandself-assessmentwouldbeunlikelytobenefittheirstudentsasmuchassupportingeachteachertobecomeexcellentinhisownway.Furthermore,whenteachersthemselvesmakethedecisionaboutwhatitisthattheywishtoprioritizefortheirownprofessionaldevelopment,theyaremorelikelyto“makeitwork”.Intraditional“top-down”modelsofteacherprofessionaldevelopment,teachersaregivenideastotryoutintheirownclassrooms,butoftenrespondbyblamingtheprofessionaldeveloperforthefailureofnewmethodsintheclassroom(e.g.,“Itriedwhatyoutoldmetodo,anditdidn’twork”).However,whenthechoiceabouttheaspectsofpracticetodevelopismadebytheteacher,thentheresponsibilityforensuringeffectiveimplementationisshared.Viewedfromthisperspective,choiceisnotaluxurybutanecessity.Ifteachersaretodeveloptheirpracticeinthewaythatwillmakemostdifferencetotheirstudents,theyneedchoice,becauseforthevastmajorityofteachers,onlytheyknowwhataspectsoftheirpracticewillbemostproductivetodevelop.Ofcourse,thischoicemustbeexercisedwithinaframeworkthatprovidessomeassurancethatthechangeswillbebeneficial,whichiswhythefivestrategiesofformativeassessmentdiscussedinEmbeddedFormativeAssessmentaresoimportant.However,withinthisframework,thechoiceofwhataspectsoftheirpracticetoprioritizefordevelopmentmustbelefttothepractitioners,whoknowmoreabouttheirownclassroomsandtheirownstudentsthananyoneelse.

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Flexibility

Aswellaschoiceofwhattoprioritizeintheirdevelopment,teacherswillalsoneedtomodifyideasdevelopedbyotherteacherstomakethemworkintheirownclassrooms.Partofthereasonforthisisdifferencesbetweenteachersintheirstyleofteaching,butitisalsoimportanttorecognizethattherearedifferencesfromschooltoschoolandclasstoclass.Whatworksinonecontextmaynotworkinanotherbecauseschoolsdifferintheiropennesstoexperimentationandtheirappetiteforrisk.Theexpectationsofthestudentsarealsoimportant.Wherestudentsareinsecuretheymaybeuncomfortablewithchangesthatwillbebeneficialbutthatmakenewandunfamiliardemandsofthem(Spradbery,1976).Asaresult,teachersmayneedtomodifythewaythattechniquesareintroduced.Theexpectationsofparentscanalsoconstrainwhatispossible,atleastintheshortterm.Teachersthereforeneedtheflexibilitytobeableto“morph”theclassroomformativeassessmenttechniqueswithwhichtheyarepresentedtofittheirownclassroomcontext(Ginsburg,2001).Thedangerinthisisthatateachermaysomodifyanideasomuchthatitisnolongereffective—whatEdHaertelhasdescribedasa“lethalmutation”(Brown&Campione,1996).Forexample,collaborativelearningcanproducesignificantincreasesinstudentachievement,butonlywhereitisimplementedinawaythatemphasizesgroupgoalsandindividualaccountability.Manyteachersarereluctanttoensurethatstudentsareindividuallyaccountableforcontributingtotheworkofthegroup,andtheydonotimplementcollaborativelearninginawaythatincreasesstudentachievement.Whatisneeded,therefore,isawayofallowingteachersflexibility,whileatthesametimeconstrainingtheuseofthatflexibilitysothatmodificationstotheoriginalideasdonotundulyweakentheireffectiveness.Itisimportanttomakethedistinctionbetweenthestrategiesofclassroomformativeassessmentontheonehand,andthetechniquesthatcanbeusedtoenactthesestrategiesinclassroomsontheother.Thefivekeystrategiesofformativeassessmentarealwayssmartthingsforateachertobedoing.However,theactualtechniquesteachersusetoenacttheseintheirpracticerequirescarefulthought.Sometechniquesworkbetterinsomeschoolsubjectsthanothers,andsomeworkbetterwithsomestudentsthanothers.Itisalsoimportanttonotethattheteacher’sbeliefinthevalueofatechniqueisimportant.Forexample,manyteachersarecomfortableusingpopsiclestickswithfifth-gradersbutthinktheyarealittletoochildishforeighth-graders.Havingsaidthat,teachersofAdvancedPlacementcoursesinhighschoolshavefoundpopsiclesticksausefulstrategyforrandomquestioning,becausewhen18-year-oldsareaskedtoansweraquestion,theirfirstreactionis“whyme?.”Withthepopsiclesticks,theansweris,“It’syourunluckyday.Dealwithit.Nowwhat’stheanswertothequestion?”

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Teachersshouldbefreetoadoptwhicheverofthesetechniquestheywish,thusprovidingchoice—thefirstofthefiveprocessrequirements.Byanchoringthetechniquesto(atleast)oneofthefivekeystrategies,weprovideameansbywhichteacherscanmodifythetechniques,butstillprovideareasonableassuranceoffidelitytotheoriginalresearch,andthereforeareasonableguaranteethatthetechniqueswillbeeffectiveinincreasingstudentachievement.Thisrepresentsaradicallydifferentmodelofthe“dissemination”ofeducationalresearch.Inthestandardmodel,researchersresearch,findoutthingsandthentellteacherswhattodo.Inotherwords,theresearchergainsinsightsintoclassroomsandlearning,andattemptstocommunicatethoseinsightstoteachersasknowledge.Forexample,givingtask-involvingfeedbackisbetterthangivingego-involvingfeedback.Accordingtothetraditionalmodelofdissemination(see,forexample,English,Jones,Lesh,Tirosh,&Bussi,2002,p.805),allweneedtodothenistotellteacherstogivemoretask-involvingfeedbackandlessego-involvingfeedback.Ofcourse,it’snotassimpleasthat,becausewhetherfeedbackisego-involvingortaskinvolvingdependsonthecontextinwhichitisgiven,theattitudesoftherecipient,andtherelationshipbetweenthedonorandtherecipientofthefeedback.

Oneofthemainreasonsthateducationalresearchhashadsolittleimpactoneducationalpracticeisbecausetheveryhardesttaskofall—workingouthowtoimplementresearchfindingsinrealcontexts—hasbeenleftalmostentirelytoteachers,andthisis

bothunfairandfoolish.ButIbelievethatbystartingwiththeresearchliterature,itispossibletobuildupatheoryofformativeassessmentthatcanthenbemanifestedinasetofclassroomtechniques.Becausetheyarederivedfromresearchevidence,thesetechniquesformasetof“validatedpractices”thatmaynotworkineverysetting,butarelikelytobeeffectiveinmostcontexts,becauseoftheframingprovidedbythefivestrategiesandtheresearchevidenceonwhichtheyarebased.Teachersthentakethesetechniques,andthroughregularuse,incorporatethemintotheirowntheoriesofclassroompractice,andthuschangetheirownideasaboutpractice.Yearsago,thelateMillardFuller,founderof“HabitatforHumanity”pointedoutthatinmattersofenvironmentalawareness,itisgenerallyeasiertogetpeopletoacttheirwayintoanewwayofthinkingthanitistogetthemtothinktheirwayintoanewwayofacting.Thetwoapproachestoresearchandpracticedescribedabovecanbethoughtofinthesameway.Traditionalapproachestothedisseminationofeducationalresearchare,ineffect,tryingtogetteacherstothinktheirwayintoanewwayofacting.Incontrast,encouragingteacherstoadoptnewpracticesthattheythenincorporateintotheirroutineteachingisawayofgettingthemtoacttheirwayintoanewwayofthinking.

“Oneofthemainreasonsthateducationalresearchhashadsolittleimpactoneducationalpracticeisbecausetheveryhardesttaskofall—workingouthowtoimplementresearchfindingsinrealcontexts—hasbeenleftalmostentirelytoteachers,andthisisbothunfairandfoolish.”

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Thisisanimportantinsightbecausechangingwhatteachersthink,ifitdoesnotchangewhattheydo,willnotbenefitstudents.Studentsbenefitonlywhenteacherschangewhattheydoinclassrooms.Itisasifwehavebeentrainingquarterbacksbygettingthemtoreadbooksandwatchfilm.Suchactivitiesmayhavesomevalue,butultimately,theyhavetobeabletoputtheseideasintopractice,andthatisthehardestpart.Indeed,Idonotthinkitistoomuchofanoverstatementtosaythatthereasonfortherelativeineffectivenessofmostprofessionaldevelopmentoverthelastquartercenturyisbecauseithasbeenbasedonanincorrectdiagnosis.Wehaveassumedthatthe“problem”isthatteachersdon’tknowenough,andsowehaveherdedthemintoroomstohearexpertssupplythemissingknowledge,andthenhaveassumedthat,withtheirdeficitsinknowledgerectified,teacherswillbemoreeffective.Ithasn’tworkedbecausethediagnosisiswrong.Teachersdon’tlackknowledge.Whattheylackissupportinworkingouthowtointegratetheseideasintotheirdailypractice,andthistakestime,whichiswhywehavetoallowteacherstotakesmallsteps.

Smallsteps

Itisextremelyimportantforschoolstoimprove—andquickly.Forthatreason,itishardlysurprisingthatpolicymakers,politicians,andadministratorswanttogetteachersdevelopingtheirclassroomformativeassessmentpracticesasquicklyaspossible.However,theresearchevidenceshowsthatteachersareslowtochangetheirclassroompractices.Indeed,manypeoplehavegoneasfarastoclaimthatteachersareresistanttochange—thatteachersclingtoasetofprofessionalhabits,whichtoaveryrealextent,representacorepartofeachteacher’sprofessionalidentity,whichiswhytheyareunwillingtochange.Ifwewanttosupportteachersindevelopingtheirpractice,itisimportantforustounderstandwhychangesinpracticearesoslow.Isitjustresistancetochange,orsomethingdeeper?Itisimportanttounderstandthereasonsbecausewhatwedotosupportchangewilldependonthereasonsfortheslownessofpreviousattempts.Ifteachersareresistanttochangebecausetheyarehappywiththewaythingsare,anddon’twanttochange,thenwecould,forexample,lookforwaysofovercomingresistance.Thisisoftentherationaleforincentiveschemes—theideaisthatteacherswilladoptnewideasiftheyarepaidtodoso.However,theevidencefromcarefulevaluationsofincentiveschemesshowthattheyarenotparticularlysuccessful(see,forexampleSpringer,Ballou,Hamilton,Le,Lockwood,McCaffrey,Pepper&Stecher,2010).Afarmorelikelyreasonfortheslownessofteacherchangeisthatitisgenuinelydifficult,becausehigh-levelperformanceinadomainascomplexasteachingrequiresautomatizingalargeproportionofthethingsthatteachersdo.Forlearnerdrivers,shiftinggears,usingtheturnindicator,checkingtherear-viewmirror,andsteeringallatthesametimeseemsimpossiblycomplicated—andundertakenconsciously,theyare.Experienceddrivershavepracticedtheseactivitiessomanytimesthattheybecomeautomatedandthustakeup

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littleoftheavailableresourcesforcognitiveprocessing.However,asanyonewhotriestochangethewaytheydrive—forexampletoreducetheextenttowhichthey“ridetheclutch”—hasdiscovered,theseautomatedproceduresareextremelyhardtochange.Infact,asDavidBerlinerhasshown,expertperformanceinteachingsharesmanyofthepropertiesofexpertiseinotherareas(Berliner,1994).Afterreviewingresearchonthenatureofexpertiseinteaching,heofferedeightpropositionsonthenatureofexpertise:

Expertsexcelmainlyintheirowndomain:Ateachermightbeveryskilledatteachingseventhgrademath,butmuchlesseffectiveatteachingmathtoseventh-graderswithspecialeducationalneeds.Expertisetendstobeveryspecific.Expertsoftendevelopautomaticityfortherepetitiveoperationsthatareneededtoaccomplishtheirgoals:Inmyteachingonpre-serviceteachereducationprograms,Ifoundthatnoviceteacherstakearoundfourhourstoplananhour’sinstruction,whileexpertteachersplanlessonsofhigherqualityinfiveminutesorless.Inotherwords,planningalessonissomethinganexpertdoesasmuchas50timesfasterthananovice.Themoreoftenwedothings,thebetterandfasterwegetatthem.Expertsaremoresensitivetothetaskdemandsandsocialsituationwhensolvingproblems:Whenaskedtoplanasequenceofinstruction,expertteacherstendtowantmoredetailsaboutthephysicalsituationinwhichtheywillbeteaching,andwantdetailsoftheexperience,ability,andbackgroundsofthestudentstheywillbeteaching.Also,expertteacherswilloftenusehumouratthebeginningofaninstructionalsequence,butthenbecomemoreserious,whilenovicesarelikelytoprojectthesameemotionaltonethroughout.Expertsaremoreopportunisticandflexibleintheirteachingthannovices:Novicestendtotrytouse“allpurpose”solutions,whereasexpertsaremorelikelytouseasolutionthatisrelevantonlytothespecificproblemathand.Expertsareableto“steer”responsesmadebystudentstowardsthelessonobjectives,whereasnoviceseitherfinditdifficulttodeviatefromtheirplannedcourse,or,whentheydo,tendtogetside-tracked.Expertsrepresentproblemsinqualitativelydifferentwaysthannovices:Manystudieshavefoundthatthedifferencebetweenexpertsandnovicesisnotsomuchtheamountofknowledge(althoughthisisimportant)buthowthatknowledgeisorganized.Novicestendtoorganizetheirknowledgeaccordingtosurfacefeatures,whereasexpertsaremorelikelytousedeepstructuralfeatures.Forexample,whenaskedtodescribeastudent,anexpertteacherismorelikelytomentionaspectsrelatedtolearningneeds,whereasanoviceteacherismorelikelytomentionaspectsofpersonalitythatarenotdirectlyrelevanttoinstructionalplanning.Expertshavefastandaccuratepatternrecognitioncapabilities.Novicescannotalwaysmakesenseofwhattheyexperience.Forexample,anexperiencedteachercanwalk

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intoaclassroomandseethataparticulararrangementoftableswillnotworkforwhattheyhaveplanned,eventhoughtheymaynotbeabletosaywhy.Expertsperceivemeaningfulpatternsinthedomaininwhichtheyareexperienced.Whenshownastillphotographofaclassroom,andaskedwhatisgoingon,noviceteachersarelikelytorespondwithdescriptions(e.g.,“Fourstudentsaresittingroundatable”)whereasexpertsaremorelikelytomakeinferencesaboutwhatisgoingon(e.g.,“Itlookslikesomekindofgrouptaskinasciencelab”).Expertsbegintosolveproblemsslowerbutbringricherandmorepersonalsourcesofinformationtobearontheproblemthattheyaretryingtosolve.Whengivendetailsofastudent,andaskedtoplanhowtohelpthestudentprogress,novicesarelikelytobeginplanningquiterapidly,whereasexpertstendtotakemuchlonger(inonestudycitedbyBerliner,novicesbeganplanningafterthreeminutes,whileexpertstook10minutestobegin).Partofthereasonforexperts’longerplanningappearstobebecausetheysearchthroughtheirpreviousexperiencestofindsimilarsituationstheyhavemetbefore(whichofcoursethenovicesdon’thave),butarealsocarefultoexplorewhetherthecurrentsituationissufficientlysimilartothepreviouscaseforthepreviouscasetobeagoodguidetowhattodo.

Itisonlybyobservingnoviceteachersthatonerealizeshowexpertthebestteachersare.Expertteachers,withafewcommandsandawaveofthearms,getstudentsintoaclassroom,seated,andatworkinamatterofseconds,whereaswithnoviceteachers,thesameprocesscanhavetheappearanceofherdingcats.Thesepolishedroutinesaretheresultofhundreds,thousands,andsometimesevenhundredsofthousandsofrepetitions.Theyarewhatgetteachersthroughtheday—withoutthem,theirjobswouldbeimpossible.Butthe“automaticityforrepetitiveoperationsthatareneededtoaccomplishtheirgoals”thatBerlinermentionsalsomeansthatonceestablished,theseroutinesarehardtochange.Afewyearsago,IwasworkingwithteachersinHoHoKus,aK-8schooldistrictinnorthernNewJersey.Onesixth-gradeteacherwastryingtouse“Nohandsupexcepttoaskaquestion,”butshefoundthisverydifficultbecauseeverytimesheaskedaquestion,shewouldbeginthequestionbyasking,“Doesanyone…?”or“Hasanyone…?”Sheaskedme,“WhyamIfindingthissohard?”Wesatdownandworkedoutthatinthe22yearsshehadbeenteaching,shehadprobablyaskedhalfamillionquestionsinherclassroom.Whenyou’vedonesomethingonewayhalf-a-milliontimes,doingitanyotherwayisgoingtobeverydifficult.Teachingisevenmoreextremethandrivingacarinthisrespect,becauseteacherscometotheprofessionwithaseriesof“scripts”ofhowclassroomsshouldoperate“hard-wired”intotheirmindsfromtheirtimeasstudents.Thesescripts,suchasrequiringstudentstoraisetheirhandsiftheyhaveananswertoateacher’squestion,seemnatural,butofcoursetheyarelearned,andtheygetinthewayoflearning(Wiliam,2005).

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Moreover,manyofthechangesinpracticeassociatedwithimplementingformativeassessmentarenotjustdifficulttochangebecausetheyarehabituated—theyalsocontradictwidelydistributedandstronglyheldbeliefsabout,forexample,thevalueofgradesformotivatingstudents.Evenwhenteachersareconvincedofthevalueofapproachessuchas“comment-onlygrading”theyareoftendissuadedfromtryingthemoutbymoreseniorcolleagueswhodismissinnovationsasfadsadvocatedbyivorytoweracademicswhodon’tknowwhatrealteachingis.Theconsequenceofallthisisthatinimplementinganyprofessionaldevelopmentmodel,wehavetoacceptthatteacherlearningisslow.Inparticular,forchangesinpractice—asopposedtoknowledge—tobelasting,theymustbeintegratedintoateacher’sexistingroutines,andthistakestime.Manypeopleinvolvedinprofessionaldevelopmentarefamiliarwiththeexperienceofencouragingteacherstotryoutnewideas,andseeingthembeingenactedwhentheyvisitteachers’classrooms,onlytolearnshortlyafterwardsthattheteachershaverevertedtotheirformerpractices.Wehavetoallowanyonewhoischangingsomethingatwhichtheyarealreadyexperttotake“smallsteps.”Thecollectionofroutinesthatteachersestablishtogetthroughthedayaretheirgreatestasset,butatthesametimealiability,becausegettingbetterinvolvesgettingalittlebitworse,atleastforawhile.WhenTigerWoodswantedtochangehisgolfswingafterwinningthe1997Mastersgolftournament,hewithdrewfromcompetition,andpractisedhisnewswinguntilhewashappywithit.Butnoteacherisgoingtogetthreemonthstopractisenewtechniquesinfrontofamirrorbeforetryingthemoutintheclassroom,whichiswhychangingone’steachingissuchadauntingprospect.Itinvolvesdisruptingthethingsthatgetyouthroughtheday.Nowonderoneteacherdescribedchangingherclassroomroutinesas“enginerepair,inflight.”Asecondreasonthatteachersneedtotakesmallstepsisthatexpertisecannotbereducedtowords,sothatteachersneedto“feel”theirwaywhentryingoutnewideas.ThefactthatexpertiseismorethanjustfollowingasetofruleswasneatlyillustratedinastudycarriedoutbyKleinandKlein(1981).Theresearcherspreparedsixvideoclipsofsomeoneperformingcardio-pulmonaryresuscitation(CPR).FiveofthevideoclipswereofstudentswhowerejustlearningCPRandonewasofanexperiencedparamedic.Thesixclipswereshowntoanumberofexperiencedparamedics,studentslearningCPR,andCPRinstructors,andeachparticipantwasasked,“WhowouldyouwantdoingCPRonyouifyouneededit?”Theexpertschosetheexpert90%ofthetime.Thestudentschosetheexpert50%ofthetime.Theinstructors—thepeoplewhoteachotherpeoplehowtodoCPR—chosetheexpertonly30%ofthetime.Theresearchersconcludedthattheinstructorswerelookingforpeoplewhoenactedthe“rules”ofCPRthattheythemselvestaught,andoften,theexpertparamedicsdidnotdothis.However,itisimportanttonotethatexpertscouldstillidentifyexperts.ItwasnotasifeachexperthadacompletelyidiosyncraticwayofdoingCPR.RatheritappearsthatexpertiseinCPRwasnotadequatelycapturedbythe“rules”ofCPRtaughtbyinstructors.

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Whatthissuggestsisthatexpertisecannotalwaysbereducedtowords.Inmanysituations,weknowmorethanwecantell(Polanyi,1966p.4).Andyet,foraslongaprofessionaldevelopmenthasbeenrecognizedasessentialforteachers,theendeavourofhelpingteachersimprovehasbeentreatedasoneoftheprovisionsofknowledge.Mostprofessionaldevelopmenthasbeenbasedontheassumptionthatteacherslacksomeimportantknowledge,andexpertsarebroughtintoremediatethisapparentweakness,presumablyontheassumptionthatoncethesegapsinknowledgehavebeenputright,theteacherswillbeabletoreturntotheirclassroomsandteachbetter.Muchprofessionaldevelopmenthasbeenineffectivebecausethediagnosisisfaulty.Teachersdon’ttendtolackknowledgesomuchastheabilitytotranslatetheirintentionsintoaction,andhere,wehavemuchtolearnfromWeightWatchers®.WeightWatchersoughttobetheleastsuccessfulorganizationontheplanet,becauseeveryonewhowantstoloseweightknowswhattodo:eatlessandexercisemore.That’sit.ThereisnosecretthirdruleofweightlossthatisrevealeduponpaymentofasubscriptiontoWeightWatchers.Forexample,perhapsifIstirredmybreakfastcerealanti-clockwise,itmightturnthedextroseinthesugarintoleft-handedsugarmoleculesthatwouldnotbeabsorbedbymybody?Unfortunatelynot.It’sjusteatless,andexercisemore.ButWeightWatchershaverealizedthattheyarenotintheknowledge-givingbusiness;theyareinthehabit-changingbusiness.Peoplewhowanttoloseweightknowwhattheyneedtodo.Whattheyneedarestructuresandsupportsthathelpthemdowhattheywanttodo.Inthesameway,ifweareseriousabouthelpingteachersimprovetheirpractice,wehavetohelpteacherschangetheirclassroomhabits.Andjustinthesamewaythatweight-lossprogramsneedtobefocusedonweightlossthatissustained,wealsoneedtosupportteacherstomakechangesintheirpracticethatlasts.IhavelostcountofthenumberoftimesthatIhavedescribedateachingtechniquetoagroupofteachersonlyforoneofthemtosaytome,“Iusedtodothat.Itwasgood.”Teachersarebombardedwithnewideas,whichtheyareencouragedtotryout,butbeforetheyhavetimetoconsolidatethesenewideasintotheirpractice,somenewerideacomesalong.Thisiswhytheideaof“sharinggoodpractice”canbesodangerousasamodelforteacherprofessionaldevelopment.Ofcourseteachersneednewideas,butmostteachersalreadyhavemoregoodideasthantheywilleverbeabletoincorporateintotheirteaching.Whatteachersneedishelpcreatingnewhabits,andthisisachallengeinallareasofhumanendeavor—evenmedicine.Inthe19thcentury,manywomendiedshortlyafterchildbirth—thediseasewasnamed“puerperalfever”whichwasmorealabelthanadiagnosis,sinceliterallyitjustmeansafeverofawomaninchildbirth.IgnazSemmelweis,adoctorattheViennaGeneralHospital,noticedthattheprevalenceofthisdiseasehadincreasedsharplyaftertheintroductionof“pathologicalanatomy”inwhichdoctorscarriedoutpost-mortemexaminationstoinvestigatethecauseofdeath,whilewaitingforwomeninlabortogivebirth.However,nosuchincreasehadbeenseenwherethemotherswereattendedby

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midwives(whowereofcoursenotinvolvedinpost-mortems).Hissuggestionthatdoctorswashtheirhandsinaweaksolutionofcalciumhypochlorite(commonhouseholdbleach)waswidelyreviledatthetime,eventhoughtheintroductionofthisprocedurecutthemortalityratefrompuerperalfeveratViennaGeneralHospitalfromanaverageofaround15%tolessthan5%(Semmelweis1861/1983).Acenturyandahalfon,itisnowacceptedthatgoodhandhygieneisessentialtoavoidingcross-infectioninhospitals.Except,acenturyandahalflater,wedon’tseemtohavemademuchprogress.ThesurgeonAtulGawande(2007)haspointedoutwehavemadefargreaterprogressinadvancedtechniquesofsurgerythaninapparently“easier”areassuchasbasichygiene.Hequotestheexampleofwashinghandsaftercontactwithpatients,wherethecompliancerateinmanyhospitalsisbelow50%eventhoughitiswidelyacceptedthatmuchhigherratesarerequiredtocontrolthespreadofresistantformsofstaphylococcusaureussuchasvancomycin-resistantStaphylococcusaureus(VRSA)andmethicillinin-resistantStaphylococcusaureus(MRSA)(p.15).Infact,areviewofhand-hygienestudiesbyPittet(2001)reviewedstudiesofhandhygieneandfoundthatcomplianceratesofbelow50%wasthenorm.Theproblemisnotignorance,norwillfuldisobedience.Inmosthospitals,astrictprocedureisspecifiedforhandwashing,but,Gawandepointsout,

Almostnooneadherestothisprocedure.Itseemsimpossible.Onmorningrounds,ourresidentscheckinontwentypatientsinanhour.Thenursesinourintensivecareunitstypicallyhaveasimilarnumberofcontactswithpatientsrequiringhandwashinginbetween.Evenifyougetthewholecleansingprocessdowntoaminuteperpatient,that’sstillathirdofstafftimespentjustwashinghands.Suchfrequenthandwashingcanalsoirritatetheskin,whichcanproducedermatitis,whichitselfincreasesbacterialcounts.(Gawande,2007p.18)

Ifwearegoingtohelpteacherschangetheirclassroomhabits,weneedtorecognizethatthisisgoingtobehugelychallenging,andisgoingtorequirebothsupportandaccountability,whicharethesubjectsofthenexttwosections.

AccountabilityAllteachersneedtoimprovetheirpractice;notbecausetheyarenotgoodenough,butbecausetheycanbebetter.Forthatreason,Ithinkitisentirelyappropriateforteacherstobeheldaccountableformakingimprovementsintheirpractice.Indevelopingtheirpractice,teachersshoulddevelopthoseaspectsoftheirpracticethatislikelytobeofmostbenefittotheirstudents;inotherwords,theyshouldbeaccountabletotheevidenceaboutwhatislikelytobenefitstudents.Thisisnotmeanttoimplyaslavishfollowingofthelatestresearchfindings,butthatteachersshouldbeliterallyaccountable—theyshouldacceptthattheyshouldexpect,andbeable,torenderan

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accountofwhytheyhavechosentodeveloponeaspectoftheirpracticeratherthananother.Inourworkwithteachers,wehavefoundithelpfultoengagethemindetailedplanningofwhatchangestheyplantomakeintheirteaching.Thisprocesscouldbecalled“actionplanning”butitisimportanttonotethatourexperienceisthatthisisbestdonewithahighlystructuredapproach—verydifferentfromthetokenistic“actionplanning”thatoccursattheendofmanyteacherprofessionaldevelopmentevents.Ofcoursetherearemanydifferentprotocolsthatmightbeadoptedforactionplanning,butourexperienceofworkingwithteachersdevelopingtheirpracticeofformativeassessmentsuggeststhatthefollowingfeaturesareparticularlyimportant:

1. Theactionplanshouldidentifyasmallnumberofchangesthattheteacherwillmakeintheirteaching:Whenteacherstrytochangemorethantwoorthreethingsintheirpracticeatthesametime,theresultisoftenthattheirclassroomroutinesdeterioratesignificantly,andtheythenfallbackonthoseroutineswithwhichtheyfeelcomfortableor“safe.”Likethestoryofthetortoiseandthehare,teacherswhotrytochangetoomanythingsatthesametimeendupmakinglessprogressthanthosewhomakesmall,gradual,manageablechanges.

2. Theplanshouldbewrittendown:Writingtheplandownmakesitmorelikelythattheteacherthinkstheplanthroughwhilewritingitdown,makestheideasmoreconcrete,andalsocreatesarecordthatmeansthatteachersarelesslikelytoforgetwhattheyplannedtodo.

3. Theplanshouldfocusonthefivekeystrategiesofformativeassessment:Asnotedabove,teachersshouldprioritizechangesthatarelikelytobenefitstudents,andalthoughthereareotherchangesthatmightbenefitstudents,therobustnessandthecoherenceoftheresearchontheeffectsofformativeassessmentsuggeststhatthisshouldbethestartingpointforallteachers.

4. Theplanshouldidentifywhattheteacherplanstoreduce,orgiveupdoingtomaketimeforthechanges:Mostteachersareworkingashardastheycan,soifthesechangesaretreatedasanadditiontotheirload,theyareunlikelyevertobeimplemented.Tomaketimeforthesechanges,theactionplanmustidentifysomethingthattheteachersarecurrentlydoingthattheywillstopdoing,ordolessof,tomaketimeavailableforthechanges.Askedtomakesuchclearpriorities,peopleoftenhopethattheycanmakethenecessarychangesbybeingmoreefficientintheiruseoftime,butthisisusuallyhopelesslyoptimistic.Theonlywaytomaketimeavailablefornewthingsistoreduce,orstopdoingentirely,thingsthattheyarecurrentlydoing,inordertocreatetimeforinnovation.

SupportThelastprocesselement—support—iscloselyrelatedtoaccountability.Indeed,someauthorshavedescribedthemasasinglefeatureofeffectivelearningenvironmentsfor

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teachers:supportiveaccountability(Ciofalo&Leahy,2006).Thecentralideaisthecreationofstructuresthat,whilemakingteachersaccountablefordevelopingtheirpractice,alsoprovidethesupportforthemtodothis.Supportandaccountabilitycanthereforebethoughtofastwosidesofthesamecoin.Theclosenessoftherelationshipbetweensupportandaccountabilitycanbeseenwhenweconsidertheprocessof“actionplanning”whichcanbethoughtofbothasprovidingameasureofaccountability,andasprovidingsupportfortheteachertochangetheirpractice.Someteachersfinditdemeaning,oreveninsulting,tobeaskedtoputdowninwritingwhattheyaregoingtotryoutintheirclassroom,butinlookingbackattheprocess,teachershavesaidtimeandagainhowusefultheideaofcommittingtheirplanstopaperwas,bothintermsofmakingtheirplansconcrete,andintermsofmakingacommitmenttotheirpeers.Tim,amathteacheratSpruceCentralHighSchool,wasreflecting,afterparticipatinginteacherlearningcommunitiesforayear,ontheexperienceofmakingawrittencommitmenttotherestofgrouptowardstheendofeachmeeting:

IthinkspecificallywhatwashelpfulwastheridiculousNCR[NoCarbonRequired]forms.Ithoughtthatwasthedumbestthing,butI’msittingwithmyfriendsandontheNCRformIwritedownwhatIamgoingtodonextmonth.Well,itturnsouttobeasortof“I’mtellingmyfriendsI’mgoingtodothis”andIreallyactuallydiditanditwasbecauseofthat.ItwasbecauseIwroteitdown.Iwassurprisedathowstronganincentivethatwastodoactuallydosomethingdifferent[…]thatideaofwritingdownwhatyouaregoingtodoandthenbecausewhentheycomebythenextmonthyoubettertakeoutthatpieceofpaperandsay“DidIdothat?”[…]Justtheideaofsittinginagroup,workingoutsomething,andmakingacommitment[…]Iwasimpressedabouthowthatactuallymademedostuff.(Lyon,Wylie&Goe,2006p.20)

Clearly,creatingthis‘supportiveaccountability’couldbedoneinanumberofways.Onewaywouldbetoassigneachteacheracoach,butthiswouldbeexpensive,anditisbynomeansclearthatanadequatesupplyofappropriatelyskilledcoacheswouldbeavailable.Forthatreason,between2003and2006SiobhánLeahyandIworkingwithcolleaguesattheEducationalTestingService,developedandpilotedanumberofmodelsforsupportingteachers(forextendedaccountsoftheseearlydevelopments,seeThompson&Goe,2008;Wylie,Lyon&Goe,2009;Wylie,Lyon,&Mavronikolas,2008).Whatwelearnedissummarizedinthefollowingsection.

Supportingformativeassessmentwithteacherlearningcommunities

Oneofourearliestmodelsinvolvedafacilitatormeetingeverytwoorthreeweekswithgroupsoffourtosixhighschoolteacherstodiscussthechangestheywereattemptingtomakeintheirpractice.Asaresultofthiswork,itbecameclearthatatwo-orthree-weekcycledidnotallowenoughtimefortheteachersinvolvedtoplanandimplementchangesintheirpracticeintimeforreportingbackatthenextmeeting.Thosewhohavenever

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beenteacherscannotunderstandthis.Surely,theysay,ateachercouldtryoutanewideaintwoorthreeweeks?Butbecausetheyhaveneverbeenteachers,theydonotunderstandthecomplexityandfragilityofateacher’sworkinglife.Moreover,manyofthetechniquesrequirecarefulplanning,anddon’tworkwithallsubjectmatter.Ifateacherwantstotryoutgettingthestudentstouse“trafficlights”toundertakeaself-assessment,thenthisneedstobedoneinalessonwherethelearningintentionandthesuccesscriteriacanbeexpressedclearlyinlanguagethatisaccessibletostudents.IfateacherwantstousetheABCDcardsforahinge-pointquestion,sheneedstodecidewhichlessontotrythisoutin,whereinthelessontocheckonthestudents’understanding,andmayneedtoarrangetimetomeetwithanotherteachertodiscussthedesignofthequestion.Fourweeksappearstobeaminimumperiodoftimeforteacherstoplanandcarryoutanewideaintheirclassrooms.Ontheotherhand,implementationsthatinvolvedmeetingsthatoccurredatintervalsofsixweeksormoreappearedtolosemomentum.Thisledtotheadoptionofamonthlycycleofmeetings,andintryingoutthismodelinliterallyhundredsofschoolsindozensofdistrictsoverthelasteightyears,wehavenotcomeacrossanyevidencethatsuggeststhatintervalsbetweenmeetingsofapproximatelyfourweeksisnotanoptimum,atleastinrespectofchangesinpracticerelatedtoformativeassessment.Originally,wehadassumedthatschoolswouldbeabletofindtwohoursforeachofthemonthlymeetings,andwhilethiswasclearlypossibleinsomedistricts,inothersitwasnot,sowelookedcarefullyatwaysofreducingthelengthofthemonthlymeeting.Afterexperimentationwithdifferentlengthsofmeetings(includingmeetingsasshortas60minutes),weconcludedthat75minutesshouldbeanabsoluteminimum.Insomeschools,becauseofthelackofasingle75-minuteslot,teacherstriedhavingtwo40-minuteslots,butthisappearedtobemuchlesssuccessfulthanasingle75-minuteslot.Ourexperienceswithmeetingsforasmallnumberofparticipantshadalsoledustoconcludethattheminimumnumberofparticipantsneededforameetingtobeeffectivewasaroundeight.Meetingswithfewerthaneightparticipantsoftenrequiredsignificantinputfromthegroup’sleaderorfacilitator,particularlywhenoccasionalabsencesduetoillnessandotherfactorsreducedthesizeofthegroupfurther.Whilesuchintensivesupportfromthefacilitatormightprovideaneffectivelearningenvironmentforthoseattending,suchamodelwouldbeunlikelytobescalable.Ontheotherhand,wherethegroupwasmuchlargerthan12(aswasoftenthecaseinourearlyworkintheClevelandMunicipalSchoolDistrict),therewasnotenoughtimetohearbackfromeachmemberofthegroup.Ininterviews,manyparticipantsinteacherlearningcommunitieshavetoldusthatitwasthefactthattheyknewthattheywouldberequiredtogivetheircolleaguesanaccountofwhattheyhadbeendoingthatmadethemprioritizeworkingonchangingtheirclassroompracticeoverallthepressingconcernsofateacher’slife(Ciofalo&Leahy,2006).Giventhatonanyday,oneortwoteachersarelikelytobeabsentforanynumberofreasons,toensurethatagrouphasatleasteightparticipants,agroupsizeof10to12isrecommended.

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Aswellasdesignguidelinesforthesizeofgroupandfrequencyofmeetings,wealsoexploredtheextenttowhichitwasnecessaryforteacherstoshareparticularassignments(e.g.,earlygradesorsubject-specialismsinsecondaryschools).Ithasbeenourexperiencethatteachersgreatlyvaluemeetinginmixed-subjectgroups,inordertogetideasfromteachersofdifferentsubjectsordifferentages.However,wehadalsoobservedmanyinstancesofateacherrejectingsuggestionsfromothermembersofthegroupwithaclaimthatthesuggestedideawouldnotworkforherorhisownsubject-specialism.Inordertobalancethesetensions,wehaveexploredmodelswheretheteachersdonotallcomefromthesamesubjectspecialism,but,inordertoprovidesomedisciplinarysupport,weensurethatforeachteacherinthegroup,therewasatleastoneotherwiththesameage-orsubject-specialism.Todate,wedonothaveanydatathatsuggeststhatanyparticularmethodofconstitutingagroupisbetterthananother,althoughweareawarethatthescopefordeepconversationsaboutsubjectmatterarelikelytobelimitedwherethegroupismadeupofindividualswithdifferentsubjectspecialisms(Grossman,Wineburg&Woolworth,2000).Onemodelthatsomeschoolshaveadopted,whichappearstoworkwell,istobeginwithmixedorhybridmodels,andthen,afterayearortwo,tomovetowardsmorespecialistgroupings,makingitpossibleto“deepentheconversation.”Onefinaldesignfeatureofthemonthlymeetingsoftheteacherlearningcommunitieswasrelatedtotheirstructure.Wewereawarethatinmostapproachestoteacherprofessionaldevelopment,noveltywasoftenregardedasparamount,inordertokeepthings“fresh.”Thedisadvantageofsuchanapproachisthatparticipantsarriveatthemeetingnotknowingtherolestheyareexpectedtoplay,sothattheorganizationoftheteachers’learning,ratherthanthelearningitself,wasforegrounded.Ontheotherhand,wewereawarefromtheworkofLeeShulmanonprofessionallearninginlaw,medicineandotherprofessionsthattheyadoptstandardwaysoforganizingthelearningofprofessionals,andthese“signaturepedagogies”areenduringandwidespread.

Anotherinterestingquestionaboutthesepedagogiesis:Whydotheypersist?Whydotheylastsolong?IthinktheansweristhateventhoughIcanpointouttheflawsineveryoneofthesesignaturepedagogies—andeachisflawed—byandlarge,theywork.Theyachievetheendsforwhichtheywere“designed”,orinakindofDarwiniansense,theysurvivethecompetitionwithalternativepedagogicalmeans.(Shulman,2004p.15)

Forthisreason,werealizedthattherecouldbeconsiderablebenefitsofadoptingastandardstructureforthesemonthlymeetings.Thefactthateachmeetingfollowsthesamestructuremeansthatparticipantscometothemeetingknowingtherolestheyaretoplay,bothintermsofreportingbackontheirownexperiences,andprovidingsupporttoothers.Weexploredanumberofpossibledifferentmodels,butthemodelpresentedbelowhasworkedwellinallthedifferentsettingsinwhichithasbeentried.

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Introduction(5minutes)Agendasforthemeetingarecirculatedandthelearningintentionsforthemeetingarepresented.

Starteractivity(5minutes)Participantsengageisanactivitytohelpthemfocusontheirownlearning.

Feedback(25minutes)Eachteachergivesabriefreportonwhattheycommittedtotryoutduringthe“personalactionplanning”sectionatthepreviousmeeting,whiletherestofthegrouplistenappreciativelyandthenoffersupporttotheindividualintakingtheirplanforward.

Newlearningaboutformativeassessment(25minutes)InordertoprovideanelementofnoveltyintoeachmeetingoftheTLC,andtoprovideasteadystreamofnewideas,eachmeetingincludesanactivitythatintroducessomenewideasaboutformativeassessment.Thismightbeatask,avideotowatchanddiscuss,ora‘bookstudy’inwhichteacherswilldiscussabookchapterrelevanttoformativeassessmentthattheyhavereadoverthepastmonth.

Personalactionplanning(15minutes)Thepenultimateactivityofeachsessioninvolveseachoftheparticipantsplanningindetailwhattheyhopetoaccomplishbeforethenextmeeting.Thismayincludetryingoutnewideas,oritmaysimplybetoconsolidatetechniqueswithwhichtheyhavealreadyexperimented.Thisisalsoagoodtimeforparticipantstoplananypeerobservationsthattheyplantoundertake.Itisourexperiencethatiftheparticipantsleavethemeetingwithoutadefinitedateandtimetoobserveoneanother,thepeerobservationismuchlesslikelytotakeplace(Maher&Wiliam,2007).

Summaryoflearning(5minutes)Inthelastfiveminutesofthemeeting,thegroupdiscusseswhethertheyhaveachievedthelearningintentionstheysetthemselvesatthebeginningofthemeeting.Iftheyhavenot,thereistimeforthegrouptodecidewhattodoaboutit.

Thesemeetingsprovidebothsupportandaccountability.Manyteachershavespokenabouttheusefulnessofthesemeetingsforprovidingadviceabouthowtheymightmoveforwardwhentheyare“stuck,”buttheyalsocreateastrongmeasureofaccountabilityforteacherstoactuallyimplementtheirplans.

Somuchfortheeasybit…

Theresearchonformativeassessmentandthedesignprinciplesfortheteacherlearningsummarizedabovecreateaveryclearvisionofwhatshouldbehappeninginclassrooms,andwhatkindsofteacherprofessionaldevelopmentmighthelpmoveteacherstowards

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suchpractice.However,thisclarityonlytakesonesofarinthedesignofproductsthatmightbedistributedatscale.Perhapsthemostinterestingfindingfromthisearlyphaseofdevelopmentwasthatmanyschoolsappropriatedelementsoftheprogramtosupporttheirexistingplans.Despitehavingattendedpresentationswheretheresearchbasisforformativeassessmentwasdiscussedatsomelength,andwhereitwasshownthattherewaslittleornoresearchtosupportotherinnovationsinlearningthatwereattractinginterestatthetime(e.g.,“braingym”orlearningstyles),manyschoolsreportedthattheylikedtheideaofteacherlearningcommunities,buthaddecidedtousethemtosupportteachersinwhateverwastheschool’scurrentpriorityforprofessionaldevelopment(e.g.,differentiatedinstruction,personalization,learningstyles).Ofcourse,thisappropriationofresourcesishardlysurprising,impossibletoprevent,andmaybeverypositiveinitsoutcomes,butwhatwassurprisingwasthatmostofthosewhohadtransformedtheinnovationbeyondrecognitionappearedtobelievethattheywereimplementingthematerialsasintended.

Acasestudyinonedistrict

Canningtonisalocalauthority(schooldistrict)inGreaterLondon,coveringanareaofapproximately10squaremiles,andservingadiversepopulationofapproximately200,000residents,withthreetimesasmanyofitsresidentsfromminorityethniccommunitiesasthecountryasawhole.InJuly2007,aphilanthropicorganizationmadeavailablesomefundsfortheestablishmentofaresearchprojectdesignedtoraisestudentachievementinmathematics,science,andmodernforeignlanguages—subjectsthatsupervisorystaffinCanningtonhadidentifiedasprioritiesfordevelopment—althoughhowthismightbedonewasnotidentifiedatthetimethephilanthropicdonationwasmade.InNovember2007,apresentationwasmadetoameetingoftheprincipalsofthesecondaryschoolsinCannington,proposingtheestablishmentofthreeteacherlearningcommunitiesineachsecondaryschool,onefocusingonmathematics,onefocusingonscienceandthethird,onmodernforeignlanguages,toprovidesupportforteachersintheirdevelopmentofclassroomformativeassessmentpractices.MembersoftheprojectteamattendedmeetingsoftheCanningtonprincipalsoverthesubsequentmonthstoprovideupdatesonprogress,andinJuly2008,aseriesofthreeone-daytrainingeventswasheld—oneforeachschoolsubject—forteachersintheparticipatingschools.ThenumberofteachersfromeachschoolattendingeachoftheeventsisshowninTable1.

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Numberofteachersattendingtrainingeventfor:School Mathematics Science ModernLanguagesAshtreeSchool 1 1 0CedarLodgeSchool 5 1 3HawthorneSchool 4 10 5HazeltreeSchool 7 12 2LarchtreeSchool 1 0 0MallowSchool 6 7 3PoplarSchool 11 3 1SpruceSchool 7 8 5WillowtreeSchool 2 5 2Totals 44 47 21

Table1:NumbersofteachersattendingeachtrainingeventThetrainingdayconsistedofabriefsummaryoftheresearchonformativeassessment,anoverviewofthefive“keystrategies”offormativeassessment,andanintroductiontoapproximately30ofthetechniquesthatteachersmightusetoimplementformativeassessmentintheirclassrooms.Thedayconcludedwithdetailsonthecreationofthethreesubject-specificschool-basedteacherlearningcommunitiesthatwouldbeestablishedtoprovideongoingsupportineachschool.Thetrainingsessionalsoprovidedguidanceontheroleoftheleaderofeachofthethreeteacherlearningcommunitiestobeestablishedineachschool.Thereactionsoftheteacherstothetrainingwasextremelypositive,andattheendofthetrainingday,theparticipantsfromsixofthenineschoolsappearedtohaveafirmplanforimplementation.Oneschool(Ashtree)haddecidedtodelayparticipationintheprojectforayear,andHazeltreeSchoolhadearlierthatmonthdecidedtocreatemixed-subject,ratherthansubject-specific,teacherlearningcommunities,astheyfeltthatthiswasmoreinkeepingwiththeprofessionaldevelopmentworkthathadalreadytakenplaceattheschool.However,sincethefundinghadbeenprovidedspecificallyforsupportingtheteacherofmathematics,science,andmodernforeignlanguages,itwasagreedthatthiswouldineffectmeanthatHazeltreewouldbewithdrawingfromtheproject,althoughtheycontinuedtoreceiveallmaterialsnecessaryforsupportingteacherlearningcommunities.LarchtreeSchoolhadonlysentasingleteacher(tothemathematicssession),buttheteacherconcernedappearedconfidentthatshewouldbeableto“cascade”thetrainingtootherteachersinthemathematicsdepartment,andpossiblyalsototheothersubjects.Whileitwasnotpossibleforeachteacherofmathematics,science,andmodernforeignlanguagesineachschooltoattendtheone-dayworkshop,allteachersofthesesubjectsinthesecondaryschoolsinCanningtonwereprovidedwithashort(30-page)bookletoutliningthemajorprinciplesofformativeassessment,togetherwithspecificdetailsonhowtheycouldbeappliedintheirsubject(Hodgen&Wiliam,2006;Black&Harrison,2002;Jones&Wiliam,2007)andacompletesetofhandoutsforparticipantsforeachoftheninemonthlymeetingsscheduledtotakeplaceoverthecomingyear.

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Inordertoprovideasimplechannelofcommunicationbetweentheteachersintheschoolandtheproject,sixexpertfacilitators(twoforeachsubject-specialism)wereappointed.Theirmajorrolewasnotto“drive”theimplementationoftheprogramintheschools,butrathertorespondtorequestsfromTLCleadersandadministratorswithintheschoolontheuseofthematerials.Eachfacilitatorkeptalogoftheircontactswithteachersattheschool,whichprovidedthemainsourceofevidenceontheextenttowhichtheTLCswerefunctioningasintended.Giventheinvolvementoftheprincipalsoftheschoolateachstepoftheprocessuptothispoint,andtheirinvestmentinreleasingsignificantnumbersofteacherstoattendtheinitialworkshops,weexpectedthatteacherlearningcommunitieswouldbeestablishedquickly;butforavarietyofreasons,adoptionwasextremelypatchy.Attheendofsevenmonths,logsprovidedbythefacilitatorswerecodedbytwodifferentraters,witheachrateraskedtoratetheprogressmadebyeachteacherlearningcommunityonascalefrom1(littleornoprogress)to4(goodprogress).Whentheratingsgeneratedindependentlywerecompared,innocasedidtheratingsdifferbymorethanonepoint,andagreedratingsoftworatersareshownintable8.3. ProgressSchool Mathematics Science ModernLanguagesAshtreeSchool* - - -CedarLodgeSchool 1 1 2HawthorneSchool 2 2 4HazeltreeSchool* - - -LarchtreeSchool 4 1 1MallowSchool 3 1 2PoplarSchool 1 3 3SpruceSchool 4 3 3WillowtreeSchool 1 1 4Average 2.3 1.8 2.8*Didnotparticipateinproject(Ashtreedeferredforayear,Hazeltreeimplementedadifferentmodel).

Table8.3:ExtentofprogressofteacherlearningcommunitiesineachschoolGiventhelackofcorrelationbetweentheinvestmentmadebyeachschoolinsendingteacherstothetrainingandtheprogressmadebytheTLCs,wedecidedtoinvestigatethereasonsforthelackofprogress.Twofeaturesofthistableareparticularlyworthnoting.FirstthegreatestprogressappearstohavebeenmadeinModernForeignLanguages,whichwasthesubjectwiththeleast-wellattendedinitialsession.Second,withtheexceptionofSpruceSchool,theredoesnotappeartobeanytendencyforthebest-progressingTLCstobeinthesameschool.Intheschoolsthatwereparticipatingintheproject,onlynineofthe21plannedTLCsweremakingreasonableprogress(definedasaratingof3or4inTable2).Amorecareful

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analysisofthefacilitatorlogsindicatesthatthemajorcauseofthepoorprogressmadebythe12TLCsmakingslowornoprogress(definedasaratingof2or1inTable2)wasthattheteachershadnotbeengiventimetomeet(thiswasalsothecaseforsomeofthemoresuccessfulTLCs,whohaddecidedtocommittheirownpersonaltimetothesemeetingsbecauseoftheirinterestin,andcommitmentto,theproject).WheretimewithintheircontractedhourshadbeenmadeavailableformembersofTLCstomeet,theTLCsweregoingwell,withconsiderableenthusiasmforthemeetings,andinparticular,theteachersappearedtovaluetheopportunitytotalkaboutpracticeinastructuredway.ThedifficultythatTLCshadinfindingtimetomeetis,atfirstsight,rathersurprising.WhilenoneoftheschoolsinCanningtonisonthelistofapproximately600schoolsinEnglanddesignatedbythegovernmentas“NationalChallenge”schoolsfortheirfailuretoachievethekeybenchmarkof30%oftheirstudentsachievingproficiency(gradeCorabove)infivesubjectsinthenationalschool-leavingexaminationfor16-year-olds,thereisconsiderablepressuretoimproveresults.PublictransportlinksinCanningtonaregood,sostudentscaneasilytravelfromonesideofthemunicipalitytotheother;thus,parentshaveagreatdealofchoiceinsecondaryschools,andthischoiceisatleastinformed,ifnotdriven,byexaminationresultsatage16.Alltheprincipalssaythatimprovingacademicoutcomes,asmeasuredbysuccessonnationalexaminationstakenatages16and18isoneoftheirtoppriorities,andyetdespitetheresearchevidencesuggestingthatformativeassessmentcouldmakemoredifferencetotheseacademicoutcomesthananythingelse,itappearsasifitwasdifficultfortheprincipalsandotherschooladministratorstoprioritizethedevelopmentofformativeassessment.Itisevenmoresurprisingwhenoneconsidersthattheprincipalshadmadeacommitmenttotheprogramsixmonthsbeforeitscommencement,hadbeenkeptfullyinformedoftheresourcerequirementsnecessaryforthemonthlymeetings,andhadmadeaconsiderableinvestmentintheprojectbycommittinganaverageof12teacherdayssothatteacherscouldattendtheintroductoryworkshop.Whentheprincipalsoftheparticipatingschoolswereaskedwhethertheywerestillcommittedtotheproject,theyallsaidtheywere,andthatinfact,theestablishmentofteacherlearningcommunitiesremainedapriority.Butofcourse,thiswasnottheonlypriority.Likeeveryotherschool,theschoolsinCanningtonhaveanumberofveryimportantinitiativesinplace.Alloftheinitiativesaregoodideas,butwheneverythingisapriority,nothingis,andthisillustratesperhapsthemostimportantpointaboutoureffortstoimproveschools—thefactthatwehavetobeselective.Inmyconversationswithschoolleadersandotheradministrators,Ihavebeenstruckbyhowoftentheyseetheirtaskasensuringthateverythingthatgoesonintheirschoolsaddsvaluetostudentlearning.Theysearchforthingsthatarenotaddingvalue,orevendetractingfromstudentlearning,sothattheycaneliminatethem.Itsoundslikearecipeforschoolimprovement,butit’snot.Almostwithoutexception,peopleworkingineducationwantstudentstolearn,andtheyspendtheirtimeonthingsthattheythinkwillhelptheirstudentslearnbetter.Ifwespend

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ourtimelookingforunproductivepractices—thingsthatdonothelpstudentstolearn—wewillproduceverylittlechangetoourschools,becausemostofwhateveryonedoesinschoolsisvaluable.Theonlywaywecanimproveschools,therefore,istostoppeopledoinggoodthings—inordertogivethemtimetodoevenbetterthings.Thisistheuncomfortablerealitybehindthetritephrase“worksmarternotharder,”anditiswhychangeinschoolsissodifficult.Teachersareprofessionallyinvestedinwhattheydo.Toaveryrealextent,teachersarewhattheydo,andsoaskingthemtochangewhattheydoinvolveschangingwhotheyare.WhenIsuggesttoteachersthatspendinglesstimeononeactivity(e.g.,grading)tospendmoretimeonanotherthatislikelytohaveagreaterimpactonstudentlearning(e.g.,planninggoodquestionstouseinclass),theresponseisoften,“AreyousayingwhatI’mdoingisnogood?”I’mnot.Iamsuggestingthattheremaybeotherwaysofspendingtimethatmayhaveagreaterimpactonstudentlearning.Ifwearetorealizethepotentialofclassroomformativeassessmenttoimprovestudentachievement,wemustcreateanenvironmentineveryschoolinwhicheachteacherexpectstoimprovetheirpracticecontinuously,andinwhichtheimprovementsarefocusedonthosethingsthatmakethegreatestdifferencetostudentachievement.Thiswillmeandiscontinuingpracticeswhich,whileeffective,arenotaseffectiveasotherusesthatcouldbemadeofthesameresources—stoppingpeopledoinggoodthings,togivethemtimetodoevenbetterthings.Tolearnmoreaboutimplementingandsustainingteacherlearningcommunitiesinyourschool,seeDylanWiliamandSiobhánLeahy’sEmbeddingFormativeAssessmentProfessionalDevelopmentPack:atwo-yearprofessionaldevelopmentpackforschoolsandcolleges:teacherlearningcommunitiesinaction.Detailshere.TospeaktoourconsultantsaboutEmbeddedClassroomFormativeAssessmentprofessionaldevelopmentin2015,orforfurtherinformationaboutsettingupteacherlearningcommunities,callLearningSciencesDylanWiliamCenter:1.855.226.5595.