Sustainable Futures: Solid Waste Paper

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05-1683: Sustainable Solid Waste Management 30 June 2008

Jeffares & Green 1

SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE USE:SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Engledow, S (BSocSci, BA Hons, MA)Jeffares and Green (Pty) Ltd, 14 Central Square, Pinelands, 7405;Tel: (021) 532 0940; Fax: (021) 532 0950; cell: 074 243 8234,

E-mail: [email protected]

Inputs are all the materials and commodities needed to sustain the citys inhabitants athome, at work and at play Over a period of time these requirements include even the

construction materials needed to build and rebuild the city itself. The metabolic cycle is notcomplete until these wastes and residues of daily life have been removed and disposed ofwith a minimum of nuisance and hazard. As man has come to appreciate that the earth is aclosed ecological system, casual methods that once appeared satisfactory for the disposal

of wastes no longer seem acceptable. He has the daily evidence of his eyes and nose to tellhim that his planet cannot assimilate without limit the untreated wastes of his civilisation

(Wolman, 1966:167).

Introduction

The City of Cape Town has a fairly broad and effective waste management service covering 96%of all households

1and businesses, and over the last decade has embarked on many initiatives to

reduce, recover and recycle waste. Waste generation trends of the city are comparable with botheconomically developed and economically developing countries, which poses an interestingposition to be in as very different challenges emerge. In economically developed countries largeamounts of packaging wastes are generated whilst in economically developing countries largeamounts of organic wastes are generated. Understanding the nature of the waste challengesfaced by the City is an important point of departure.

The term solid waste is a general term used when referring to general household waste,commercial and industrial waste. It also includes low level hazardous and general waste likeelectronic waste2 including computers, printers, fridges, stoves, and other electronic appliances.

Residential household waste is included within municipal solid waste and many people refer to itas rubbish, refuse or garbage. Municipal solid waste management is an essential public healthservice which is a function of the local municipality. The function traditionally includes collectionand disposal of wastes generated within the urban environment. Municipal solid waste can bedifficult to manage due to its diverse composition. Residential waste includes a range of materialscollected (glass, paper, plastics and organics); and has seasonal variations or fluctuations inwaste quantities and type

3.

Definitions of waste abound in the plethora of South African legislation which includes aspects ofwaste management in some form or another. Although, definitions contained within theEnvironment Conservation Act, Act 73 of 1989 and the National Water Act, 36 of 1998 still have

relevance, the most recent definition offered here is contained within the National EnvironmentalManagement: Waste Management Bill, 2007

4(soon to be promulgated):

waste any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, re-used, recycledand recovered(a) that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded, abandoned or disposed of;

1 City of Cape Town: Strategic Information, Strategic Development Information and the GIS Department2 Before computers electronic waste was referred to as white goods as they mostly included old fridges, stoves etc3 White et al, 19954 DEAT, 2007


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(b) where the generator has no further use of for the purposes of production, reprocessing orconsumption;

(c) that must be treated or disposed of; or(d) that is identified as a waste by the Minister, but

(i) a by-product is not considered waste; and(ii) any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste;

For the purpose of this paper, the term solid waste will be used when referring to wastemanagement in the City of Cape Town, except when referring to hazardous waste. Hazardouswaste generally requires different storage, collection and disposal practices and therefore theintention is to keep general and hazardous waste separate.

In South Africa waste is usually categorised to ensure appropriate treatment and disposal.Domestic household waste is placed within the same class as commercial and some industrialwaste; whilst hazardous waste is separated and collected and managed differently. Depending onthe hazardous characteristics of the waste, various treatment methods are necessary and need tobe applied before disposal. Hazardous materials can only be disposed of at licensed hazardouswaste disposal sites.

Figure 1: General waste disposal at a

landfill in Cape Town5

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE CITY OF CAPE TOWN

The institutional and infrastructural capacity for the City of Cape Town to manage solid waste issignificantly better than most developing countries elsewhere, however constraints are evident interms of: ongoing challenges of integration with six formerly independent and self administered

municipalities; the legacy of Apartheid and unequal service distribution; decreasing landfill availability and rapid urbanization and associated increasing volumes of waste

Solid waste generation has in the past 10 years increased dramatically. Figure 2 provides agraphic illustration of the amount of waste disposed of at the Citys Landfill sites from 1991-2006/2007, with projections calculated for 2007-2009. The data noted in the years from 1991-1997 are relatively stable, which could in part be due to poor data capturing of waste disposed ofat landfill.

The figures do not take into account the private waste disposal facility, i.e. the Vissershok WasteManagement Facility; recycling or waste minimisation initiatives, therefore the actual waste

5 Engledow, 2005


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generated could be higher. The projected figures for 2007/2008 & 2008/2009 financial yearshave been calculated based on an 8% increase which is the figure used for planning purposeswithin the Citys Solid Waste Management Department.

The rapid increase in waste generation could be attributed to factors including:o Urbanisation and population increaseo Increase in production and consumption (associated with an increase in affluence)o Formalised and equitable serviceso More accurate record keeping

Figure 2: Total waste disposed per annum in Cape Town6

Urbanization and population increaseThe City of Cape Town is predominantly an urban area and in 2007 the population was projectedto be approximately 3 497 097

7people using a projected increase of 1.61% per annum in 2006.

The growth rate includes natural increase of 0.86% and a migration rate of 0.75% per annum.The 1996 Census recorded the population to be 2 682 866 and in 2001 the recorded number was2 893 251. The population in Cape Town has thus increased by 26% since the 1996 Census. Theincrease in waste generation for the same time period is 106%

8. The increase in the waste

generation therefore cannot solely be attributed to population increase; but could also beattributed to improvement in economic conditions and affluence.

Increase in production and consumptionInternational waste management literature has confirmed the relationship between economicaffluence and increasing waste generation, as well as the change in the composition of wastegenerated.

6 Novella, P. 20087 www.capetown.gov.za8 Compiled from Novella, 2008; Mega-tech, 2004; Engledow, 2005

Annual Tonnages disposed of at the CoCT Landfill Sites

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Affluence vs Waste Generation (per capita)

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Figure 3: GDP Per Capita (US Dollars)

9

Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between GDP per capita expressed in US Dollars and percapita waste generation figures expressed in kilograms. It is evident to see that as per capitaGDP increases, there is generally an upward trend in the amount of waste generated. In SouthAfricas case, there is an interesting picture in that the graph illustrates high waste generationrates per capita, but a low GDP per capita. This illustrates well the diversity within the country asa whole in that there are large numbers of poor people and a smaller percentage of wealthypeople. However it is the more wealthy that tend to generate large volumes of waste.

The graph was compiled from information obtained from the OECD (2008). The information hasbeen gathered for 2005 and 2006 and represents information that may not be entirely consistent.This is especially relevant in terms of waste generation data as various waste streams areincluded or not included in the data. Therefore it is used here to present an indication of thetrends and as a means of comparison.

An interesting observation can be seen in the figures calculated for the amount of waste beinggenerated per person per day in the City of Cape Town from 1997-2007 in Table 1.

Table 1: Average waste generation per person per day10

YEARKILOGRAMS PERPERSON PER DAY

1997 1.39

2001 1.552004 1.96

2007 2.23

These figures are based on the total waste stream averaged for the whole population and basedon the population statistics from Census 1996, 2001 and estimated projected figures for 2007. It

9 OECD, 200810 Figures calculated using information from Engledow & Eichstadt, 2005; Mega-tech, 2004; Strategic Information,Strategic Development Information and GIS. These figures are estimates and should not be taken as completelyaccurate but rather an indication refer to explanation in the text.


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provides a platform on which to assess the increasing generation of waste. Bearing in mind thatthese figures are averaged over the population, it is important to remember that there aredifferences in the amount of waste generated per socio-economic group. Estimations from theCitys IWMP

11study suggests that low income households generate between 0.16-0.50 kilograms

per person per day while the middle to high income generate from 1.50-2 kilograms per personper day.

There are two opposing arguments which can be argued in terms of using per person generationrates. The first argument is that using these rates is dangerous and inaccurate. The danger withusing figures such as a per person average rate of generation is that it seems to over simplifythe generation rates and therefore they are not accurate for the following reasons:

(a) The way that the rates are calculated is often not clear and it is often uncertain whetherthe rates are based on the total waste stream which includes industrial and commercialrates.

(b) The rates are generally shown as an average per person;(c) There are no recent studies to confirm or refute the calculations

In contrast to this it could be argued that the per person generation rate can provide anindication as to the generation trend and should therefore be viewed as an indicative tool andtherefore need not necessarily be completely accurate. Individuals, whilst they are not directly

generating industrial or commercial waste, are active in the market place in terms of purchasinggoods and services and other tangible products manufactured by the commercial and industrialsectors and therefore indirectly contribute to the amount of waste generated.

Table 2 is an attempt to reflect a projection calculated for 2008. The figures provide acategorization of the amount of waste generated per person and per income group, based oninformation in the IWMP (2004). The calculations have been based on a conservative increase of5% and the figures only take into account the domestic waste stream and garden waste.Information such as this is very useful to determine where waste minimization initiatives need tobe concentrated in terms of the socio-economic group.

Table 2: Waste generation per person per day (2008)12

Income

Group

Kg/c/day Kilogram per person per day

Household Garden TotalFigures have been modified from originalCoCT IWMP to take into account theincrease in generation - approximately 5%

High 2.1 0.35 2.45

Middle 1.2 0.35 1.55

Low 0.5 0 0.5

The situation in South Africa has shifted in the last few years in terms of economic growth and theemergence of a distinctive African middle class. The term used to describe this emergentaffluent African middle class is Black Diamonds

13. This reference is an important one in that the

middle class in South Africa as a whole is growing. The article makes a comparison between theUnited States of America and the United Kingdom where the middle class accounts for about50% of the population; whilst in South Africa the middle class is only about 20% of the populationbut growing. If this is put into the context specifically for Cape Town it can be said that the

expanding emerging middle class (irrespective whether racially defined) could be interpreted asan expanding waste problem and increasing packaging type wastes entering the waste stream.

The rapid increase in waste over the last ten years can be explained in part by the increase inaffluence and the emergent middle class.

11 Mega-tech, 200412 Figures calculated CoCT IWMP; J&G; CoCT Discussions. These figures are estimates and should not be taken ascompletely accurate but rather an indication refer to explanation in the text.13 Naidoo, S. 2007


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Cape Town has also seen a dramatic increase in demolition and construction activities. Thissector has reportedly grown for the entire Western Cape Province by 6.6% on average over thelast five years (1999 2003) as compared to the National average of 4% per annum

14. The

construction of new residential areas, commercial and retail sectors usually includes demolitionactivities generating building rubble which again increases the waste volumes.

A somewhat dated report that still holds relevance is Cape Towns economy: current trends andfuture prospects 2001which describes Cape Towns economy in real terms. Gross GeographicProduct (GGP) is growing at a faster rate than the national average, i.e. 2.5% as compared to thenational average of 2.1%

15, which further demonstrates the hypothesis of increased production

and consumption as an additional factor in increasing waste generation.

The Western Cape Provincial Economic Review and Outlook (2005) presents data for the entireWestern Cape Province. Real GDPR over the period of 1999 2003 showed an average 3.9%growth as opposed to the National average of 3.1%

16.

Formalised and Equitable service levelsThe City is not only faced with increasing waste volumes from increased consumption andpopulation growth factors, but also needs to manage past inequalities of service. Prior to 1994the levels of the waste management service offered, was dependent on area. Informal areas

were not serviced, whilst middle to upper income areas were well serviced including a separategreen waste collection service

17.

A more standardized level of service has been implemented across the City over the last fewyears which offers most of the population in Cape Town a refuse removal service in the form ofcontainerized 240l bins to bagged and skip container services. The implementation of the moreformalized services has led to more appropriate waste management services and also the moreregular removal of refuse. This may lead to the impression that more waste is being generated,whereas more waste is now actually being collected that was not previously collected and istherefore now being accounted for.

Accurate record keepingAs technology improves more accurate record keeping can be conducted and kept up to date.

Weighbridges at Landfill sites have only been installed at landfill sites within the last 10-15 years.Previously, estimations based on the load capacity of the truck were used. This still occurs atsome of the landfill and drop off sites especially for green waste and builders rubble. This leadsto inaccurate information being recorded due to over or under estimations being made.

Inaccurate information regarding waste generated within the City presents a challenge in terms offuture planning. In terms of the Citys Integrated Waste Management Plan (IWMP), a wasteinformation system would assist in standardizing a method of accurate record keeping in terms ofthe amount of waste generated, treated and disposed. The waste information system wouldrequire municipalities to ensure that accurate information is captured and then fed into thenational waste information system.

The waste information system would assist the City in terms of future planning as well as National

statistics regarding waste generation and management.

14 Western Cape Provincial Government, 200515 City of Cape Town, 200116 Western Cape Provincial Government, 200517 Engledow, 2005


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WASTE STREAMS

Due to the decreasing airspace available the City of Cape Town has made an attempt for gardenwaste to be kept separate from the general waste stream in order to remove this waste type fromthe landfill. Drop off facilities have been established around the City as well as at all of theoperating landfill sites. The greens are then chipped and used as a raw material in composting.Figure 3 presents a green waste stockpile at the City owned Kommetjie Drop off facility where thecommunity is encouraged to drop off green waste.

Figure 3: Chipping of garden waste at aCitys Drop off site for mulch and

composting

For the same reason the City is making an attempt to keep builders rubble off landfill sites. In thepast landfill sites have used builders rubble either as cover material or for on site roadmaintenance. In a study conducted by the City of Cape Town in 2005 it was estimated thatbuilders rubble accounted for about 15%

18of the total amount of solid waste. Builders rubble

consists of materials from demolished buildings and civil infrastructure including rocks and soilarising from earthworks, civil works and general foundations. Ingerop Africa (2005) reported thatabout 900 000 tons of builders rubble is generated per annum of which 75% is being recycled.Approximately 530 000 tons was privately recycled and 130 000 tons recycled at municipalfacilities of Coastal Park and Gordons Bay. This is a very impressive rate of recycling and showsthe value of builders rubble. The illegal dumping of builders rubble is ongoing, which begs thequestion regarding Citys enforcement capacity. Fines can be issued if you are caught or

reported to have dumped waste illegally. An increase in awareness of these fines as well as theincreased awareness for the public to report offenders is required. The disposal of buildersrubble at the Citys sites (landfill and drop off facilities) is referred to as free waste meaning thatthere are no charges involved.

The City is in the process of drafting a new IWM By-law which would require waste servicecontractors to register with the City and require individuals to only use registered contractors.This is one attempt to regulate the industry and limit the amount of illegal dumping.

Figure 4: Illegally dumped builders rubble

18 Ingerop Africa, 2005


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(a) (b)

Electronic waste or e-Waste is also on the increase as electronic equipment becomes obsoleteand is replaced by newer models. e-Waste includes all computer hardware, cellular phones aswell as household appliances. The Electronic Waste Association of South Africa (eWASA) hasbeen formed in an attempt to increase awareness of e-waste and the potential toxicity of thesubstances contained within electronic equipment. Heavy metals contained within e-Wasteinclude lead, mercury and cadmium, and therefore management of this waste stream isimperative. In more developed countries this problem has reached crisis levels with e-Wastebeing exported to less developed countries for processing (see figure 5a).

Figure 5: (a) E-waste recycling in China19

; (b) E-Waste at a Cape Town Drop off facility

In Cape Town the problem of e-Waste has become more of a problem on landfill sites over thelast couple of years. Previously people would store obsolete electronic equipment in basements(i.e. government departments, commercial businesses) or within their homes because they wereunsure of where to take these items. Stored items are now making there way to landfill sites.Private industry and NGOs have led the way in terms of implementing initiatives in order to re-use and recycle old electronic equipment and to raise awareness of the importance of managinge-Waste correctly

20.

Hazardous waste is collected, treated and managed separately to general solid waste.Hazardous waste is defined in the Minimum Requirements

21as:

"an inorganic or organic element or compound that, because of its toxicological,physical, chemical or persistency properties*, may exercise detrimental acute or

chronic impacts on human health and the environment. It can be generated from awide range of commercial, industrial, agricultural and domestic activities and maytake the form of liquid, sludge or solid. These characteristics contribute not only todegree of hazard, but are also of great importance in the ultimate choice of a safeand environmentally acceptable method of disposal."

22

19 University of Michigan: http://sitemaker.umich.edu/section002group3/e-waste20 eWASA; Footprints Environmental Center in Wynberg, Cape Town21 DWAF, 199822 DWAF, 1998:2-4


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Hazardous waste is determined using a hazard rating system and the South African Bureau ofStandards classification of hazardous waste for transportation classification 1-9 (SANS 10228).The hazard rating system classifies waste according to extreme risk (hazard rating 1) to low risk(hazard rating 4). The hazard rating of a waste will determine what type of landfill site that wastecan be disposed at. Hazard ratings 1-4 can be disposed of at a H:H landfill site; whilst hazardrating 3 and 4 can only be disposed of at a landfill site licensed as H:h

23.

There are many industries that generate hazardous waste during their manufacturing processesor after use, e.g. chemical and paint manufacturing plants; agricultural and forestry industries etc.

Medical and infectious waste is included within hazardous waste and classified as hazard rating 1which is extremely hazardous. This type of waste must be incinerated or alternatively must besterilised or treated using nationally approved technologies (e.g. autoclaving or electro-thermaldeactivation) prior to being landfilled at a licensed hazardous (H:H / H:h) landfill site. Allanatomical waste (body parts) must be incinerated. Medical and infectious waste generallyoriginates from hospitals and clinics, but also from biological research facilities as well as hometreatment. The collection, treatment and disposal of hazardous waste must be in accordance withlegislation, i.e. Western Cape Health Care Risk Management Act, 2007 and the South AfricanNational Standards Authority (SANS), to name only two as to discuss all the applicable legislationwill be separate paper.

WASTE TREATMENT &DISPOSAL

The predominant method currently used within the City of Cape Town to manage solid waste islandfill disposal. There are and have been initiatives to compost solid waste as well as minimizethe amount of solid waste that requires landfill disposal by means of a material recovery facility.

The siting and management of landfill sites is important in order to minimize the impacts on thesurrounding environment in the form of potential air, soil and water contamination. Landfill sitessituated on the Cape Flats (e.g. Bellville and Coastal Park) are situated directly above or withinthe recharge zones of the Cape Flats Aquifer system

24. Sites constructed pre-1990 were not

designed using engineered liners or leachate detection layers, but were rather quite rudimentaryin design. Therefore the possibility of historical landfill sites polluting groundwater resources and

causing soil contamination are real concerns. Parsons (2002) presents evidence that historicalwaste cells of the Bellville South site (in operation since the 1960s) has impacted on the CapeFlats Aquifer system. Newer cells developed at Bellville South have been designed usingengineered linings and leachate detection systems to mitigate potential groundwater pollution.This is also accompanied by groundwater monitoring procedures to assess whether thesesystems are still functional.

The remaining municipal operated landfill sites operating within the Cape Town area are BellvilleSouth Landfill site (classified as a G:L:B+); Coastal Park landfill site (classified as a G:L:B+) andVissershok landfill site (classified as H:h). The Vissershok Waste Management Facility is a H:Hlandfill which is privately owned and managed by a joint venture between EnviroServ andWasteman. All of the remaining landfill site cells are constructed to engineered specificationsincluding landfill liners and leachate detection systems.

These facilities are the only remaining sites left to serve the City of Cape Town for the next 10-15years. A regional landfill site has been planned and is awaiting the outcome of an appeal lodgedagainst the Environmental Authorisation before the site can be constructed. The regional site willbe located in close proximity to Atlantis (about 50km outside of the City Center) and will serve theCity and potentially outlying areas, for example Stellenbosch.

23 The classification of landfill sites will be discussed later in the document24 Mega-tech, 2004


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In order for waste to be transported over such great distances, a number of Refuse TransferStations (RTS) need to be constructed. The Tygerberg Waste Management Facility and theOostenberg RTS have been through an Environmental Impact Assessment Process and receivedthe necessary Environmental Authorisation from the Department of Environmental Affairs andDevelopment Planning (DEA&DP). A further RTS is planned for the Helderberg area and iscurrently going through the EIA process. All of the RTS proposed have been designed to includea clean MRF to sort commingled recyclables in a bid to reduce the amount of waste requiringlandfill disposal.

Table 2: Remaining landfill sites in Cape Town

WASTE MINIMISATION

Waste minimization activities include reducing the amount of waste generated, but also reducingthe amount of waste that requires landfill disposal. A lot of emphasis is placed on wasteminimization activities for the latter, especially in terms of recycling initiatives.

There are a number of recycling initiatives operating within Cape Town. Operators include Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), schools, Churches, private companies, governmentinitiatives (drop off facilities) and informal collectors. Recycling initiatives are conducted as aviable business; to raise money in fundraising attempts at schools and charities; and to raiseenvironmental awareness.

Informal salvaging is a means by which homeless or formally unemployed people to sustain aliving. This activity includes picking from residential, street or business bins and also directly fromlandfill sites. Recovered recyclables collected via this complex web of formal to informal collectorstake the recyclables either directly or through a middle-man to the recycling companies

(processing for remanufacture). The recovered recyclables are either then re-used or sold to buyback centers for market related prices per kilogram.

The current rate of recycling at the City of Cape Towns landfill sites by waste salvagers isbetween 0.5-0.7%

26. This recovery rate is very low and is partly due to the contamination of

recyclables and the difficulty in recovering the recyclables. Salvaging directly from a landfill site is

25 There is potential for site expansion, if this is achieved then the lifespan can be extended to about 2020.26 Resource Management Services, 2005-2007. External Audits of the City of Cape Town Waste disposal facilities

Municipal LandfillSites Classification Permit Status

ExpectedClosure

Date Soil Type

Vissershok H:h1

Permitted (1998) 2020 Clayey

Coastal Park G:L:B+2

Permitted (2000) 2022 Sandy

Bellville G:L:B+ Permitted (2003) 2013 Sandy

Privately operated Landfill Site

Vissershok WasteManagement Facility

H:H3

Permitted (1997) 201325

Clayey

1H:h Landfills that can accept Moderate (3) to Low Hazard (4) (as defined by the Minimum

Requirements) and General Waste2GLB+ A Large General Waste landfill which is likely to produce significant amounts of leachate

3H:H Can accept all hazardous waste (hazard ratings 1-4)


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(a)

(b)

dangerous work as the salvagers work closely to the working face27

. It is unhygienic to digthrough the mix of wastes that are disposed. Household waste generally contains wet waste inthe form of food wastes, and recyclable packaging type wastes. However, household hazardouswaste is sometimes still found within the general waste stream, i.e. old car oil, fluorescent tubes,old paint and resin from household maintenance as well as old medicines. The City hasattempted to formalize these salvaging activities by setting up contracts with the salvagersworking on the landfill sites. The formalisation of the activities has improved worker health andsafety but the working conditions are still dangerous. In general, however, salvagers do not wearthe personal protective equipment that is issued by the contracted company.

Figure 6 a-b: Waste salvagers on awaste disposal site (extremeexample)

Waste salvagers and waste pickers not situated on the landfill sites usually pick recyclables frombins on collection days in residential areas or bins located outside businesses or other sources.Waste salvagers are considered a nuisance and there is a perceived association with instancesof increased crime and an increase in litter in the area. There is no detailed information to confirmor refute this statement.

Many salvagers within Cape Town use a trolley from one of the big supermarket chains totransport their recyclables to buy back centers or other recycling companies. This is evident in

many areas around Cape Town and salvagers are often referred to as trolley people

28

.

27 Working face: active working area of a landfill site where the trucks are disposing waste and the landfill compactorsare compact the waste.28 Engledow, 2005; Personal observation


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Figure 7: Informalsalvagers often referredto as trolley people

Recycling has been recognized at both the national and local level of government as an importantstrategy to divert valuable resources sent to landfill as waste. At the national level recycling ishighlighted within the National Waste Minimisation Strategy, the White Paper on Integrated

Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa and the proposed National WasteManagement Bill. In Cape Town it has also been recognised as an important method to divertwaste. This is evident from the many recycling initiatives previously implemented and theinclusion of recycling within the IWMP

29.

KEY CHALLENGES IN TERMS OF SUSTAINABILITY

There are numerous challenges in terms of sustainable waste management in Cape Townincluding:

Legislation & other legal barriers which can delay proactive alternative solutions e.g. thenecessary EIA, Permitting procedures and land use planning issues

Funding & capital expenditure for Private and Public sectors

Municipal Finance Management Act & other Procurement processes Customers are generally driven by the price of the service and not necessarily interested

in alternative solutions (especially relevant for the private industry) Time constraints as the roads are becoming more congested which leads to transport

delays Lack of skilled people in the industry private, public (including regulating authorities) Lack of inter-departmental and inter-governmental communication Creating markets for recyclables to ensure a sustainable recycling economy Participation public and private what are the levers or incentives to change behaviour Gaps in information (information from private & public sector)

Legislation & other legal barriersIn terms of legislation, there is a plethora of legislation pertaining to various aspects of waste

management from National to Local Government level. This not only makes waste managementsomewhat confusing as to which Acts and By-laws are applicable but enforcement is also anissue. There is a lack of capacity within all the tiers of government and which impedesenforcement of legislation is also affected. The National Environmental Management: WasteManagement Bill is soon to be promulgated which will form the overarching piece of wastelegislation for the country, which is hoped to bridge the gaps of the array of legislation.

The EIA regulations are also triggered by almost all waste management activities including smallMaterial Recovery Facilities (MRF) for the sorting of recyclables. The purpose of the regulations

29 Mega-tech, 2004


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are to protect the environment and therefore necessary, however often lead to lengthy delays atthe applicants cost. In terms of the establishment of landfill sites where environmental, social andeconomic impacts may well be high; the EIA process is essential. It is the smaller wastemanagement companies which suffer and are deterred from establishing these low impactfacilities. The smaller activities include composting and small MRFs, which are wasteminimisation initiatives desperately required in the City, yet are hindered by bureaucracy. This isnot to say that the establishment of these sorts of facilities should not go through anyenvironmental assessment process; however the process applied should be appropriate for thetype of activity being applied for.

Another aspect of legislation which seems to complicate the establishment of waste managementfacilities is the outdated Offensive Trade Regulations (1944)

30. Waste management facilities

generally need to be established in areas zoned for offensive trade, i.e. rezoning applications ordeparture use applications are necessary despite the fact that the area may be zoned within anindustrial area. Application for rezoning of a property can only be done once a decision on theEIA process has been granted. The EIA process can take anything from 6 months to 3 years andthen application for rezoning a further 1-2 years. The time duration is often further affected if thereare appeals.

Funding

The operating budget of the City of Cape Town is derived from tariffs and the capital budgetderived from a number of different funding mechanisms including Provincial and NationalGovernment. The funding for both budgets is restricted whilst the cost of waste managementactivities is increasing due to the rapidly increasing volumes of waste. Finances available are notincreasing in proportion to the rate at which waste is being generated.

Municipal Finance Management Act & Municipal Systems ActThe Municipal Finance Management Act (MFMA) details how municipalitys are required tomanage their finances as is captured in the very name of the act, whilst the Municipal SystemsAct (MSA) governs the way municipalitys must function in terms of service delivery andstandards of service. In certain instances, the procedures required by the respective acts actuallyrestrict the ability of municipalities to operate optimally in the waste sector.

Two examples to illustrate this point:a) In terms of MFMA, contracts awarded to private contractors are limited to a three year

period. Many contractors argue that this time period is too short to invest in capital forthe contract period and therefore invest in the minimum equipment necessary. Thisunfortunately may lead to substandard service at the expense of surroundingcommunities or the environment.

b) In terms of the MSA, outsourcing of management functions in terms of wastemanagement facilities is a lengthy process that is governed by Section 78. Municipalitiesmust first investigate the need to outsource the function, followed by an approvalprocess, procurement and tender process to award the function to a suitable contractor.These processes can take months to years leading to lengthy delays in implementingmore efficient services, e.g. the outsourcing of the management function of wastemanagement facilities / services to private contractors.

While the MFMA & MSA have been drafted to protect municipalities, as well as privatecontractors; the above two instances tend to have the opposite effect.

Price driven marketThe waste industry is like any other market and is driven by price and profitability. This especiallyapplies to the private waste management industry. Customers are inclined to take the cheapestoption available which is not always the most sustainable, e.g. landfilling as opposed toalternative treatment technologies. Waste management companies are starting to diversify and

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offer their clients a wider selection of treatment technologies. Until the legislative levers are inplace, many companies will not feel compelled to take the alternative and sometimes moreexpensive option.

TransportEvery year the amount of traffic on the roads increases. This accounts for all vehicle types. Morewaste is also being generated every year which requires additional long haul collection vehicleson the roads and on the Citys landfill sites. Due to the number of landfill sites around the Citydecreasing to only three, the turn around times of the trucks is now longer than before as furthertransfer stations must still be constructed. This may in turn affect the public and private sector interms of lengthy delays and additional congestion of the Citys roads.

Skills shortageThere is a general lack of managerial and operational skills within the waste managementindustry in both the private and public sector. This has serious implications when landfill sites arenot being operated by qualified people. Actual figures are not available at present in terms of thenumber of vacant posts within the Citys Solid Waste Management Department.

CommunicationA common constraint remains the lack of interdepartmental communication and co-operation;

however, this is not restricted to the management of waste. This aspect is clearly evident whenapplying for the various applications in terms of authorisation for the establishment of wastemanagement facilities, e.g. EIA and landuse.

Markets for recyclablesReducing the volume of waste disposed on landfill is one of the Citys key objectives for thefuture. Reduction initiatives include waste minimisation and the recovery of recyclables. It isimportant to ensure that there are markets established for recyclables in order to achieve theobjective. An unstable recyclable paper market in 2004 drove the price of paper so low that therecovery rate dropped as a result

31. The glass, metals and plastics markets are good examples of

strong stable markets.

Participation

Implementation of new systems always presents challenges in terms of participation of variousstakeholders. It is often the participation rate that will determine the success or failure of a newinitiative.

Participation in waste minimization and recycling initiatives is on a voluntary basis. It is importantto implement structures where there are levers or incentives to change behaviour. Behaviourchange is required from the individual, manufacturing sectors as well as government.

Gaps in informationThere are many gaps in the information. The private waste industry is very competitive like anyother industry and generally does not provide consultants with any information. This unfortunatelyportrays a skewed picture of the waste volumes being generated or where and how they aretreated. It is assumed that the waste volumes generated are actually in excess of what has been

presented due to the gap in data from the private sector.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT

Whilst there are constraints, there are also opportunities. These include: Partnerships

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Business re-engineering including the establishment of new business and changing thebusiness case from business as usual to business as unusual Extended ProducerResponsibility

New markets promotion of alternative treatment methods to open up the recyclingeconomy

Decrease in reliance on raw materials if recycling initiatives are increased Increased public awareness as to their role in waste minimization and recycling Increased landfill airspace savings Implementing instruments Green Procurement Policies

PartnershipsPartnerships are essential for the success of waste reduction and recycling objectives. Thesecould involve public-private partnerships or business partnerships. It is also essential that thedifferent tiers of government form partnerships and embark on waste minimisation initiativestogether. This would enable programs to be rolled out from the national to the local levels. Anexample of this can be seen with the initiative that PETCO

32have launched at the City of Cape

Town Drop off sites. PETCO have sponsored bags for the collection of PET, HDPE and LDPEfor recycling.

Figure 8: PETCO initiative in collaborationwith City of Cape Town Drop off sites

Business re-engineeringThere are opportunities to move away from the conventional business models and to explore newtechnologies and methodologies. This especially applies to the required move away from end ofpipe technologies such as landfilling.

Interdepartmental communication and co-operation should also be encouraged as the field ofwaste crosses many boundaries, e.g. the waste water department in terms of sewage sludge; theenergy sector in terms of waste to energy projects; electricity regulators as seen in theimplementation of energy saving light bulbs Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) which containmercury; waste oil recovery and recycling.

Extended producer responsibility should also be considered under the banner of business re-engineering, as many businesses do not take the externality of the by product (wastes) intoaccount when considering their financial costs and profitability. Take back systems or depositsystems should be encouraged.

As environmental awareness becomes an area that bigger corporations are paying moreattention to, business re-engineering gains more momentum. International pressures as well aslocal constraints with regard to landfill airspace, increasing cost of transport and theenvironmental degradation in terms of traditional methods are demanding that corporations re-

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think their traditional approach and report on their performance. Waste management andspecifically waste minimization and recycling initiatives are finally receiving the necessaryattention at the corporate level.

Even waste management companies are re-thinking their traditional end of pipe methodologies towaste management and the service they provide to their clients. Waste management companiesin Cape Town are adopting and offering clients a broader range of alternatives, including on-sitesorting and recycling; and composting.

The marketing opportunities associated with business re-engineering in terms of sustainablewaste management are great. An example can be illustrated by one of the major retail chains inSouth Africa that has identified packaging wastes as a serious concern. The company has putpressure on the suppliers of various plastic packaging as a minimum standard to include thestamp identifying the type of plastic on the base of the container in an attempt for easieridentification and therefore post consumer recovery for recycling. In addition, there are alsoongoing investigations in terms of alternative packaging (e.g. composting packaging) for fooditems.

The promulgation of the National Environmental Management: Waste Management Bill33

willhopefully speed these processes up, as the Minister will have the authority to demand integrated

waste management plans to be submitted by certain industries as well as require that wastemanagement officers be appointed.

New marketsMany opportunities are presenting themselves in terms of alternatives to landfill. There isincreased emphasis on the recovery and recycling of recyclables as well as the recycling of greenwaste and sewage sludge for composting, and the crushing of builders rubble for re-use in theconstruction industry.

Building rubble crushing is taking place in and around Cape Town and the recovered materialused in a variety of civil applications. This area has been identified at the municipal level as low-hanging fruit and an accessible waste fraction to recover from landfill disposal.

Raw MaterialsIt is well known that the recycling of various recyclables reduces the need of raw materialrequired for many applications. This is especially the case for metals, glass, paper and plastics.There are also energy, water savings and reduced emissions attached to the recycling ofmaterials.

Implementing InstrumentsThere are a number of key instruments which can be used to achieve policy initiatives, objectivesand targets of waste minimisation through push and pull type mechanisms. Push factors refer tolegislation and law enforcement, permits, and control in terms of direct regulations. Tariffs, levies,deposits, market creation and financial support refer to indirect methods which can be applied.Pull factors rely more on self regulation in terms of information and the continuation of collectiveinitiatives like the waste minimisation clubs.

Green Procurement PoliciesGreen Procurement Policies (GPP) or sustainable purchasing practices are an effective tool interms of stimulating the demand side of the economy in terms of alternative markets including therecycling economy. The basis of green procurement is the principle of pollution prevention,reduction of risks to human health and the environment. Therefore, organizations need toevaluate providers of goods and services in terms of theses principles. Governmentorganizations should lead by example in terms of GPP. An example of this can be in terms of

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paper supply where governmental departments (or any organization) stipulate that a certainpercentage of the paper must include recycled content.

The Western Cape Provincial Government (i.e. the Department of Environmental Affairs andDevelopment Planning) have taken a proactive approach and are in the process of developing aGreen Procurement Policy document. This document is not yet available to the public, but itshows the commitment of the Provincial government.

FUTURE PLANS

The City has planned well ahead in terms of solid waste management based on current wastegeneration volumes with both waste minimisation efforts and without, especially in terms ofcapital outlay necessary. The plans were based on an average 6% increase in waste volumes perannum, which according to current waste disposal trends may be too little. It is not certainwhether planning has taken into account the 2010 soccer world cup and the potential impact ofadditional waste generated by preparations leading up to and post this three week event.

As discussed the Citys primary objective is to minimise waste to landfill. In order to achieve this,a number of initiatives are planned or have already been initiated. The next phase of Waste Wise

has commenced to continue a broad education and awareness campaign about the importanceof waste minimisation and recycling.

A dual collection system called the Think Twice Campaign has rolled out in the Atlantic area inCape Town, including Pinelands, Blaauberg and Parklands and involves about 10 000households to source separate their waste into dry and wet waste. The dry fraction is sorted at amaterial recovery facility (MRF) in Maitland, which has received an Environmental Authorisationfrom DEA&DP. The Helderberg area, including Somerset West, Gordons Bay and Strand willcome on board in August 2008. A further EIA process is currently taking place to secure anEnvironmental Authorisation for a MRF in Strand.

Melani Materials, a BEE subsidiary of Afrimat has been contracted since February 2008 to crushand remove builders rubble from Coastal Park and Bellville South. Mobile crushing units will be

placed at the landfill sites and process up to 800 tons of rubble per day. Plans include theplacement of mobile units at Athlone Refuse Transfer Station and Gordons Bay Drop off Facilityin the near future.

Crushed material will then be processed and sold in bulk to the construction industry for variouscivil applications.

The integrated waste management by-law is in its final stages and it will be promulgated once theNational Waste Management Bill has been promulgated towards the end of the year. In a sensethe by-law will give teeth to the National Waste Management Bill and repeal many of the outdatedby-laws currently in place.

Waste minimization starts with the individual and as stated by Novella (2000): Good waste

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REFERENCES

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. 1989: Environment Conservation Act 73 of1989. Juta Statutes, Volume 6.

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. 2007. National Environmental Management:

Waste Bill(B-39-2007)

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2000a: White Paper on Integrated Pollutionand Waste Management for South Africa. Government Notice 227; 17 March 2000.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 1998: National Water Act 36 of 1998. Juta LawStatutes. 2001. Volume 6.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 1998: 2nd

Edition. Waste Management Series:Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and Disposal of Hazardous Waste. CTPBook Printers Cape Town.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 1998: 2nd

Edition. Waste Management Series:Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill. CTP Book Printers Cape Town.

Engledow, S. 2005: The Strategic Assessment of a curbside recycling initiative in Cape Town asa tool for Integrated Waste Management. Masters Thesis unpublished. University of CapeTown.

Engledow, S; Eichstadt, L. 2007: Integrated Resource Analysis Solid Waste Management:Baseline Study. Report prepared for the Sustainability Institute. Resource Management Services- Unpublished.

Government Notice 614. 1944. Offensive Trade Regulations for the City of Cape Town.

Ingerop Africa. 2005: Community waste drop off centres: Investigation for the management ofbuilders rubble in the Metro. Unpublished.

Mega-tech. 2004a: Integrated Waste Management Plan for the City of Cape Town: Final StatusQuo Report. City of Cape Town.

Mega-tech. 2004b: Integrated Waste Management Plan for the City of Cape Town: DraftAssessment Report. City of Cape Town.

Naidoo, S. 2007. Black Power. Business Times, 20 May 2007. Article based on the findings of theBlack diamonds 2007 survey conducted in March 2007 by the UCT Unilever Institute andResearch and TNS Research surveys.

White, P.R.; Frank, M.; Hindle, P. 1995: Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Lifecycleinventory. Chapman & Hall, Scotland.

Wolman, A. 1966: A Scientific America Book. Penguin, Harmondsworth

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Novella, P. 2008. Telephone and E-mail correspondence


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INTERNET RESOURCES

City of Cape Town. 2001: Population Census 2001.http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/stats/2001census/Pages/default.aspx

City of Cape Town, 2001: Cape Towns Economy: Current Trends and Future Prospects.

e-Waste Association of South Africa. 2008: http://www.e-waste.org.za/

OECD Factbook. 2008. Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics- ISBN 92-64-04054-4 - OECD 2008 (http://www.oecd.org)

University of Michigan. 2008: Computer Industry Impacts on the Environment and Society.http://sitemaker.umich.edu/section002group3/e-waste

PET Plastic Recycling South Africa. 2008:http://www.petco.co.za/index.cfm?ActionID=47&iDivStyle=3

Western Cape Provincial Government. 2005. The Western Cape Provincial Economic Reviewand Outlook. http://www.capegateway.gov.za/eng/pubs/reports_research/W/101449

Sustainable Futures: Solid Waste Paper

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