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S U S T A I N A B L E

CITIESREPORT

RE

PO

RTS U S T A I N A B L E

CITIESA summary of cities’ vulnerabilities as they transition towards sustainability

Joburg Metro Building,

16th � oor,

158 Civic Boulevard,

Braamfontein 2017

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Table of Contents

About the South African Cities Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

About the Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Research used to compile this report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Cities and Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Sustainable Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Evolution of policy towards sustainable cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

City sustainability strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Understanding Cities’ Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Sustainable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Food security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Green transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Cross-cutting Issues that Support a City’s Sustainable Functioning . . . . . . 36

Human capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Socio-political instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Rural-urban linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

State of City Finances 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Continuing the Journey towards Sustainable Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4 SUSTAINABLE CITIES REPORT

Aboutthe South African Cities Network

Since 2002, its objectives are to promote good governance and

management in South African cities; analyse strategic challenges

facing South African cities; collect, collate, analyse, assess,

disseminate and apply the experience of large city governments in

a South African context; and encourage shared-learning partnerships

among spheres of government in order to enhance good governance

of South African cities.

The SACN’s Strategic Framework 2011–2016 established � ve strategic

priorities or pillars (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1: SACN’s programmatic pillars for period 2011–2016

TRANSFORM THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT FUNCTION

Cities have ef� cient and effective spatial form and

functioning

THE STATE OF CITIES REPORT

2016

IMPROVE THE IMAGE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Experience and perception of city governance and delivery

is improved

DEAL DECISIVELY WITH CITIES’ VULNERABILITIES

Stakeholders address key challenges affecting

cities’ performance

• cities’ � nancial performance and management are understood and improving

• vulnerable natural resources (esp. water, energy, food, waste) are managed better

• development of human capacity for effective delivery and management

• socio-political stability by ensuring participation, safety, and support of vulnerable populations

• effective spatial planning and land-use management strategies and systems

• effective public transport systems enabling livelihoods and economic development

• effectively planned human settlements that meet developmental objectives and enhance social cohesion

ACT WITH A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

Cities are effectively planned and managed based on

coherent evidence

• credible city development strategies

• a national urban development policy

• robust and effi cient system for measuring and monitoring city performance indicators and data

• better understanding of rural-urban interdependencies is re� ected in policy frameworks

• production of the fourth state of the cities report

• city leaders able to competently champion and communicate city knowledge

• leading experts and authorities on urban development are advising and advocating for South Africa’s cities

ENHANCE THE IMPACT OF SACN’S KNOWLEDGE

PRODUCTS

SACN delivers value products to policy-makers and practitioners

The SACN:

• has the human and fi nancial capacity to deliver its programmes and plans

• has the monitoring and evaluation capacity to report adequately

• is disseminating and communicating city knowledge to key user communities

• Shared-learning platforms and partnerships• Clear and effective City Development Strategies• Enabling frameworks• Monitoring systems

GOAL

1 2 3 4 5

THROUGH

Cities that:• understand their developmental role• are enabled to play their developmental role• are improving and monitoring their performance

OUTCOME INDICATORS

The South

African Cities

Network (SACN) is an

established network of South

African cities and partners that

encourages the exchange of

information, experience and best

practices on urban

development and city

management.

5ABOUT THE PUBLICATION

Aboutthe Publication

This publication provides a consolidated summary of research

done under Pillar 3: ‘deal decisively with cities’ vulnerabilities’ in

support of better understanding and management of cities (Pillar 1)

and of transforming the built environment function (Pillar 2). A

snapshot of the key sectors and cross-cutting issues is provided

from the full research reports and papers. Pillar 3 was born from the

2011 State of Cities Report (SACN, 2011). It continues the dialogue

around broadening the notion of sustainable cities beyond green issues, to

include soft and cross-cutting issues such as rural-urban linkages, socio-political

stability, human capacity and � nancial management. This pillar falls under SACN’s

Sustainable Cities thematic area.

Research used to compile this reportModelling Energy Ef� ciency Potential in SACN Cities. A study looking at the energy

savings potential that can be realised from energy ef� ciency (EE) interventions in

municipal facilities and operations in its nine member cities.

A Case for Renewable Energy & Energy Ef� ciency. A discussion paper on the

� nancial implication of transitioning to the green economy by cities.

Consolidation of Lessons Learnt for Energy Ef� ciency and Renewable Energy

(RE) Initiatives within Cities. A report presenting the consolidated lessons learnt from

EE and RE initiatives within SACN member cities.

State of Water in Cities. An assessment of the current state and quality of water

infrastructure within cities as well as the condition of the freshwater resources (rivers and

wetlands).

State of Waste Management in Cities – Phase 2: Modelling the effects of

land� lling as a disposal method. A study of the effects of land� lling as the main

disposal method for solid waste.

A Case for Municipal Solid Waste Management towards transitioning to green

economy. A technical paper on municipal solid waste management’s contribution to

cities transitioning to the green economy.

This

publication aims to

create awareness of

SACN research and to

stimulate continued

dialogue on the issues

covered.


Current and Future Realities for Urban Food Security in South Africa. An overview

of current urban food insecurity in South Africa.

Cities Resilience to Climate Change. An analysis of cities’ climate change resilience

relating to food security, transportation and water provision, through three case studies:

the City of Johannesburg, Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality and Ekurhuleni

Metropolitan Municipality.

Minibus Taxi Scenarios 2035. A report on a scenario exercise involving mobility thought

leaders from national government, the cities, the minibus taxi industry and civil society.

Research on Establishing a South African Cities Green Transport Programme

(forthcoming).

Assessing Capacity for Spatial Transformation in SACN Member Cities. An

assessment of the capacity for spatial transformation in eThekwini, Msunduzi, Tshwane,

Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, Buffalo City, Mangaung and Nelson Mandela Bay.

Migration, Mobility and Urban Vulnerability – Implications for Urban Governance

in South Africa. A report that explores the challenges and opportunities associated with

migration and mobility into and within South African cities, and the implications for urban

governance.

The Urban Land Paper Series Volume 1. A set of eight working papers that seek to

de� ne land and outline the roles that land can play as a catalyst for spatial transformation

in municipalities.

Papers on rural-urban linkages:

• Planning and Governance Challenges of Cities with Extensive Rural

Geographies. Research into the challenges faced by three metropolitan municipalities

with extensive rural geographies: Buffalo City, eThekwini and Tshwane.

• Tourism. A study that uses the lens of the tourism sector to show the linkages and

connectivities between urban and rural environments through spatial and sectoral � ows.

• Agro-food Value Chain. An assessment of South Africa’s urban and rural agro-food

value chains and their interdependencies.

• Social Value Chains. A study that examines seven areas located along the north-

eastern migration corridor into Tshwane metro in order to understand rural social

value chains.

State of City Finances. An update of the state of � nances in nine of the largest cities in

South Africa: Johannesburg, Cape Town, eThekwini, Ekurhuleni, Tshwane, Nelson

Mandela Bay, Mangaung and Msunduzi, under the theme of Basics + Innovation .

7CITIES AND VULNERABILITIES

Citiesand Vulnerabilities

Cities tend to be de� ned spaces that are built

around key assets i.e. land, natural and

� nancial resources. The poor management of

these assets, which are limited and � nite by

nature, brings different forms of vulnerabilities

to cities.

Cities have a duty to respond to the social needs of

their inhabitants, address safety issues and have

adequate institutional planning and administrative capacity to

be able to govern and develop their urban spaces. This responsibility happens in an

environment where there is unsustainable consumption of resources (e.g. water, food,

energy etc.) and increasing demand for services (roads, transport, houses, health and

educational facilities).

Cities are the sphere of government closest to communities and, therefore, responsible

for implementing national service delivery imperatives. This distinct feature of local

government, in particular cities, puts them under constant pressure to consistently deliver

good standard services. However, implementation becomes a challenge without

adequate resources, support from the national sphere, as well as

effective and ef� cient urban development planning. Cities cannot

fall short on urban planning, which Cities of basic services

as a primary function, as this may result in the spate of

sometimes violent protests plaguing many

municipalities in the country.

City governance needs to be viewed as two-

pronged, i.e. accountability by both the

authorities and citizens themselves. Community

involvement in decision making should not be

seen as a compliance issue but rather a

consultative and engagement process by all

affected stakeholders. Sustainable partnerships

must be formed with the aim of achieving a

common vision. This approach can facilitate a

better understanding of how a city is run, thereby

minimising the level of vulnerability and unrest that

protests and other events bring to the city administration.

Cities are the

drivers of a country’s

economic growth and

continuously attract people

for different reasons,

including personal growth

and aspirations.

Cities are responsible for implementing national service

delivery imperatives.


Sustainable Cities

The national Department of Environmental Affairs lays a foundation

for sustainable development through its National Strategy for

Sustainable Development and Action Plan (NSSD 1). The NSSD 1 (DEA,

2011c) promotes a systems approach to sustainability, whereby the

economic, socio-political and the ecological systems are embedded within

each other, and then integrated through the governance system that holds them

together in a legitimate regulatory framework. This approach implies that sustainability is

a continuous and mutually compatible integration of these systems over time. Figure 2

illustrates this further.

FIGURE 2: Systems approach to sustainability Socio

Ecosystem services

Governance

Socio-political

Socio

Economy

Cities should view city sustainability from the sustainable development foundation, in the

long-term broad perspective that aims to balance the parameters in order to achieve

sustainable urban development.

City

sustainability will

not be achieved if

administrations focus

primarily on green issues at

the expense of other areas

within the spectrum of

service delivery.

9SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Living sustainably means grappling with the ‘perfect storm’ associated with the

inseparability of water, food, energy and climate change (Oxford Martin School, 2013: 18).

Water is necessary for life, acting as a messenger within the body, � ushing out toxins

and regulating the body temperature. Water is also necessary for economic development,

energy production and agriculture, speci� cally food production. Agriculture and water

availability are affected by climate change, which is a dynamic threat that exacerbates

the varying degrees of droughts and � oods. Any threat to the natural base has a direct

impact on society, reducing economic outputs and affecting social health through

diseases associated with � ooding, excessive heat or air pollution from over reliance on

fossil-based fuels.

Therefore, sustainability must be viewed holistically, as a fundamental concept that straddles

the different city departments, supported by robust and long-term governance and policy

choices. There is no � xed method of developing a path for transitioning towards sustainability,

as each city is unique and must create this path based on their needs and available

resources. The transition to a sustainable city is thus a journey, not a destination, and so

sustainability needs to be an integral part of the city’s growth and development strategies.

Evolution of policy towards sustainable citiesThe Constitution of South Africa (1996) introduced a rights-based approach to

environmental sustainability. It enshrines environmental rights and equity in the values

guiding the management of the environment and natural resources. It implies that, in

pursuit of a clean and healthy environment, the state must ensure that negative impacts

do not adversely affect people. Environmental justice is, therefore, to be pursued in order

to achieve environmental sustainability.

Environmental sustainability has been mainstreamed across government and all sectors

of society. The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (No. 107 of 1998,

amended by Act No. 25 of 2014) provides the legislative framework that is articulated

through a suite of more detailed sectoral pieces of legislation. However, the slow

development of strategic environmental planning tools, such as strategic environmental

assessments (SEAs) and environmental management frameworks (EMFs) is intended to

reduce the over-reliance on the reactive environmental impact assessment (EIA) system.

The National Energy Act (No. 34 of 2008) aims to ensure the availability of diverse energy

resources to all South Africans. It addresses environmental management requirements

and increased renewable energy generation and consumption. It further obliges the

Minister of Energy to develop an Integrated Energy Plan, which should address issues

relating to the supply, transformation, transport, storage and demand of energy, taking

into account the availability of energy sources and the environment, among other things.

In addition, the Renewable Energy White Paper (DME, 2003) and the Energy Ef� ciency

Strategy (DME, 2005) promotes the roll-out and uptake of sustainable energy, while the

Integrated Resources Plan (DoE, 2010) details how South Africa’s electricity demand

should be met in terms of capacity, type, timing and cost.


Similarly, the National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998), complemented by the National Water

Resources Strategy, provides a framework for the water sector. Currently the Department

of Water and Sanitation the (DWS) is responsible for planning, developing and managing

water resources, while municipalities are ‘water service authorities’ (WSAs). Under this

arrangement, DWS is responsible for the bulk infrastructural systems that provide water

to the WSAs, while the WSAs are tasked with ensuring access to water services as

prescribed in the Act. Some municipalities have water service providers (WSP) that

provide water services in accordance with the Constitution, the Water Services Act (No.

108 of 1997), bylaws and any speci� c conditions set by the respective WSA.

The National Environmental Management Waste Act (No. 59 of 1998, amended by Act

No. 62 of 2014) provides a coherent and integrated legislative framework for waste

management. To achieve the Act’s objectives, the National Waste Management Strategy

(DEA, 2011a) highlights eight strategic goals that are structured around the waste

management hierarchy. This hierarchy ‘consists of options for waste management during

the life-cycle of waste, arranged in descending order of priority: waste avoidance and

reduction, reuse and recycling, recovery, and treatment and disposal as the last resort’

(DEA, 2011: 6). The goals are promoting waste minimisation, reuse, recycling and

recovery of waste; ensuring ef� cient delivery of waste services; growing the contribution

of the waste sector to the green economy; ensuring that people are aware of the impact

of waste on their health, wellbeing and the environment; achieving integrated waste

management planning; ensuring sound budgeting and � nancial management for waste

services; providing measures to rehabilitate contaminated land; and establishing effective

compliance with and enforcement of the Waste Act.

The national Climate Change Response Policy (DEA, 2011b) was developed to drive

national mitigation and adaptation interventions. It recognises that climate change is a

major global concern that will have signi� cant environmental and societal impacts, and in

particular increase the vulnerability of communities, especially the poor.

City sustainability strategiesCities have growth and development strategies that display pro-active thinking and

planning towards sustainable cities. In 1993, the ICLEI1 initiated the Cities for Climate

Protection (CCP) Programme, as a global transnational municipal network aimed at

reducing urban greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, improving air quality, and enhancing

urban liveability and sustainability. More than 650 local governments participated in the

programme. Certain South African municipalities have subsequently developed policies

and strategies for transitioning to low-carbon and resource-ef� cient cities.

1. ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability is the world’s leading network of over 1,000 cities, towns and metropolises committed to building a sustainable future. It was founded in 1990 by 200 local governments from 43 countries who convened for the fi rst World Congress of Local Governments for a Sustainable Future at the United Nations headquarters in New York. Operations started in 1991 at the World Secretariat in Toronto, Canada, and the European Secretariat in Freiburg, Germany. http://www.iclei.org/about/who-is-iclei.html

11SUSTAINABLE CITIES

In 1994, Durban (now eThekwini) became the � rst Council to accept Local Agenda 212

as a corporate responsibility. After launching an Environmental Management Policy in

1998, the municipality participated in the CCP campaign (2001–2006), developed an

Energy Strategy (2008) and established an Energy Of� ce (2009). More recently (2014),

the municipality � nalised the draft Durban Climate Change Strategy.

In the early 2000s, the leadership of the City of Tshwane realised the importance of

ensuring the development of a clear strategy. This led to the 2004 City Development

Strategy, which was later reviewed and became Tshwane Vision 2055. It provides a set

of focus areas for city planning and � nds traction in the Framework for a Green Economy

Transition (2013). The framework is aimed at directing development and investment

towards a low-carbon, climate-resilient and resource-ef� cient city.

The City of Joburg’s strategy, Johannesburg 2040, aspires for a vibrant, equitable African

city that is strengthened through its diversity, real quality of life and sustainability for all its

citizens as well as a resilient and adaptive society. The city is in the process of reviewing

its climate change response into an overarching framework for both mitigation and

adaptation response.

Ekurhuleni bene� ted from the support of the Danish Development Agency (DANIDA) in

developing an Energy and Climate Change Strategy (2007) that aims ‘to integrate and

entrench sustainable energy approaches and practices’, prioritising energy and climate

change response interventions in the city (EMM, 2007: 2).

Although not at the level of large metros, other municipalities have shown their

commitment to sustainable development through policies and strategies. Furthermore,

the spatial development frameworks (SDFs), integrated development plans (IDPs) and

other planning instruments are tools that can be used to support the journey towards

sustainable cities.

The various policies described above provide a framework for programmes and

progress made on service delivery across different core functions. The SACN research

supports these city imperatives and encourages the acceleration of the transition to

sustainable cities..

2. Local Agenda 21 is a local-government-led, community-wide, and participatory effort to establish a comprehensive action strategy for environmental protection, economic prosperity and community well-being in the local jurisdiction or area. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/la21/la21.html


Understanding Cities’ Vulnerabilities

Links to the original reports are provided in each section.

Sustainable energyThe national policy framework, as described in the previous section,

guides the deployment and uptake of sustainable energy in cities.

Sustainable energy refers to the production and consumption of energy in

ways that support social and economic development in an environmentally

benign manner. The current electricity crisis is an invitation for the drastic uptake of

renewable energy and energy ef� ciency at a national level.

Energy drives the economy and as such, in� uences local and national development.

Cities play a very crucial role, as they are home to 64% of the country’s population (of

which 40% live in the metropolitan municipalities). As South Africa continues to experience

rapid urbanisation, the forecast is that 70% of the country’s population will be living in

urban areas by 2030, increasing to 80% by 2050. Cities produce approximately 70% of

the country’s economic wealth, consume 52% of the country’s petrol and diesel and

account for about 37% of national energy consumption and 46% of national electricity

consumption (SEA, 2015).

South Africa is the 12th highest GHG emitter in the

world because most electricity is produced from

coal. Carbon emissions per capita and per

gross value added are increasing nationally

because of large energy-intensive

industries such as Sasol and

aluminium smelters. However, in

metros, carbon emissions are

decreasing, mainly because

electricity use has dropped, as a

result of price escalation and

blackouts. To a lesser extent,

sustainable energy interventions

have contributed to this trend, as

many metros are supporting the peak-

plateau-decline climate mitigation

intentions of national government.

This section provides a

snapshot of the different

pieces of research that SACN

has conducted in order to

understand cities’ vulnerabilities,

preparedness for and

performance in driving local

and national development.

ESKOM Kriel Plant

13UNDERSTANDING CITIES’ VULNERABILITIES

Urbanisation presents both a challenge and

an opportunity for transitioning to more

sustainable energy, through reduced

energy consumption and the clean

production of energy by using

renewable energy technologies.

Renewable energy use is still in its

infancy and supplies negligible

amounts of electricity compared to

Eskom. Nevertheless, much is

happening at local level, despite cities

not having a clear mandate to generate

electricity. In light of the current electricity

crisis, municipalities are likely to do more, through

biogas and waste-to-electricity projects and small-

scale solar photo-voltaic (PV) rooftop generation. In particular, the application of small-

scale embedded PV is expected to accelerate in the next few years.

Some examples of city renewable energy projects with a potential for scaling-up are

described below. These are installed at both city-owned buildings and facilities, as well

as stand-alone units.

PV projects

Cape TownIn 2014, installed 167kWp of rooftop PV panels, with 90kWp planned for

installation by June 2016.

eThekwini

A Solar City Framework developed to promote the local manufacturing of PV

technology, and its uptake in residential and commercial properties. The

output of this framework is an online solar map that can be used to quantify

solar potential before further investment. There are plans to install 150kWp

on municipal buildings.

EkurhuleniIn 2012, installed 200kW of solar PV plant from 860 solar panels, with plans

to scale up to 600kW.

Cities have different tariff structures for small-scale embedded generations. Johannesburg,

Cape Town, Mangaung and eThekwini have developed speci� c tariffs, while Ekurhuleni

and Nelson Mandela Bay have no tariffs. eThekwini, Nelson Mandela Bay and Cape

Town have developed guidelines and procedures, whereas Mangaung and Johannesburg

have adopted the National Regulatory Standards speci� cation (SEA, 2015).

Solar roof panels


Wind power

Cape Town Darling wind farm offers 5.2MW of installed capacity.

Nelson Mandela Bay

The private development of 1.8MW Coega wind farm is supported

through a municipal Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) and

wheeling agreement.

Landfi ll gas to electricity The largest plant is in eThekwini, where the Bisasar Road land� ll produces 7MW per year

from land� ll gas. Johannesburg is planning 18.6MW from its � ve land� ll sites, while

Ekurhuleni and Buffalo City continue to � are as feasibility studies are undertaken.

Wastewater gas to electricityJohannesburg’s Northern Water Works Treatment Plant has plans to ramp up production

to 4.5MW.

Waste to electricityTshwane’s Bronkhorstspruit facility currently produces 3MW with expected full capacity

of 4.5MW.

Micro-hydro Cape Town has 2775kW installed capacity at the Wemmershoek, Blackheath, Faure and

Steenbras water treatment plant facilities (SEA, 2015).

Energy effi ciency potential report in municipal operationsThe SACN commissioned a study to investigate the energy ef� ciency (EE) potential in

municipal operations. Municipalities can promote EE by developing and implementing

projects to improve the energy ef� ciency of municipal facilities and operations. In so

doing, they lead by example and so motivate the private sector and other stakeholders

to become more energy ef� cient. In addition, municipalities can save money by improving

the energy ef� ciency of municipal facilities and day-to-day operations.

As Figure 3 shows, the dominant energy-consuming sector is the municipal vehicle

� eet, which accounts for 35% of the total energy consumed, followed by electricity used

in buildings and facilities (31%), electricity used in water supply and wastewater

treatment (17%), and street lighting (16%). Traf� c lighting accounts for just 1% of the

total electricity consumption.


FIGURE 3: Average baseline energy consumption per sector (GJ/a)

Water supply & wastewater treatment

Buildings & facilities

17%

1%

31%

16%

35%Street lighting

Traf�c lighting

Vehicle �eet (petrol & diesel)

The study also looked at the potential for energy ef� ciency across the sectors. It found

that the potential end-use savings were 39% for the municipal vehicle � eet sector, 29%

for the water supply and wastewater sector, 18% for buildings and facilities, and 14% for

street lighting. The municipal vehicle � eet sector has a high energy-saving potential but

would result in a lower reduction in carbon emissions compared to grid-supplied

electricity, which has a higher carbon content than liquid fuels.

Among the electricity-consuming sectors, the water supply and wastewater treatment

sectors have the highest potential for electricity ef� ciency savings. The greatest potential is

in retro� tting the standard motors in water pumps with energy ef� cient motors coupled with

Variable Speed Drives (VSDs). Capturing the full potential of energy savings would also lead

to a signi� cant reduction in carbon emissions across the sectors, as depicted in Figure 4.

FIGURE 4: Potential energy savings and carbon emissions reductions per sector yearly

Water supply & wastewater treatment

Buildings & facilities18%

14%

29%

39%Street lighting

Traf�c lighting

Vehicle �eet (petrol & diesel)


Table 1 summarises the modelled energy ef� ciency potential of different interventions

across sectors in the SACN member cities. Energy consumption and the potential for

savings are highly variable across the cities. It should be noted that the data used here

covers a number of different years across the municipalities studied because of the

absence of current data or data for a uniform year.

TABLE 1: Overview of energy consumption and energy effi ciency potential across SACN member cities

Municipality Sector

Baseline Energy

Consumption (GJ/a)

EE Measure Penetration

(%)

Potential Electricity Savings (MWh/a)

Potential Energy

Savings (GJ/a)

Carbon Emissions Reduction (tCO2e/a)

Financial Saving (ZAR)

Buffa

lo C

ity

Buildings & facilities – – – – – –

Street lighting 19,307 19% 2,084 7,501 R 2 146 R 1 145 976

Traffi c lighting 1,686 100% – – – –

Wastewater treatment 21,711 7% 2,078 7,482 R 1 143 062

Petrol (ℓ) – 0% – – – –

Diesel (ℓ) – – – – – –

Cape

Tow

n

Buildings & facilities 968,682 11% 42,484 152,942 R 43 758 R 23 366 033



Bulk water supply & wastewater treatement 390,223 0% 51,039 183,742 R 52 570 R 28 071 624

Petrol (ℓ) 206,256 0% 1,929,881 66,002 R 13 583 R 61 484 548

Diesel (ℓ) 404,934 0% 3,401,017 129,579

Ekur

hule

ni


Street lighting – – – – – –

Traffi c lighting – – – – – –

Bulk water supply & wastewater treatement 213,096 0% 12,634 45,484 R 13 014 R 6 948 957

Petrol (ℓ) 366,250 0% 3,426,901 117,200 R 19 862 R 90 996 825

Diesel (ℓ) 531,293 0% 4,462,306 170,014 – R –


Municipality Sector

Baseline Energy

Consumption (GJ/a)


(%)


Potential Energy

Savings (GJ/a)



eThe

kwin

i




Bulk water supply 175,55 – 15,445 55,603 – –

Wastewater treatment 83,066 0% – – R 15 909 R 8 494 964

Petrol (ℓ) 152,707 0% 1,428,837 48,866 R 11 203 R 50 419 556

Diesel (ℓ) 350,380 0% 2,942,825 112,122 – R –

Joha

nnes

burg


Street lighting 22,866 – – – – –


Bulk water supply & wastewater treatment 1,308 0% 38,700 139,320 R 39 861 R 21 285 000

Petrol (ℓ) 14,268 0% 133,505 4,566 R 1 174 R 5 252 817

Diesel (ℓ) 38,333 0% 321,957 12,267 – –

Man

gaun

g


Street lighting 142,165 20% – – – –



Petrol (ℓ) 30,780 0% 288,000 9,850 R 1 693 R 7 751 040

Diesel (ℓ) 45,720 0% 384,000 14,630 – –

Msu

nduz

i

Buildings & facilities 22,723 10% 1,008 3,629 R 1 038 R 554 266

Street lighting 4,269 – – – – –


Water & wastewater treatment Umgeni Water – – – – –

Petrol (ℓ) 4 0% 348 12 R 26 R 111 415

Diesel (ℓ) 1,109 0% 9,315 355 – –


Municipality Sector

Baseline Energy

Consumption (GJ/a)


(%)


Potential Energy

Savings (GJ/a)



Nels

on M

ande

la B

ay

Buildings & facilities 18,458 10% 819 2,948 R 843 R 450 238

Street lighting 42,268 20% 4,068 14,646 R 4 190 R2 237 601

Traffi c lighting – 100% – – – –

Bulk water supply 95,144 0% 10,846 39,046 R 11 172 R 5 965 368

Wasterwater treatment 86,465 – – – – –

Petrol (ℓ) – – – – – –

Diesel (ℓ) – – – – – –

Tshw

ane



Traffi c lighting 4,666 37% 1,090 3,924 R 1 122 R 599 229


Petrol (ℓ) 75,001 0% 701,762 24,000 R 8 675 R 38 311 331

Diesel (ℓ) 311,989 0% 2,620,382 99,837 – –

Source: SACN (2014)

Municipalities may delay implementing energy ef� ciency improvements because of the

high upfront costs. However, a delay can also be costly because inef� cient energy use

results in high operating costs. Municipalities can use a variety of � nancial instruments to

fund their energy ef� ciency projects, including internal funds, loans, bonds, energy

performance contracting, lease purchase agreements and grants.

Institutionalising and mainstreaming energy ef� ciencies in relevant strategies, including IDPs,

is an important � rst step in raising awareness within the municipality about the need to

become more energy ef� cient. Municipal staff need to proactively implement energy ef� ciency

programmes and develop green procurement policies. Resources should be allocated to

enable implementation, and passionate champions identi� ed (similar to the City of Tshwane’s

Green Ambassadors) in order to sustain an energy ef� ciency culture within a city.

More information can be found in the full report Modelling Energy Ef� ciency Potential in

Cities.


Consolidation of the lessons learnt for renewable energy and energy effi ciency in citiesThe SACN commissioned research about lessons learnt from EE and RE initiatives within

SACN member cities, with the aim of identifying the municipalities’ role, barriers

experienced and successes achieved, and making recommendations in the form of a

roadmap. The study found that some energy ef� ciency and renewable energy projects

are replicable and scalable, and others are low-hanging fruit that should be targeted.

FIGURE 5: Key lessons learnt from implementing RE and EE in cities

Legislation

Lessons Learnt

Capacity

Reporting

Funding

Finance

Coordination & planning

Supply chain

Technical

Awareness

As Figure 5 illustrates, a basket of operational areas must work in harmony and in support

of the implementation of RE and EE. Legislation, coordination and planning, as well as

supply chain issues are all critical and should be complemented by technical improvements

(losses and inef� ciencies), awareness raising and capacity building (external and internal),

funding and improved reporting capabilities. The report proposes recommendations and

roles that different stakeholders should play in facilitating the challenges and bottlenecks

experienced when implementing sustainable energy.

More information can be found in the full report Consolidation of the Lessons Learnt for

Renewable Energy and Energy Ef� ciency in Cities.


Water managementIn 2013, the SACN commissioned research into the state of water resources and their

management in cities. The National Water Act and Water Services Act govern the

protection, conservation and sustainable management of water resources. The National

Water Resource Strategy: Water for an Equitable and Sustainable Future provides the

strategic direction and guidance for catchment management, water allocations and

water quality management.

Clean fresh water is needed not only for consumption, but also for farming (of food),

manufacturing and producing electricity. Access to potable water and electricity are

directly linked to quality of life. The country’s fresh water supply is under threat, largely

as a consequence of increasing demand, pollution, unsustainable use and climate

change. South Africa has a semi-arid, water-scarce environment, and many areas, such

as the Northern Cape, are already experiencing severe water stress.

South Africa is a water-scarce country with highly variable water resources, both over

time and space. As a result, and to create security of water supply, South Africa has a

highly regulated and engineered water infrastructure with some of the highest levels of

impoundments worldwide. Water resources are necessary for basic human needs,

economic development, social needs and ecological and environmental requirements.

Within a water-scarce country, this means that most water is already allocated to existing

uses and competing demands. Unfortunately, water is not valued as a scarce resource

and is often wasted, polluted and poorly managed. As cities and the economy grow,

demands for the limited available water supplies will only increase. The current water

restrictions and drought in KwaZulu-Natal is a good example of the social and economic

stresses that water shortages can cause.

Challenges to managing water relate to water availability, water quality or its � tness for

use (issues like acid mine drainage have become increasingly prominent), development

and maintenance of water infrastructure to ensure its usability for people and the

economy, as well as maintaining the ecological services that provide us with water (� ood

mitigation, water puri� cation etc.). Cities in South Africa are responsible for providing,

maintaining and collecting revenue for water supply and sanitation. Balancing the needs

for infrastructure to new residents, maintaining existing infrastructure and collecting

revenue to fund these services where many residents cannot afford to pay will remain a

complex challenge going forward. Skills and human capacity in the water sector,

particularly at a local level, are often too small to cope with the scale and complexity of

the challenges.

As a scarce and valuable resource, water needs to be treated with care. The whole

infrastructure – from extracting fresh water, to treating wastewater and delivering potable

water to the consumer – needs to be as ef� cient as possible. This means ensuring the

state and quality of water infrastructure within cities, and freshwater resources (rivers and

wetlands) are in a good condition.

Figure 6 is a map of the cities and their water management areas.


FIGURE 6: Water Management Areas

City of Cape Town

BERG-OLIFANTS

Bu�alo City

Nelson Mandela Bay

150 1500 300 km

Msunduzi

MZIMVUBU-TSITSIKAMMA

VAAL

BREEDE-GOURITZ

City of Tshwane

EkurhuleniCity of Johannesburg

INKOMATI-USUTHU

OLIFANTS

LIMPOPO

Mangaung

ORANGE

In addition to assessing the current state of freshwater resources and quality of water

infrastructure, the research looked at the infrastructural and human capacity needs, and

adequate resource monitoring protocols. Delivering water sustainably requires having the

available water resources, capital expenditure for extracting, treating and delivering water,

technical support and management of the relevant assets. From this, the required

infrastructural and human capacity can be determined and adequate resource monitoring

protocols implemented. These protocols can be shared with different cities to improve

their water management. Ultimately, better water management can have a positive effect

on food and energy security as well as result in healthy ecosystems.

The Green Drop and Blue Drop programmes managed by the Department of Water

Affairs and Sanitation (DWAS) compares local government’s performance for delivering

water and wastewater services. In the larger metros, wastewater collection and treatment

is relatively good, and the risk to human health is lower than in other municipalities. These

cities also have had a longer investment in infrastructure and higher capacities, although

underinvestment in the maintenance and operation of water infrastructure is threatening

the quality of services. The relatively good results could be because these metros are

economic hubs, and so consumers are able to demand and pay for high service levels,

thereby contributing to city revenue. The larger metros are able to attract and keep the


technical skills essential for adequately treating wastewater and delivering treated water

to the � nal consumer. Adequately treated wastewater released into the environment has

a lower impact on freshwater resources, and reduces the likelihood of outbreaks and

spread of water-borne epidemics. Figure 7 highlights the negative changes in surface

water quality since 2005.

FIGURE 7: Surface water quality trends for chlorides and sulphates (2006–2008), total dissolved solids and nitrates (2005–2010).

1

1

5

4

7

6

89

32

58

4

7

6

9

32

5

4

7

6

89

32

1

5

4

7

6

89

31

2

Chloride

Total dissolved solids

Sulphate

Nitrates

5

4

7

6

89

311

5

7

6

89

3

5

7

6

89

311

58

4

7

6

9

3

Steady

Deteriorating

Improving

1. Johannesburg 4. Cape Town 7. Buffalo City

2. Tshwane 5. Ethekwini 8. Msunduzi

3. Ekurhuleni 6. Nelson Mandela Bay 9. Mangaung

Pollution is having a negative impact on freshwater ecosystems. Mining may be responsible

for the salinity observed in the Vaal, Crocodile and Olifants River systems, while poorly

treated ef� uent and solid waste pollute rivers across the cities.

The cities have good water management (Figure 8). Cape Town’s water and wastewater

infrastructure is considered the most adequate, based on the proportion of households

and persons with access to water and sanitation, and the relatively low new infrastructural

needs. However, this does not account for the quality of the service provided.


FIGURE 8: Access to water (2010)

Piped water inside dwelling/institution Piped water in yard

Piped water on community stand (<200m from dwelling/institution) Piped water on community stand (200m – 500m from dwelling/institution)

Piped water on community stand (500m – 1000m from dwelling/institution) Piped water on community stand (>1000m from dwelling/institution)

No access to piped water

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Cape TownJohannesburg eThekwini Tshwane Ekurhuleni Nelson Mandela Bay

Mangaung Buffalo City Msunduzi

As Figure 8 shows, Cape Town and Nelson Mandela Bay have the highest proportion

of households with piped water inside dwellings. Cape Town, eThekwini, Mangaung

and Msunduzi have the highest proportion of households with metered connections. In

addition, Cape Town, Ekurhuleni, eThekwini, Nelson Mandela Bay have the best

performance for budgeting for spending on asset management. eThekwini (whose

Water and Sanitation Department won the 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award),

Buffalo City and Cape Town have the best technical capacity, measured by the number

and quali� cations of people occupying technical positions in their water infrastructure

departments.

FIGURE 9: Non revenue water – water loss

2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Cape TownJohannesburg eThekwini Tshwane Ekurhuleni Nelson Mandela Bay

Mangaung Buffalo City Msunduzi


Between 2009 and 2013, Cape Town, Tshwane and Nelson Mandela Bay kept the

percentage of water losses below 30% (Figure 9). However, 30% water losses is of

concern, highlighting the state of South Africa’s ageing water infrastructure, inadequate

maintenance and old leaking pipes. Investment in improved infrastructure needs to be

prioritised, in order to manage the non-revenue water levels, especially in a water-scarce

country like South Africa that ought to conserve water resources. Furthermore, in the

case of Tshwane, Ekurhuleni and Johannesburg, their location on the headwaters means

that the water available locally cannot meet the demand, and they are heavily reliant on

interbasin transfers to provide water.

Reliable assessments of the sustainability of water resources and their management are

affected by data gaps, especially in the smaller metros that are only beginning to improve

their information management systems. While the data gaps vary from city to city, in all

cities the ‘� tness for use’ indicator is inadequately monitored at city level. Therefore, the

study used data from a nationwide project – the NFEPA (National Freshwater Ecosystem

Priority Areas) – conducted at a sub-Water Management Area level.

To manage water resources sustainably and to support social and economic development

of the country, municipalities need to:

• Improve knowledge about the relationship between water and water users and the

importance of ecosystems.

• Consider the different water resource types that are available.

• Improve understanding of the existing and any emerging threats to the reliable delivery

of water to consumers.

• Build the necessary capacity (technical and � nancial) to address the challenges.

More information can be found in the full report State of Water in Cities.

Waste managementThe SACN commissioned research into the state of waste management in its member

cities. Indicators were co-developed with cities and data collected. The data was

clustered into three interrelated groups: Governance and Finance, Basic Service Provision

and Economic Opportunities, re� ecting the main waste service responsibilities.

Waste is a valuable resource and should not be discarded or disposed with no regard for

future use. A wide range of bene� ts can be reaped from rational and consistent waste

management practices. The long-term result of adopting the waste hierarchy approach

will be ef� cient production and consumption of products and materials. In the short to

medium term, the options of recycle, reuse and waste-to-energy conversion present an

opportunity for new jobs and new business opportunities, thus contributing to the green

economy. It will also lead to improved air and water quality, and reduced GHG emissions

through capturing methane at land� ll sites.


Constitutionally, proper waste management is a core municipal function. Integrated

sustainable waste management in cities is guided by national policy, including the

National Environmental Management Waste Act and the National Waste Management

Strategy (NWMS).

The study found that waste management in the SACN member cities has improved

tremendously over the past two decades. Mangaung‘s waste collection service increased

by more than 10% between 2001 and 2011. Waste collection in all cities is above the

national average of 65% (Stats SA, 2011).

The Integrated Waste Management Plans (IWMPs) are key to

strengthening waste governance in local municipalities. Cities

with IWMPs perform much better than cities without

these plans in place. In 2013, Johannesburg, Cape

Town and Nelson Mandela Bay all had up-to date

and functional IWMPs, and were the three best-

performing cities for waste management. Cities

need to complete IWMPs, review them on a

frequent basis and have them approved by their

Council (as legally required). The more

comprehensive an IWMP is, the better the city’s

overall performance. Cities should also explore

ongoing research into new waste management

and recycling methods, and learn from other

cities. New opportunities and new technologies are

being developed continuously, as waste management

is high on the agenda for cities globally. Properly

managed, structured and resourced waste management

services will enable municipalities to take advantage of many

developmental and economic opportunities. A fully exploited and

developed waste industry presents opportunities for job creation, energy

generation and value-add through recycling. Waste-to-energy generation helps reduce

the pressure on the national power utility and is a new source of revenue for municipalities.

A part of the IWMPs that needs special attention is budgeting and � nancing waste

management, including collecting, transporting, disposing, outsourcing and recycling the

waste. The waste management function is a huge cost factor in cities and, if not properly

budgeted for, will strain limited municipal � nancial resources. However, compared to

other city services, the budget for waste is relatively low in many cities. The � ndings of

the benchmarking survey conducted by National Treasury in 2012 illustrated that

municipalities whose services have cost-re� ective tariffs were able to realise surpluses.

Only � ve municipalities, including three cities (Nelson Mandela Bay, Ekurhuleni, Msunduzi),

use cost-re� ective tariffs and recorded a surplus.

The waste management function is a huge cost factor in cities


Although cities have developed alternative waste handling facilities, land� lling remains the

most common method of waste disposal in the country. In 2013, the national South

African Waste Information System (SAWIS) website indicated that, every year, more than

35 million tons of general waste is deposited in land� ll sites, with cities accounting for

more than half of this � gure. Land� lling not only takes up valuable land space but also

causes air, water and soil pollution. It discharges carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane into

the atmosphere, and chemicals and pesticides into the ground.

In some cities, land� ll sites are under stress, unable to cope with the volumes of waste

generated by a nation that is not environmentally conscious. For instance, in 2015 City of

Tshwane reported a closure of three of its land� ll sites because they were full in a space

of six months (June–December 2013), while the remaining � ve sites have diminishing

airspace. It takes approximately � ve years to apply for, get approval and develop a new

land� ll site. If business as usual continues, cities will still be grappling with high volumes

of waste by 2030 (Figure 10), and so cities need to come up with alternative waste-

disposal methods and encourage waste reduction.

FIGURE 10: Waste volumes disposed of at landfi ll sites per city

City of Cape Town

Year

Tons

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

2025

2027

2029

Waste disposed of

Waste recycled

City of Johannesburg

Year

Tons

0200000400000600000800000

100000012000001400000160000018000002000000

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

2025

2027

2029

Waste disposed of

Waste recycled


eThekwini

Year

Tons

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

2025

2027

2029

Waste disposed of

Waste recycled

Mangaung

Year

Tons

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

800000

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

2025

2027

2029

Waste disposed of

Waste recycled

Ekurhuleni

Waste disposed of

Waste recycled

Year

Tons

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

2025

2027

2029

Even with waste diversion and waste minimisation efforts, a regional land� ll site in

Gauteng is critical and urgent. The rollout of a waste minimisation strategy would simply

affect the scale (size and capacity) of the regional site, which would provide relief to

Tshwane, Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni and Mogale City Municipality (Krugersdorp).

Figure 11 depicts a hypothetical scenario showing the effects of increased recycling on

airspace. Increased recycling, whether the national average of 10% or NWMS target of

25%, would lead to an increase in available airspace.


FIGURE 11: Hypothetical scenario of effects of increased recycling on airspaceAi

rspa

ce (m

3 )

Baseline: Airspace available m3

Increase recycling to 10%

Increase recycling to 25%

-20000000

0

20000000

40000000

60000000

80000000

100000000

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Cities can adopt various land� ll diversion strategies, which will require recon� guring the

overall planning and regulatory framework to encourage the reduction of waste to land� ll

sites. These include:

• Reviewing the outdated IWMPs and ensuring alignment with the IDPs for budgeting

purposes in order to secure funding for sustainable waste management practices.

• Amending by-laws to include reasonable waste recovery initiatives for the

implementation and enforcement thereof. This should be a phased in approach e.g.

Year 1: paper separation, Year 2: glass separation etc.

• Reviewing city waste management policies to re� ect mainstreaming of climate

change, mandatory recycling and composting. For example, investigating community

composting programmes and curbside recycling programmes.

• Increasing education and awareness by developing programmes with realistic

timelines for implementing sustainable solutions, which must be supported by the

executive management of the city.

• Designing inclusive programmes, providing ’user-friendly’ recycling and composting

services to all communities including small and rural communities (moving away from

isolated separation at source in certain communities), with the goal of reducing waste

disposed at land� lls in line with national targets.

• Providing suf� cient funding for a comprehensive materials-recovery programme and

incentives to develop markets.

More information can be found in the full report, State of Waste Management in Cities –

modelling the effects of land� lling as a disposal method.

The research on waste management also looked at the promise of the green economy,

speci� cally how municipalities might turn their waste management into economic


activities that will not only relieve the negative impact of waste on the environment but

also elevate the living standards of their citizens. The transition towards sustainable

municipal solid waste management practices demands engaging and preparing both the

public and private sector. Substantial investment is required in both soft (organisational)

and hard (equipment, civil) infrastructure. Moreover, to ensure the sustainability of

initiatives, the right implementation models need to be applied, including cost recovery

and law enforcement precautions.

The research identi� ed several requirements for developing green waste management

initiatives, including the need to:

• build organisational capacity/skills,

• remove regulatory restrictions in the MFMA,

• draw up solid development and implementation plans including MRV procedures,

• unlock investments in the green economy through industry and international funding

agencies, and

• build external skills and sensitise stakeholders.

More information can be found in the full report A Case for Municipal Solid Waste

Management towards transitioning to green economy.

Food security Having identi� ed food insecurity as one of the potential city vulnerabilities, the SACN

commissioned research into the current and future realities for urban food security in

South Africa. The research argues that food security needs to be viewed and

contextualised within the entire food system, which consists of (i) the activities, actors

and institutions who grow, process, distribute, acquire, consume and dispose of food

and how they interact with other systems and actors; and (ii) the outcomes of these

activities contributing to food security. Therefore, if food security depends on the food

and broader systems, approaches to addressing food insecurity must extend beyond the

individual and household to consider food systems at the neighbourhood, city and

national scales, as well as the interface of these different systems.

The National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security introduced in 2013 builds on existing

initiatives to ensure a rigorous and dynamic response to food and nutrition in order to

achieve the objectives of the National Development Plan (NDP) (NPC, 2012). Prior to this

policy, the state’s role in food security had been spread across various departments: the

Integrated Food Security Strategy, housed in the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and

Fisheries (DAFF), the Integrated Nutrition Programme (housed in the Department of

Health), and the National School Nutrition Programme (housed in the Department of Basic

Education). The 2012 Food for All Campaign linking the DAFF and the Department of

Social Development was informed by Brazil’s Zero Hunger strategy. Its focus was largely

on rural areas and unfortunately lost traction shortly after the initial launch phase (SACN,

2014). These national strategies informed the approach to food security as articulated in

broader strategic documents, such as the Medium Term Strategic Framework.


This approach left little scope for municipalities to address food insecurity as (a) municipalities

do not have equivalent departments (of agriculture, forestry and � sheries, health or

education), with the exception of the City of Tshwane’s Agriculture and Environmental

Management Department; (b) food security is overwhelmingly identi� ed as a rural

problem, which means that no funding is allocated to urban food insecurity. However, the

NDP and the draft Integrated Urban Development Framework elevate the role of local

government and refer to urban food security.

Like the rural poor, the urban poor in South Africa experience food security. The South

African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey found that over half of

households nationally are at risk of hunger (28%) or experience hunger (26%). In urban

informal areas, over two-thirds of households are at risk of hunger (32%) or experience

hunger (36%). The equivalent � gures in urban informal areas were 32% and 36%

respectively. Supporting this � nding are case studies, which consistently show high levels

of food insecurity in urban areas. With regard to trends nationally, food insecurity was in

decline but appears to have plateaued. However, with ever-increasing food and other

prices, the levels of urban food insecurity are unlikely to improve.

Urban household food security depends on the availability, accessibility and use of food,

and is affected by the household’s disposable income. This is because urban residents

have to purchase most of their food (whereas people in rural areas can produce their own

food). Urban food insecurity is characterised by low dietary diversity, high malnutrition

and obesity, and distinct hunger seasons. This is caused by factors such as household

income, income stability, household structure and household asset base.

The research found that the informal food retail sector is more responsive to the food

security needs of the poor than the supermarket sector. Although more expensive per

unit, the informal food retail is by design more attuned to the retail needs of the poor. Poor

households make small, frequent purchases because of limited disposable income,

storage and refrigeration. Poor households also tend to get home after supermarkets

have closed because of the current urban form and inadequate public transport. Informal

sector food retailers have longer opening hours than supermarkets, while street vendors

sell ready-to-eat foods that satisfy the needs of these communities.

Despite a constant supply of food to cities, vulnerable households struggle to access

suf� cient foods during distinct hunger seasons (Figure 12). (a) January, as a result of

households overspending on food during the festive season and having to cover other

expenses, such as school fees; in addition, most businesses close down over December

and January, reducing income and casual labour opportunities. (b) June, as a result of

adverse weather conditions that prevent industries from operating at full capacity, thus

employing less manual labour, which means that poor households have lower incomes.

This pattern has signi� cant health implications, particularly for individuals on chronic

medication who require consistent nutrition. Therefore, social safety nets are needed to

respond to these predictable times of food insecurity.


FIGURE 12: Months of inadequate household food provisioning: Cape Town, Msunduzi, and Johannesburg

Cape Town

Msunduzi

Johannesburg

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%Ja

nuar

y

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

April

May

June

July

Augu

st

Sept

embe

r

Octo

ber

Nove

mbe

r

Dece

mbe

r

Cities should play a wider role, beyond providing access to urban agriculture, and shape

the characteristics and trends of the food system as a whole. Cities can use existing

policies and plans to leverage food security interventions, for example: IDPs, SDFs, open

space master plans, land-use planning, housing and transport plans.

Strategies must also be developed that recognise the informal food retail sector and that

ensure the sustainable management of fresh produce markets, in order to create a

thriving business environment that could appeal to unemployed youth. The partnerships

identi� ed in the current city interventions need to be strengthened.

More information can be found in the full report, Current and Future Realities for Urban

Food Security in South Africa.

Climate changeThe SACN undertook an analysis of cities’ resilience to climate change, with a particular

focus on food security, water provision and transportation. The three cities chosen as

case studies were Johannesburg, Mangaung and Ekurhuleni.

Climate change is likely to have damaging effects globally on natural and human

systems, economies and infrastructure. It cannot be addressed in isolation, as purely

an environmental issue. Accordingly, the national Climate Change Response Policy


was developed to drive national mitigation and adaptation

interventions. South Africa is signatory to a number of

global environmental treaties, and realising the

commitments made through these treaties resides at

local government level. To support their climate

change actions, South African cities are members of

various networks and platforms. Johannesburg and

(recently) Tshwane are members of the C40 Cities

Group, which actively reports on the reduction of

GHG emissions. Until recently, eThekwini represented

local government in the South African delegation at the

Conference of Parties (COP) and hosted the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

negotiations in 2011.

To date, little emphasis has been placed on the impact of climate

change on the day-to-day operations and municipal services of cities. Climate

change is seen as removed from the operational and implementation side of service

delivery. Even within strategic planning, although recognised to some extent, climate

change is not addressed in terms of the physical and direct impacts that will result from

climate variables, and the subsequent impacts on service delivery.

The following emerged when food security, water provision and transportation were

linked to the overall adequate resilience of the city as a system:

• Water provision is the high risk sector across all three cities. Increasing temperatures

will have an impact on water provision and usage: as the demand for water rises,

pressure on the city’s existing water reserves will increase. Projections show that

Mangaung will have a lower rainfall, which makes water and sustainable water

provision a major issue that needs to be addressed in municipal plans for the future.

Interestingly, water provision was seen as a high risk in the Mangaung workshops but

an extreme risk in Ekurhuleni.

• Flooding resulting from extreme rainfall is seen as a high risk for the transportation

sector in both Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni, affecting service delivery and the public

transport systems. Flooding also has an impact on the road infrastructure, placing

great strain on the maintenance and development of road infrastructure. In addition,

both Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni are concerned about the economic impacts of

mobility disruptions due to increased rainfall.

• Food security is a moderate-to-low risk concern for Johannesburg, perhaps because

of the city’s focus on urban development issues. Food security is considered to be a

local community development topic, rather than an important part of the city’s

resilience strategies. Thus Johannesburg has a number of programmes dealing with

food security on a community level, rather than speci� c strategies addressing large-

scale food security on a regional and metropolitan level. Ekurhuleni’s planning focuses

a lot on agriculture and the need to make communities more food secure. However,

increases in temperature and rainfall could threaten the sustainability of crop

production, affecting the agricultural potential identi� ed within Ekurhuleni. As

mentioned earlier, food security depends heavily on the water provision and transport

Floods place a greater strain on the maintenance and development

of road infrastructure.


sectors. However, the fact that food security was not highlighted as a major risk

shows that climate change is not yet seen from a holistic perspective, and the intricate

inter-linkages between sectors are not acknowledged.

City resilience was evaluated based on whether cities have a system in place for addressing

and planning for resilience. The study found:

• Johannesburg has an EMERGING resilience system. The city’s long-term planning

documents make reference to climate change, but integration and implementation

are lacking. However, the city is becoming more proactive and is reviewing its

Adaptation Strategy. Therefore, the conclusion is that Johannesburg’s climate change

resilience system is well advanced and moving towards a fully-� edged resilience

planning platform.

• Ekurhuleni’s climate change resilience system is NOT DEVELOPED. Climate change

impacts are considered but not effectively integrated into the city’s overarching

planning documents. The existing Climate Change Strategy focuses predominantly

on renewable energy and does not provide a holistic context of climate change in the

metropolitan area.

• Mangaung’s climate change resilience system is NOT DEVELOPED. The city’s long-

term planning documents make isolated references to climate change, but the

concept is not adequately integrated into the overall strategic planning of the

municipality. In addition, no supporting data management system is in place to feed

into pro-active resilience planning, which, coupled with limited external partnerships,

does not provide suf� cient support to effectively integrate climate change planning

and strategies.

Planning for and managing climate change impacts must be incorporated into all

overarching city development strategies, to ensure effective awareness, preparedness

and integration across all disciplines and departments.

More information can be found in the report Cities Resilience to Climate Change.

Green transportAlthough public transport forms part of SACN’s Built Environment pillar, the need for

sustainability and emissions reduction in the transport sector is relevant for cities’

vulnerabilities. A study on various scenarios for integrating the minibus taxi industry into

the broader public transport system was conducted. It explored major global and local

trends affecting the future of public transport and assessed the potential of technology,

leadership, incentives, regulatory reform and other interventions to improve service

quality, safety and ef� ciency in the minibus taxi industry.

Public transport plays an essential role in addressing the spatial and socioeconomic

inheritance in South Africa. Apartheid planning created cities where lower income people

live predominantly on the periphery, resulting in long travelling times mostly by private car

and minibus taxis (Table 2). Developing integrated, ef� cient, affordable and sustainable

public transport networks is seen as one of the strategies for reversing the situation.


TABLE 2: NHTS results comparison 2003–2013,

MODAL SHARE 2003

MODAL SHARE 2013 % CHANGE

Public

Transport

Train 7.1% 6.6% -0.,5%

Bus 7.5% 6.2% -1.3%

Taxi 22.5% 25.1% 2.6%

Total 37.1% 37.9% 0.8%

Private

Transport

Car 28.5% 34.2% 5.8%

Walk 32.3% 25.8% -6.5%

Other 2.2% 2.0% -0.1%

Total 62.9% 62.1% -0.8%

The study brought together mobility thought leaders from national government, cities, the

minibus taxi industry and civil society to explore the possibilities for collaboration between

South Africa’s cities and minibus taxi industry. The focus was on innovation, improving

services and integrating the industry with other public transport modes. The report concluded

that the minibus taxi industry is a key component of public transport in South African cities.

More information can be found in the report Minibus Taxi Scenarios 2035.

The SACN also led a team that conducted research into establishing a South African

Cities Green Transport Programme, funded by the Green Fund.

Congestion caused by the heavy dependence on private cars increases travel time,

thereby reducing productivity and affecting economic growth. More importantly, it

contributes to high levels of air pollution and GHG emissions in cities. As Figure 13

illustrates, the transport sector accounts for 38% of these emissions, compared to 28%

from industrial activities and 26% from the residential sector (SEA, 2015).

FIGURE 13: Emissions by sector

Residential

Transport

26%

6%

2%

28%

38%Commercial

Industrial

Government


Having accepted the need to shift from private to public

transport, the study explored options for further ‘greening’

of transport. Switching to green vehicle technologies and

fuels were investigated in terms of costs, environmental

performance and the policy and regulatory environment,

with particular reference to municipal bus � eets and

the minibus taxi industry.

The research found that the life-cycle costs for

procuring and operating green bus � eets using either

biofuels, compressed natural gas (CNG), biogas or

electric batteries have largely converged with those of

EuroV diesel buses. While all options comply with EuroV

tailpipe emissions standards, the wells to wheels3 emissions

are lower for ‘green’ buses than for diesel buses, with biogas

providing the best environmental performance.

South African cities are willing to commit to greening their municipal � eets and,

in principle, the projected demand for new buses from municipalities is suf� cient to

support the local manufacture of green buses. However, cities currently have no appetite

for a centralised procurement mechanism that could provide bus manufacturers with the

guarantees needed to justify such an investment.

In Gauteng, there is already some momentum around CNG as a vehicle fuel for buses

and minibus taxis. An analysis of a gas retailer’s business model found that an additional

charge on the gas price could cover the costs of converting minibus taxis (so that they

can switch between CNG or petrol), while at the same time reduce the operator’s fuel

costs. However, transport fuel levies similar to those placed on petrol and diesel are not

currently placed on gas.

Cities can assist in rapidly expanding the scale of minibus taxi conversions in a number of

ways. These range from facilitating awareness and dialogue between gas retailers and taxi

associations, to providing refuelling infrastructure, and � nancing minibus taxi conversions

in partnership with the private sector and/or � nance institutions. Furthermore, cities own

and operate thousands of vehicles, which account for more than 20% of their total direct

municipal energy consumption (SACN, 2014). Greening municipal � eets makes sense in

all respects – reduced air pollution, reduced respiratory illnesses and savings on fuel costs.

More information can be found in the Green Transport report (forthcoming).

3. Historically, evaluation of vehicle/fuel systems from wells to wheels was called fuel-cycle analysis. It takes into account the production and distribution of the fuel, thereby allowing comparison of emissions over the entire life cycle of a vehicle – from the energy and materials used to power a vehicle, to the direct tailpipe emissions (http://www.electricridecolorado.com/are_you_ready/wells_to_wheels/what-does-it-mean/what-does-wells-to-wheels-mean).

The minibus taxi industry is a key component of public

transport in South African cities.


Cross-cutting Issues that Support a City’s Sustainable Functioning

Human capacityService delivery depends upon capable human resources. In this regard,

SACN commissioned research into the skills capacity for spatial transformation

in eThekwini, Msunduzi, Tshwane, Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, Buffalo City,

Mangaung and Nelson Mandela Bay.

Since the demarcation of democratic local government boundaries in 2000, metropolitan

municipalities have faced institutional challenges, as a result of the amalgamation of

formerly separate local authorities. The spatial legacy of inef� ciency and segregated

developments from the apartheid era persists, despite strides made in creating integrated

sustainable human settlements, as evidenced by sporadic linked developments and

improvements in basic service delivery. The majority of the underprivileged black

population in South Africa’s major cities still live in peripheral low-income settlements

located far from socioeconomic opportunities. The need for spatial transformation is

recognised, but certain challenges � rst need to be overcome.

Horizontal and vertical integrationSenior of� cials have a good understanding of spatial transformation, but more ‘integrators’

are needed. These are people who can work beyond the con� nes of their line departments

and develop good relationships with other sector departments within the municipality

and other spheres of government. Although a well-developed hierarchy of spatial plans

exists, from the spatial development framework (SDF) to precinct plans, these plans lack

clear-cut spatial targeting and fail to align inter-departmental spatial transformation roles

and responsibilities. The introduction of built environment performance plans is aimed at

providing integrated implementation of these plans. These need to be resourced in order

for them to be effective. In most cities, top management and Council seriously take this

opportunity for of� cials to work together in a more integrated fashion.

In addition to the need for greater horizontal integration, vertical integration is also

lacking because of several serious intergovernmental relations challenges related to

the complementary role that national government and provinces are supposed to play

in local government spatial transformation initiatives. For instance, in eThekwini, the

province’s lack of commitment to sharing the costs of key infrastructure (e.g.

interchanges, bridges and roads) is having a detrimental effect on progress towards

spatial transformation. Another problem is delays from other national or provincial

departments, e.g. the issuing of water licences. In Ekurhuleni, the provincial housing

and education departments have not proactively supported the municipality’s spatial

This section provides

a summary of research

into areas that enable or (if

neglected) could have a

negative impact on city

vulnerabilities: human capacity,

socio-political stability and

rural-urban linkages.

37CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES THAT SUPPORT A CITY’S SUSTAINABLE FUNCTIONING

transformation initiatives, despite the existence of several forums in which municipal

planning, housing and transportation departments can engage with their national and

provincial counterparts.

Institutional stability Institutional instability is also a key challenge, especially for relatively small SACN member

cities. For instance, long-term political and administrative instability has severely affected

the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality’s ability to address spatial transformation, although

optimism appears to be increasing among of� cials and in the private sector. This optimism

is, however, fairly fragile, and any sign of renewed insecurity is likely to damage con� dence

and the ability to implement spatial transformation initiatives. In Ekurhuleni, the weak

institutional development stems from the historical amalgamation of several long-

established municipalities, unlike other metropolitan municipalities where existing cities

were extended. To address this, in 2012 Ekurhuleni initiated an institutional review, with

the aim of recon� guring departmental structures to improve operational ef� ciency and

ensuring that personnel with the right skills and competences occupied all job positions

in the municipality. For Msunduzi, instability was mostly because of corruption allegations

against senior managers. By mid-March 2010, the budget de� cit for 2009/10 was

estimated at R162-million, the result of poor collections processes, unfunded expenditure

and high municipal expenditure on services. A number of senior staff members were

suspended for corruption and mismanagement.

National and provincial supportGovernment legislation is not always supportive of the municipalities’ role in spatial

transformation. Although the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act (SPLUMA)

gives legal status to detailed plans, private investment is hampered by the Subdivision of

Agricultural Land Act (No. 70 of 1970), which affects the rate of land release by DAFF. In

some areas, heritage requirements hinder proposed developments. For example, inner

city developments need to meet the requirements of Amafa, the heritage conservation

agency for KwaZulu-Natal.

Municipal departments of human settlements do not have the freedom to develop low-

income housing in line with their priorities, as the funding for housing comes from national

government (via the provincial housing departments), which in turn dictates where the

money should be invested, sometimes in contradiction to the cities’ development plans.

A densi� cation policy and subsidy regime is needed that is aligned to densi� cation

objectives. Other impediments include the culture of the local city populations, in

particular the NIMBYism (‘not in my backyard’) that prevents low-income housing in� ll

projects taking place in upmarket neighbourhoods. For example, residents in the

upmarket neighbourhood of Esseline Park in Ekurhuleni were reported to be resisting the

low-cost housing proposed for the suitable adjacent land. At the same time, many low-

income black families do not want to live in high-rise apartments (part of the densi� cation),

as they prefer owner-occupied freestanding housing units with a yard. Linked to this is

the socio-cultural preference for home ownership, rather than rental.


The SACN member cities need to have a clear understanding of the local government

agenda for spatial transformation, both in South Africa and in their speci� c contexts.

However, while most cities have some commendable and worthy strengths, certain capacity

weaknesses hinder spatial transformation. These include a shortage of the technical skills

that are central to spatial transformation, i.e. planning, architectural, urban design, project

management, and engineering skills. This situation is compounded by a high vacancy rate

within the cities and challenges in attracting and retaining skilled staff. There is also a

tendency to rely on consultants for critical skills such as engineering and GIS.

The links and coordination of interdepartmental spatial transformation initiatives need to be

improved, especially in the relatively smaller metropolitan municipalities, such as Ekurhuleni

and Buffalo City, which have ‘weak’ planning departments. In some cases, departmental

inputs to spatial transformation are not aligned, especially among transportation, economic

development and human settlements departments. This is possibly a consequence of the

lack of clear-cut spatial targeting for the spatial transformation interventions contained in

the growth and development strategies, SDFs and local SDFs in cities.

More information can be found in the report Assessing Capacity for Spatial Transformation

in SACN Member Cities.

Socio-political instabilityAs migration and mobility can challenge the urban governance of cities, SACN undertook

research that explored the challenges and opportunities associated with migration and

mobility into and within South African cities.

South African local government has a ‘developmental mandate’, which means a ‘local

government committed to working with citizens and groups within the community to � nd

sustainable ways to meet their social, economic and material needs and improve the

quality of their lives’ (White Paper on Local Government, 1998: 23). Within this context,

cities must remain governable, and this is viewed as a two-way responsibility between

local authorities and citizens themselves aimed at � nding solutions.

South African cities are urbanising faster than cities in neighbouring countries, and an

estimated 60% of the population currently live in urban areas. The cause is not only

natural growth and mobility, but also internal and cross-border migration. Poor urban

groups, including migrants, are affected by a range of urban vulnerabilities, resulting in

different forms of socioeconomic and political instability. These vulnerabilities include

ethnic tensions, violent political rivalries, violent delivery protests, xenophobic violence,

livelihood insecurities, poor health and a lack of access to services and opportunities.

The study found that residents of urban informal settlements have insecure and unstable

income, poor health, poor living conditions and violence. This is the case both for long-

term South African residents and cross-border migrants. However, the two groups face

different vulnerabilities. For example, in Gauteng, the economic centre of South Africa,


long-term South African residents of urban informal

settlements are most vulnerable to insecure and

unstable livelihoods, while internal migrants residing

in the inner-city are the least vulnerable. The most

vulnerable to poor health and poor living

conditions are cross-border migrants residing in

urban informal settlements, followed by long-

term South African residents of informal

settlements, and internal migrants residing

informally. Long-term South African residents of

the inner-city are the least vulnerable.

Cities need to respond by collecting and managing

data, and sharing it with other municipalities. This

data must be used in policy, planning and budgeting,

and to improve coordination and urban governance

responses.

A key challenge is that local government may lack the tools and information

required to respond appropriately. Yet local government is constitutionally mandated to

create inclusive cities for all residents, and cities have the ability to respond effectively.

Local governments are the point of integration and coordination with other government

spheres and role-players, both vertically and horizontally. Positive action by local

government can address a range of vulnerabilities to mitigate social unrest and to elevate

lives, especially in urban informal settlements.

More information can be found in the report Migration, Mobility and Urban Vulnerabilities

Implications for Urban Governance in South Africa.

LandThe SACN commissioned a set of eight working papers on urban land. The inclusive

cities theme of the SACN looks at the critical interventions required in the built environment

for South African cities to be effective drivers of local and national development, while the

sustainable cities theme examines the key vulnerabilities faced by cities. Important

elements for building inclusive and sustainable cities are urban land and land management

to drive the transformation of space in order to meet the developmental and transformative

objectives of cities.

Land is needed for key built environment interventions, including the provision of shelter,

ef� cient public transport and economic development. It is also important to have suf� cient

land for social and cultural activities, for open space that encourages integration and the

opportunity for city residents to interact with the environment and their broader surrounds,

and for urban agriculture and food production. All these activities compete for land

access. Therefore, to be ef� cient, sustainable, productive and well governed, cities have

Residents of urban informal settlements have insecure and

unstable income, poor health, poor living conditions and violence.


to respond to each of these aspects. The situation is complicated by South Africa’s

sensitive land history, which has a great deal of emotional, political and cultural investment.

In order to address and respond to the above, it is necessary to navigate this challenging

context honestly.

The � rst (and perhaps most sensitive) issue is the politics of land. Nomalanga Mkhize

traces the use of planning reform instruments in urban areas and proposes that a

Western approach to planning is insuf� cient for land reform in African cities. She re� ects

on the different forms of power and in� uences that different urban actors use to stake

their urban land claims. Urban spatial transformation needs to be understood not only

as a matter of planning but as part of the land question, which means addressing the

‘politics of housing’, the lack of attention to the contradictions facing cities and ‘the

way in which land contestation emerges through the interests and actions of multiple

stakeholders and agents’.

In his paper, Paul Hendler offers a concise history of urban land and how these dynamics

continue to in� uence the present. The paper analyses urban land over � ve periods: pre-1913,

1913–1948 (from the Natives Land Act to the start of apartheid), 1948–1976 (Soweto

revolt), 1976–1994 (time of apartheid reformism), and post-1994 (the � rst 21 years of

post-apartheid democracy). Hendler looks at the history of land rights, land ownership

and development, and environmental concerns, and presents limits and possibilities for

municipal interventions.

Mercy Brown-Luthango makes an important argument for rethinking how land is valued.

She argues that a shift in mind-set is needed, particularly among city planners and

decision-makers, about the value of urban land and its role in changing how South

African cities function. This means that municipalities should understand the tools and

instruments at their disposal for creating more mixed-use and mixed-income

neighbourhoods, affordable and accessible public transport, and spaces that are more

conducive to the overall public good and function of South African cities.

Following on from the land value paper, Stacey-Leigh Joseph argues that the role of local

government in driving spatial transformation is being foregrounded, providing the opportunity

for metros to make better decisions about land that will contribute towards more effective

and ef� cient spatial form and functioning. To achieve this, they will need to interrogate and

rethink who is allowed access to land, challenge vested interests and the entrenchment of

unequal land rights, and recognise current and future land requirements – in a context where

land is a � nite resource. Essentially cities need to � nd a balance between the need for shelter,

effective transport infrastructure that increases mobility, economic development, and mixed-

land use that results in more compact cities, and the need for open space, agricultural and

environmental activities and maintaining ecological balance.

Stephen Berrisford makes a valuable contribution, focusing on the evolution of planning

law over the past 20 years, broken into three periods: 1993/4–1999, 2000–2009 and

post-2010. The Development Facilitation Act (1995) and the events that led to the drafting


and � nalisation of SPLUMA are important aspects covered in the paper. He suggests that

cities should adopt a proactive and collaborative approach for implementing SPLUMA,

which allows municipalities to steer and guide land developments. Metros in particular

need to understand and harness this authority for more effective land interventions and

different spatial outcomes. However, this will require cities to scale up their capacity,

improve the land development decision-making process and determine an effective

process for resolving intergovernmental relations disputes.

Poor planning alignment is an ongoing challenge, and in her paper, Nellie Lester investigates

the poor implementation of land-use legislation and related instruments through three case

studies. These recent examples highlight the growing frustration with current land-use

procedures and the poor enforcement of land-use decisions by municipalities. The paper

argues that land-use planning and management is a collective process, and clear

procedures will be integral to achieving spatial transformation. The alignment of actions and

greater awareness of processes across spheres of government and between local

government and communities is central to developing successful solutions.

The focus of the paper by Nicola King and Mark Napier is understanding the land market,

why it fails and how to develop better-informed interventions. The paper considers how

policies, developmental interventions and land-use markets affect spatial development (in

the context of divergent local needs and green economy objectives) and how they could

contribute to the creation of more sustainable cities. They consider the concepts of urban

land distortion, the nature of land markets, the concept of equity and fairness in the land

market, and a range of possible interventions in land markets that could be used to improve

ef� ciencies. The paper contains a framework for sustainable urban land markets, based on

the interventions identi� ed, and concludes that achieving socially desirable outcomes will

be a complex and challenging task because of the intricacies of the land market system.

The � nal paper deals with how to translate policy to practice and, in particular, the

challenges for local government. Peter Magni considers the recommendations in urban

land policy documents from the past two decades in relation to the existing land system

in operation within cities. A systems approach is used to determine where government

might intervene within the system. He discusses the consequences of an unequal,

culturally diverse society where formal, informal and traditional land market actors operate

in the same context. One of these players is local government, which has to drive spatial

transformation but is constricted by a range of factors, including the fact that it derives

signi� cant income from land trade and property tax on well-located and developed land.

He concludes that current government policy fails to understand the complexities of the

urban land system and the needs of its interrelated role-players. This is particularly the

case for local government, which has responsibilities and contradictions in relation to

urban land that go beyond current policy considerations.

These papers are published as The Urban Land Paper Series Volume 1


Rural-urban linkages As the literature on rural-urban linkages is still evolving, knowledge is scant of the multi-

faceted and interrelated nature of rural and urban spaces in the developing world,

particularly in South Africa. Therefore, to contribute to this emerging body of knowledge,

the SACN produced a series of papers that will be consolidated into a book. The book

will address both the theoretical and empirical realities of rural-urban interdependencies,

and provide a set of policy recommendations for the strategic development of rural-

urban interactions that can foster sustainable social, economic and governance relations

between rural and urban areas.

The importance of rural-urban linkages, and the importance of nurturing such links, is

increasingly being recognised. However, the strict division of rural and urban spaces

continues to make it dif� cult to develop strategic interventions that can bene� t the whole

space continuum. Rural-urban linkages allude to the social, political, economic and

physical interdependence, which includes activities and land uses that occur within the

rural-urban space continuum.

Urban centres play a signi� cant role in rural-urban linkages, providing services to both

their own populations and the surrounding rural hinterland populations, and markets for

rural producers. Urban centres also host migrants from rural areas who are attracted to

the perceived socioeconomic opportunities in cities. At the same time, rural areas are a

consumer market for the urban manufacturing and service sectors. They are also centres

of production, especially of agricultural produce consumed in urban areas, and of natural

resources such as water which remains an essential ingredient of urban growth.

The papers look at planning and governance challenges for cities with vast rural

geographies, a perspective on tourism, agro-food value chains, and social value chains

within the context of rural-urban linkages.

Planning and governance challenges for cities with vast rural geographiesThis paper consolidated � ndings from preliminary research into the particular planning

and governance issues that affect South Africa’s metropolitan regions with large rural

spaces. The analysis highlights key problems with applying the urban-rural dichotomy as

a basis for planning. Several Asian, African and Latin American cities are confronting the

challenges of planning and governing areas that include large rural spaces. These

dynamics of urbanisation in the global south are producing various forms of extended

metropolitan regions that challenge this simplistic dualism. In South Africa, the urban-

rural dichotomy is clearly inadequate for interpreting and managing the dynamics of

change in the country’s extended metropolitan areas. ‘Rural’ does not describe spaces

that are diversi� ed economically beyond natural resources. Indeed the planning

challenges facing these ‘rural’ areas in South Africa exhibit parallels to those described

as peri-urban in the international literature. Therefore, it is useful to learn from the peri-

urban experience in Asian, Latin American and African cities when discussing the

planning and governance of South Africa’s extended metropolitan spaces.


Planning needs to shift away from localised solutions to consider broader regional

frameworks, and to shift away from traditional urban/rural planning approaches or tools.

Peri-urban zones require a regional approach in order to address complex poverty and

environmental challenges, especially when sustainability and a search for social justice

are the objectives.

The research underpinning ‘rural development’ policies in South African metropolitan

areas makes no reference at all to policy and practices of planning in any other part of the

world. Breaking out of this isolated and blinkered view of planning and governance, by

drawing upon international debates (if not best practice), can be an important starting

point for evolving fresh planning insights. Policy-making needs to be informed by greater

in-depth, evidenced-based research. Comprehensive research is needed to understand

the dynamics of change in these contested spaces.

Finally, given the unique challenges facing South Africa’s extended metropolitan areas,

establishing a learning network to connect the municipalities of Buffalo City, eThekwini

and Tshwane would be bene� cial. The purpose of this learning network would simply be

for practitioners and local scholars to engage in evidence-based discussions that explore

the dynamics of change and best practice planning. An international expert could be

invited to discuss lessons from international experience at the launch of such a network.

More information can be found in the paper Planning and Governance Challenges of

Cities with Extensive Rural Geographies.

A tourism angleThe international experience shows that the growth of tourism and recreation activities can

have important impacts on local economies, especially as a catalyst for economic and social

development in marginal regions or rural areas. Since the democratic transition and South

Africa’s reincorporation into the global economy, the tourism sector has grown signi� cantly

and is considered a critical pillar for national economic development in the immediate future.

The study commissioned by the SACN shows the complexity of urban and rural spaces,

by examining the rural-urban linkages through the lens of the tourism sector. It shows

how urban and rural areas are linked and connected by spatial and sectoral � ows. The

spatial � ows are the movement of tourists across urban and rural spaces, while the

sectoral � ows are between tourism and agriculture. From this study, some key policy-

related issues emerged and are summarised below.

Capacity building is needed in tourism planning at local government level, especially in

those municipalities that are leading tourist destinations. In addition, a greater

understanding is needed of the different forms of tourism that can be drivers of local

economic development. Local economic development planning for tourism must

recognise the range and potential for leverage of different forms of tourism (e.g. leisure,

business, visiting friends and relatives, religious pilgrimage). This recommendation applies

equally in urban and in rural areas.


Local economic development programmes need to understand the issues related to

developing nature tourism, especially in small towns and the former homelands. The

weak state of tourism planning in these areas points to the need for capacity building

at local government level and engagement with the private companies involved in

nature tourism, in order to seek opportunities for local suppliers to form part of the

accommodation providers’ supply chain. International best practice shows that local

interventions need to raise the capacity of local enterprises to deliver the quality

standards and reliability required in nature tourism accommodation, in particular for the

high-end luxury safari lodges.

Strengthening the inter-sectoral linkages between tourism and agriculture offers multiple

opportunities for local economic development in many parts of South Africa. Such

opportunities would also harmonise with climate change/green economy interventions,

through promoting reduced food miles and thus be a step towards the making of a low

carbon tourism economy. However, these remain ‘missed opportunities’ because the

agriculture and tourism departments continue to plan in silos and so neglect potential

synergies between the two sectors.

To build local linkages between tourism and agriculture, each area’s speci� c demand-

side, supply-side and market-related issues need to be understood. The aim should be

to encourage and enhance the participation of local producers in the food supply chains.

However, local producers often lack the capacity to deliver the quality, consistency and

volume of fresh produce required by nature accommodation providers.

Nurturing these linkages, including local sourcing, requires national

government and the tourism private sector to acknowledge

the importance of boosting backward linkages through

coordinated actions.

More information can be found in the Tourism

paper.

An agro-food value chain: a case of tomatoes and potatoes This study looked at the rural and urban

dependencies of the South African

tomato and potato agro-food value

chains in Limpopo. It analysed the

internal and external dynamics that could

affect rural and urban policy developments,

and identi� ed interventions that can enhance

innovation, address imbalances and improve

pro� tability, especially at the lower end of the

value chain. Fruit and vegetable market


Large commercial operations (e.g. ZZ24) dominate agro-food value chains. For smallholder

farmers, land, access to � nance and quality are the major constraints that they face

within the value chains. In the more pro� table markets, barriers to entry are generally

relatively low, although a strong barrier to entry is the ability to produce products of the

required quality and quantity. Other constraints include cheaper imported processed

products, cold chain maintenance, retailers and market agents with signi� cant buying

power. Most production occurs in the rural areas, while processing and retailing occurs

in the urban and peri-urban areas.

The tomato and potato value chains illustrate the rural-urban linkages and how

inef� ciencies within either space affect the other. For example, production problems in

rural areas affects supply to urban areas, where most � nal consumers of agricultural

products are found. An interesting disconnect is that an aging smallholder farming

population dominates rural areas, whereas unemployed youth are found in urban areas.

These youths either do not consider agriculture as a viable source of livelihood or do not

have access to the resources needed to participate in the agricultural value chains. This

disconnect arises from the lack of and/or inadequate investment in commercial

agricultural institutions and systems, markets and infrastructure within

rural communities, and the example of smallholder farmers who

are poor and for whom farming is dif� cult. However, the narrative

of the poor smallholder farmer can be changed. What is

required is innovative solutions to the problems faced by

smallholder farmers, i.e. access to � nance and inputs in

the value chains.

Both local and national government should ensure that

agricultural value chains function effectively in their

entirety, so as to attract the youth into agriculture.

Interventions within agricultural value chains should not

occur in silos but rather as part of a broader strategy.

While local governments have the responsibility to create

and maintain an enabling environment for business and

investment in both rural and urban areas, public-private

partnerships are also important. All players within the value

chain, at all levels have a role and responsibility towards the value

chain and its ef� ciency. As such, the buy-in of local communities, private

sector, and civil society is important for ensuring that local government-led

interventions in both rural and urban areas are successful.

4. ZZ2 is a farming conglomerate operating in Mooketsi, Politsi, Polokwane and Musina in the Limpopo Province, as well as in the Eastern and Western Cape. It produces tomatoes, onions, avocados, apples, pears and cattle. Tomatoes are the main crop with about 160 000 tonnes produced annually. ZZ2 is a world leader in tomato production and large scale biological farming practices (or ‘natuurboerdery®). http://www.zz2.biz/

Local and national government should ensure that agricultural value chains

function effectively in their entirety, so as to attract the youth into agriculture.


The study recommends that a strong public-private sector platform be established based

on common goals such as economic development within the urban and rural spaces.

Local government’s role is to bring together the various actors in order to improve the

rural-urban linkages in agro-food value chains. Local government must also reach poor

and marginalised rural populations and communities. The services provided should cover

the following key areas:

• Advice on options for strengthening the agro-industrial sector and fostering the

equitable integration of agro-based SMEs into viable markets.

• Capacity building at institutional and industry levels, as a key means of enhancing

agro-based productivity and marketing performance.

• Support to traditional agro-industries to improve their productivity and ef� ciency

and increase their integration into national/global value chains and promote rural

livelihood diversity.

More information can be found in the paper about the Agro-food Value Chain.

An angle on social value chainsSocial value chains are the web of relationships among individuals and households that

maintain social connections and help each other access work, land, housing and

information within the space economy. Their capacities to transfer information and social,

� nancial and other value, determine where and how households can tap into the

resources that enable them to survive. Social value chains also affect how and where

population movement take place, through their role in accessing the economy and

entering the community.

The draft Integrated Urban Development Framework recognises that the urban and rural

sectors are interconnected, with ongoing exchanges between cities and the rural districts.

In urban areas, poor households seek to � nd the best affordable location from where they

can access the metro and local economies, at the lowest possible cost of living. The

immediate household objective is a reliable and adequate income stream, along with

decent housing and a safe, welcoming community. In rural areas, population movement

is refocusing around rural towns and densifying settlements that function as connection

and/or access points for access to the metro and local economies.

The social value chain study looked at seven areas located along the north-eastern

migration corridor into Tshwane metro, in an attempt to understand some of the

economic, social and strategic considerations that poor rural households address

through their social value chains. Thirty respondents were interviewed about their lived

experience, in terms of using social connectivity through value chains to advance their

personal and household goals, emphasising migration and population movement along

the corridor from Jane Furse in the outer northern sector to Mamelodi, as the urban gate

point that � lters and connects demographic � ows into and out of Pretoria. Interviews

were collected from old-style traditional settlements, shack areas and urban backyards

units at the population nodes selected along the migration corridor.


New economic activity is emerging around rural nodes where the population is densifying,

and in former farming towns as a result of in-migration by poor African families seeking

economic opportunities. Half of the employed sample population is now working inside

the local economy of the rural towns, rather than directly in agriculture – only one person

in the sample is still working as a rural farmworker.

Based on the sample interviewed, three categories emerged:

• Category 1: rural-committed people, i.e. those wanting to stay in the rural sector who

identify strongly with their local settlement regardless of their migration history;

• Category 2: rural-mobile people, i.e. those currently residing in the rural sector who

perceive themselves as relatively footloose, not strongly rooted in the present

settlement, who have urban aspirations and may be edging toward moving into or

closer to the metro sector;

• Category 3: metro migrants, i.e. rural-born people now living or working long-term in the

metro sector who expect to remain there and eventually obtain high-quality urban housing.

Social value chains within these different categories differ substantially. Rural households

rely heavily on friends as ad hoc personal contacts to � nd the information needed to

obtain work and locate at an optimal point in economic space. In contrast, value chains

among rural-born migrants in the metro sector revolve around links among siblings, with

own brothers being the most signi� cant link for both men and women migrants facing the

impersonal city.

The social value chain networks shape the likelihood of individuals and households

moving within the rural sector or moving into the metro sphere, or staying in place.

Category 1 tends to � nd paid work inside the local economy at their present spatial point

and expects to build a new house in the present settlement if able to mobilise the

necessary resources; Category 2 usually does not work locally, tends to be less certain

about home building intentions, and is either considering other destination points or

already committed to a move into or closer to the metro city; Category 2 migrants may

choose to position themselves on the far rural rim, beyond the of� cial boundaries of the

metro city region. Only Category 3 clearly appears to represent the � ow of poor rural-to-

urban migrants who want to live inside the city and are most often perceived as threats

to the city’s � nancial sustainability by the city administrations.

How far the emerging rural economy will be able to generate the employment needed to

maintain the Category 1 households, with rural preferences for local work at their current

spatial locations, will depend on the extent to which the rural sector can continue to

generate employment, both inside and outside the farming sector. Recommendations

address the options for using social value chains to leverage the ongoing demographic

trend to densi� cation, in order to bring poor rural households into maximum contact with

the local economy in well-connected nodes that are generating work.

More information can be found in the paper on Social Value Chains.


State of City Finances 2015The State of City Finances publication is produced every two years and reviews the � nancial

position of nine of the largest cities in South Africa: Johannesburg, Cape Town, eThekwini,

Ekurhuleni, Tshwane, Nelson Mandela Bay, Buffalo City, Mangaung and Msunduzi.

Urban local government is playing an increasingly prominent role in transforming South

African society. Over the past decade, the combined population of these cities has

increased by about 3.5 million (18.7%), from 18.6 million in 2004 to 22 million in 2014, or

40.8% of South Africa’s total population of 54 million (Stats SA: 2011). For cities to be able

to ful� l their developmental local government mandate and enable inclusive and

sustainable growth, effective � nancing and � nancial management is essential.

The theme of the State of City Finances 2105 Report is Basics + Innovation. It calls upon

cities to address gaps and inef� ciencies in the current system, while keeping a close eye

on the complexity of their future role. It also considers the need to rethink how cities are

� nanced and funded, so that they are able to drive important agendas, such as green

growth, the provision of sustainable human settlements and improved mobility through

affordable and integrated public transport.

The report shows that South Africa’s largest cities are getting better at doing the basics

right. Their revenues have held up remarkably well since the 2008 economic crisis, their

billing is better than most other municipalities, and their audit outcomes continue to

improve. However, this performance has to continue improving in order to maximise

economy, ef� ciency and con� dence in the municipal systems. Furthermore, given the

much-awaited devolution of key built environment functions, cities need to plan carefully

for taking on the additional responsibilities to avoid being placed under even more

pressure. This will require rethinking how cities are funded and seeking innovative ways

to increase their revenues, as well as further improving the day-to-day � nancial

management (the basics).

Funding the expansion of cities is a global challenge. Like all municipalities (and nearly all

governments around the world), the cities would like to have access to additional

revenues. The 2015 SOCF report concludes with the following recommendations:

1. Spend funds more ef� ciently by eliminating wasteful and irregular spending, which will

result in direct savings that can be reallocated to fund necessary, priority services and

infrastructure.

2. Make better use of existing revenue sources by using the full range of own-revenue

sources available to them, appropriately structuring service charges, tariffs and indigent

policies, and checking that their billing systems are complete and up-to-date.

3. Explore options for additional taxes and charges revenues in consultation with the

Minister of Finance and the Minister of Cooperative Governance.

4. Continue to argue for an increased equitable share from the national � scus based on

their ongoing development needs as a result of in-migration and on their importance

to the national economy.


5. Explore innovative � nancing options, such as using municipal bonds to invest in

infrastructure developments that will grow their revenue base and thus contribute

directly to increased future own revenues, and innovative property-related instruments.

6. Lobby to have a stronger voice in government through direct representation in

intergovernmental forums, especially those involved in the division of nationally

collected revenues.

In summary, the cities are steadily improving on doing the basics right but should continue

to do better, in particular by addressing inef� ciencies in the current system. They will also

need to adapt and innovate in order to maximise their revenues and ful� l their

developmental mandates within a shifting and dynamic � scal environment. This will

require a government-wide rethinking of how cities are � nanced and funded, so as to

allow them to drive the economy, while also developing inclusive and accessible cities

that are affordable and liveable for all of South Africa’s urban dwellers.

For more information, see the full report State of City Finances 2015.

The population of these nine cities has increased by 40.8% of South

Africa’s total population of 54 million


Continuing the Journey towards Sustainable CitiesSustainability can no longer be viewed only through the environmental

lens. It has grown to demonstrate its economic and social relevance.

Take an example of waste management: communities living in informal

settlements can protect their environments through waste picking, selling on

to buy-back centres and thus earning income to support their livelihoods.

Sustainability is a journey that must be anchored in the long-term growth and

development strategies. This trend is being observed in a number of cities, with some

taking it further by developing a supportive implementation framework and human capacity.

Cities are complex, dynamic and constantly evolving environments, and the pace of

change will only increase, with new technologies rapidly shifting the context in which they

operate. The journey towards long-term sustainability is dif� cult and challenging, and will

require building resilience and spatial transformation that supports development and

improved quality of life. Strengthening collaboration, away from working in silos both

internally within city departments and with external communities, is critical in the journey

to sustainability. Forming sustainable partnerships and working together will realise the

scale and impact of development needed to sustain life that exists in cities.

Cities do not operate in isolation. They are networked globally and locally, and part of

feedback loops in a competitive playing � eld. To � nd their ‘place’ in a globalised world,

they need to be attractive places in which to live and work. They operate in a space that

has vulnerabilities, such as global economic factors, environmental shocks, and social

unrests including civil wars. Therefore, cities need to understand these vulnerabilities in

order to transform them into opportunities. Central to this transformation is technology.

For example, global supply chain models spanning the continents may become a thing

of the past. Shipping raw materials to another country, where value is added, and then

shipping the � nished goods back to their country of extraction is unsustainable, from an

energy, timescale and ef� ciency perspective. The logistics associated with shipping raw

materials and products around the world could be negated by technologies, such as 3D

printing that allows consumers to have what they require on site in minutes. In addition,

the materials of choice today (steel, concrete, fossil fuels) may not be the materials of the

future. To adapt and thrive, cities need to be aware of these risks and their associated

opportunities, which must be re� ected in their growth and development strategies, and

be allocated the necessary resources. Linked to this are performance indicators to

monitor progress, success and failures.

To measure performance, systems for full-cycle data management must be in place i.e.

data collection, analysis and interpretation, recording, reporting, record keeping as well

as monitoring and evaluation. This practice has a direct in� uence on improved service

delivery, mainly because it becomes easier to manage what one knows. In this regard,

Good

management of

natural resources such

as land, water and energy

from which cities depend on to

sustain life and economy will

reduce the level of

vulnerabilities that

cities face.

51CONTINUING THE JOURNEY TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES

the six capitals model can be used as a tool to organise the data. It provides a lens to

strengthen the cross-departmental interdependencies needed for effective development

and sustainability within cities (Figure 14).

FIGURE 14: The six capitals model

Natural capital

Social and relationship

capital

Human capital

Intellectual capital

Human capital

Intellectual capital

Financialcapital

Manufacturedcapital

The model acknowledges that all other forms of capital depend on natural capital to

function optimally. For example, if the air that people breathe is toxic, human capital will

be affected because people will be sick, which has an impact on the other capitals:

• Manufactured capital because more clinics are needed to treat the sick people.

• Financial capital, as money is needed to treat the sick people and the same sick

people are not economically productive.

• Social and relationship capital, as the communities have diminished trust because the

cause of their illness is not being addressed, their happiness is reduced and

communities are not productive.

The SACN aims to continue with generating knowledge around holistic sustainability

through programmatic research and data collection in order to measure, inform and

support sustainable development. With data and knowledge, cities will be able to manage

the scarce resources ef� ciently, thus reducing the impact of vulnerabilities discussed in

this publication. More importantly, cities will have increased capability to contribute to

local and national development.


References

DEA (Department of Environmental Affairs). 2011a. National Waste Management Strategy.

Pretoria: DEA.

DEA. 2011b. National Climate Change Response Policy. Pretoria: DEA.

DEA. 2012. Chapter 8: Inland Water. In South African Environment Outlook. Pretoria:

DEA. https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/� les/reports/2012saeochapter8_

inlandwater.pdf

DME (Department of Minerals and Energy). 2003. White Paper on Renewable Energy.

Pretoria: Government Printers.

DME. 2005. Energy Ef� ciency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa. Pretoria: DME.

http://www.energy.gov.za/� les/esources/electricity/ee_strategy_05.pdf

DOE (Department of Energy). 2010. Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity (IRP) 2010–

2030. Pretoria: DOE.

EMM (Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality). 2007. Energy and Climate Change Strategy.

http://www.ekurhuleni.gov.za/468-energy-and-climate-change-strategy-2007/� le

NPC (National Planning Commission) 2012. National Development Plan 2030 - Our future –

make it work: Executive Summary. Pretoria: NPC. http://www.info.gov.za/issues/

national-development-plan/ (23 August 2014).

Oxford Martin School. 2013. Now for the Long Term. The Report of the Oxford Martin

Commission for Future Generations. Oxford: Oxford University, Oxford Martin School.

SALGA (South African Local Government Association) and WRC (Water Research Council). 2014.

Annual Report on Water Services in South Africa 2013. Municipal Benchmarking Initiative.

SEA (Sustainable Energy Africa). 2015. State of Energy in South African Cities. Cape Town: SEA.

Stats SA (Statistics South Africa). 2011. Census. Pretoria: Stats SA.

The Presidency. 2014. Background paper: environment and sustainable development. In

Twenty-Year Review South Africa 1994–2014. Pretoria: The Presidency.

Tel: + 27 11 407 6471 • Fax: + 27 11 403 5230P.O. Box 32160 • Braamfontein 2017www.sacities.net

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