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Supervisor-Subordinate Work Value Congruence and Subordinate
Performance: A Pilot StudyAuthor(s): Cheryl L. Adkins and Craig J.
RussellReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of Business and Psychology,
Vol. 12, No. 2 (Dec., 1997), pp. 205-218Published by:
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JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Volume 12, No. 2, Winter
1997
SUPERVISOR-SUBORDINATE WORK VALUE CONGRUENCE AND SUBORDINATE
PERFORMANCE: A PILOT STUDY
Cheryl L. Adkins University of Oklahoma
Craig J. Russell Louisiana State University
ABSTRACT: The relationship of superior-subordinate work value
congruence to
subordinate performance was examined in a retail setting.
Additionally, because
of on-going interest in the role of justice or fairness in the
performance appraisal
process, the relationship between the supervisor's value of
fairness and subordi
nate performance was examined. Superior-subordinate value
congruence was
not related to subordinate performance. The supervisor's level
of the value of
fairness was related to supervisor-rated dimensions of
performance, but not to
sales and profits. Implications for future research are
presented.
INTRODUCTION
Work values are thought to be critical elements of
organizational culture which may ultimately serve to enhance
individual and organiza tional performance (Schein, 1985). Work
values at various levels of the
organization have been associated with a variety of individual
and orga nizational outcomes such as job satisfaction,
organizational commit
ment, job choice, judgments of person-organization fit and
performance (e.g. Adkins, Ravlin, & Meglino, 1992; Adkins,
Russell, & Werbel, 1994;
Chatman, 1991; Judge & Bretz, 1992; Meglino, Ravlin, &
Adkins, 1989), but the relationship between work values and work
outcomes needs addi tional study. In particular, the relationship
between work values and job performance needs additional study
(e.g. Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989).
Work values may be related to job performance in two ways.
First, the extent to which individuals in the organization share a
common set
Address correspondence to Cheryl L. Adkins, Louisiana State
University, College of Business Administration, Department of
Management, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
205 ? 1997 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
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206 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
of values may affect work outcomes. Schein (1985) proposed that
shared
values: 1) influence employees to behave in ways that facilitate
the sur
vival of the organization, a function which he labeled external
adapta tion; and 2) facilitate coordination and communication among
employees
through shared elements of cognitive processing, a function he
labeled
internal integration. Thus, we expect that shared values between
super visors and subordinates will enhance performance. Second, a
particular
work value may have direct effects on work place behavior
independent of the effects of work value congruence. Specific
values such as fairness,
honesty, achievement, and helping and concern for others may
have di
rect effects on workplace behaviors (e.g. Ravlin, Adkins, &
Meglino, 1989). Further, because of their potential influence on
work interactions, a supervisor's personal values may influence
subordinate performance.
Values are centrally located within an individual's total system
of atti
tudes and beliefs (Rokeach, 1973). As an element of an
individual's atti
tude and belief system, values may thus affect behavioral
intentions and
behavior. McClelland (1985) found that values affect choices and
direct
motivational energies. Thus, a supervisor's work values may have
a di
rect effect on his/her interactions with subordinates.
Specifically, it is
proposed here that the supervisor's level of the value of
fairness may be
directly related to subordinate performance. An increased focus
in the organizational behavior literature on jus
tice or fairness in the workplace (e.g. Folger & Greenberg,
1985; Green
berg, 1986, 1988, 1990a, 1990b; Sheppard & Lewicki, 1987;
Sweeney &
McFarlin, 1993) suggests the degree to which supervisors value
fairness
may impact subordinate performance. Justice, or fairness, has
been shown to be related to organizational commitment, pay
satisfaction, em
ployee perceptions of the performance appraisal process, and
survivors
reactions to the company following a layoff (e.g. Brockner,
Grover, Reed, & Dewitt, 1992; Greenberg, 1986; Sweeney &
McFarlin, 1993). Thus, to
the extent to which the value of fairness in reflected in the
supervisor's behavior, the value of fairness should influence work
interactions and subordinate performance. Subordinates may infer
the supervisor's value of fairness from manifestations of fairness
in his or her behavior, or su
pervisors may make explicit statements about the importance of
fair ness.
The first purpose of the present paper is to examine the
relationship between supervisor-subordinate work value congruence
and subordinate
performance. The second purpose of the paper is to examine the
rela
tionship between the supervisor's value of fairness and
subordinate per formance. In the following sections, we will
briefly review the literature on work value congruence and
performance and the literature on justice in the workplace.
Specific research questions will be presented. We then
present a study examining relationships between
superior-subordinate
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CHERYL L. ADKINS AND CRAIG J. RUSSELL 207
value congruence and subordinate performance in a retail
setting. We
examine the relationship between supervisor-subordinate value
congru
ence, the supervisor's value of fairness and the more objective
perfor mance measures of store sales and profit, as well as
supervisor-rated performance dimensions.
Value Congruence and Performance
As noted above, Schein (1985) proposed that shared work values
enhance behaviors aimed at the survival of the organization and
facili tate communication between organizational members. This
suggests that value congruence between employees and their main
point of con tact with the organization, (e.g., supervisors),
should lead to enhanced
performance. Two studies have examined value congruence and
performance on
the job. Meglino, Ravlin, and Adkins (1989), in a study of
employees in a manufacturing setting, examined the relationship
between superior subordinate value congruence and four
supervisor-rated performance di
mensions. Value congruence was found to be negatively associated
with the performance dimensions of quality and quantity of
production and unrelated to the more subjective performance
dimensions of work habits (a rating of attendance, dependability,
orderliness, safety, and care of
equipment) and personal characteristics (a rating of attitude,
coopera tion, and ability to get along with others). They noted
that explanation of this puzzling negative relationship between
value congruence and
performance was beyond the scope of the data, and suggested that
the
relationship between value congruence and performance be
explored in future studies.
In an extension of the above study, Adkins, Ravlin, and Meglino
(1992) examined the relationship between co-worker value congruence
and performance on interpersonal dimensions. They found the
relation
ship moderated by the extent to which the job required
individuals to work closely with others. For individuals whose jobs
required them to work closely with others, work habits were rated
higher for individuals with high value congruence than for
individuals with low value congru ence. However, for individuals
whose jobs did not require them to work
closely with others, work habits were rated somewhat higher for
individ uals with low value congruence than for those with high
value congru ence. They speculated that for individuals whose jobs
did not require them to work closely with others, high value
congruence led to socializ
ing with others with similar values at the expense of work
performance. Clearly, the relationship between work value
congruence at various
levels (i.e. supervisor-subordinate, co-workers) and performance
needs
additional study. We examine the relationship between district
manager
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208 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
(supervisor) and store manager (subordinate) work value
congruence and objective measures of store sales and profits as
well as supervisor evaluations of performance on various
dimensions. Because of the geo graphic separation between
supervisor and subordinates a sales setting provides a unique
opportunity for research. Based on Schein's (1985) theoretical
foundation, we predict that supervisor-subordinate work value
congruence will be positively related to store sales and profit and
to supervisor ratings of manager performance.
Supervisor Fairness and Subordinate Performance
As noted above, there is an increased focus on justice, or
fairness in the organizational behavior literature. As Greenberg
(1990a) noted, fair ness has been found to be a critical work
value. In an extensive study of the work values of 966 employees
from over 40 organizations, Cornelius,
Ullman, Meglino, Czajka, and McNeely (1985) found that fairness
was one of the most prevalent work values.
Greenberg (1990b) noted that fairness, and more specifically,
the extent to which others perceive one's behavior as fair, is a
critical ele
ment of managerial success. Greenberg suggested that fairness is
thought to be so important in the workplace that individuals may
engage in im
pression management aimed at enhancing others' perceptions of
the fairness of their behavior.
Thus, the second purpose of the present paper was to examine
the
relationship between the supervisor's level of the value of
fairness and
employee performance. We propose that the supervisors* level of
the value of fairness will be positively related to store manager
performance on sales and profit measures and on supervisor-rated
performance di
mensions.
It is important to examine the value of fairness as opposed to
fair ness as manifest in behavior. As noted above, values are more
strongly linked to broad modes of behavior than to individual
instances of behav ior (Epstein, 1979,1980). Thus, the extent to
which the value of fairness is actually manifest (or perceived by
the subordinate) may influence
work interactions. Examining the relationship between the
supervisor's level of the value of fairness and subordinate
performance is a very con servative test of the influence of
fairness. As Leventhal (1976, 1980) noted, behavior exemplary of
the value of fairness may be motivated by a concern for justice per
se, or it may be motivated by the actor's desire to achieve other
goals. For example, a supervisor may be motivated to distribute
rewards fairly because he/she feels that in doing so subordi nate
productivity will increase. Leventhal labeled the former, "fair be
havior" and the latter "quasi-fair behavior." Examining the
relationship between the supervisor's level of the value of
fairness and subordinate
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CHERYL L. ADKINS AND CRAIG J. RUSSELL 209
performance should thus be an examination of the relationship
between "fair behavior," i.e., behavior motivated by a concern for
fairness, and
performance.
METHODS
This study was conducted as part of a follow-up to a larger
criterion related validity study designed to select retail store
managers. Subjects described below were incumbent store managers in
retail outlets owned
by a Fortune 500 firm and their immediate superiors. The job
analysis and development of performance appraisal instrument
performed in the
original study is briefly described in the appendix. The sample,
design, and measures used in the current study are described
below.
Present Study
One hundred and sixty three new store managers were chosen
using the selection system designed in the earlier research
effort,
though not all survived long enough for performance measures to
be obtained. While 163 store managers were initially selected, only
48 re
mained on the job two years later. The 48 managers were surveyed
to assess their work values. Twenty seven district managers, the
immedi ate superiors of these 48 store managers completed
performance ap
praisal ratings of the store managers in their district and
completed a
survey assessing their own work values. In addition to the
performance appraisal ratings, store sales and profit information
for the first six
months each new store manager was on the job were also obtained
from
company records. Complete data (i.e. work value measures,
performance
appraisal ratings, and store sales and profit information) were
available for 23 store managers.
Instruments
Work Values. Work values were assessed using the Comparative
Em
phasis Scale (CES: Ravlin & Meglino, 1987a, 1987b, 1989)
which mea sures the four work values of achievement, fairness,
honesty, and help ing and concern for others. The CES is a
forced-choice measure consisting of 24 pairs of statements
representative of the four work values. The statements are matched
for social desirability, sex bias, and the extent to which the
statement represents the value. Each value is matched
with every other value a total of four times (i.e., statements
represent ing the value of achievement are paired with statements
representing honesty four times, statements representing fairness
four times, and
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210 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
statements representing helping and concern four times, etc.).
Thus, each value is represented on the instrument 12 times. The CES
yields a
fully ipsative (Hicks, 1970) ranking of the four values. This
approach to
measuring work values is consistent with the fact that values
are ar
ranged hierarchically in value systems (e.g. Locke, 1976,1982;
Rokeach, 1973). Furthermore, using a forced-choice approach to
measuring work
values allows us to control for the fact that values are highly
socially desirable (Fallding, 1966). See Judge and Bretz (1992),
Ravlin and
Meglino (1987a, 1987b, 1989), and Meglino, Ravlin, and Adkins
(1989, 1992) for strong evidence supporting construct validity of
the CES.
Following Ravlin, Adkins, and Meglino (1989), the ratings of a
sin
gle value may also be examined using the CES. In the present
study we
examined the ratings of the value of fairness. The supervisors'
score on the value of fairness (the number of times the value of
fairness was
selected over the other three values it was matched with;
possible range 0-12) was used in the current analysis. Because of
the ipsative nature of the CES, scores on the four values are not
independent of one an
other; thus, it is not appropriate to examine predictive
relationships for more than one value. Regardless, the ipsative
format adds considerable value to the research in that it controls
for social desirability bias in
subjects' ratings of work values.
Performance Measures. District managers (store managers'
immediate
superiors) were asked to rate each of their store manager's
performance on each of the four responsibility areas identified in
the job analysis (see
Appendix). Responsibility areas are: personnel responsibilities,
resource
management responsibilities, customer interaction and corporate
citizen
ship, and operations management responsibilities. District
managers also provided overall ratings within each responsibility
area. Store sales and profit information were obtained from company
records.
Procedure
Performance appraisal instruments and the CES were
distributed
by the organization to the district managers. The organization
also dis tributed the CES to the store managers. Both district
managers and store managers returned the surveys directly to the
researchers. All re
spondents were informed that individual responses were
confidential.
Computation of Superior-Subordinate Value Congruence
Tb assess superior-subordinate value congruence, rank-order
cor
relations were computed between each store manager's ranking of
the four work values and his or her district manager's ranking of
the same
work values. The resulting correlation coefficients were
converted to
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CHERYL L. ADKINS AND CRAIG J. RUSSELL 211
z-scores to correct for skewness. Computing value congruence in
this manner is necessary because of the ipsative (Hicks, 1970)
nature of the value rankings yielded by the CES. This procedure has
been shown to be a construct valid measure of work value congruence
(e.g. Meglino, Rav
lin, & Adkins, 1992).
RESULTS
Correlations among all study variables, as well as means and
stan
dard deviations of study variables, are shown in Table 1.
Superior-subor dinate value congruence was not associated with
subordinate perfor
mance either on supervisor-rated dimensions, or on the measures
of
sales and profits. The results with respect to the supervisor's
level of the value of
fairness were more encouraging. As Table 1 shows, the
supervisor's value of fairness was positively associated with
subordinates' perfor mance ratings on all four performance
dimensions (r
= .472, p < .05).
The supervisor's value of fairness was not, however, associated
with the
objective performance measures of sales and profits.
DISCUSSION
In the present study we found no relationship between superior
subordinate work value congruence and subordinate performance.
These results are not consistent with the findings of Meglino,
Ravlin, and Ad kins (1989), or with Schein's (1985) prediction that
value congruence would facilitate performance. The present results
may be explained by the fact that district managers did not work at
the same site as store
managers, and thus did not interact with the store managers on a
daily basis. Adkins, Ravlin, and Meglino (1992) found that the
extent to which the job required individuals to work closely
together moderated the rela
tionship between value congruence and performance. Although
value congruence may facilitate interactions, in the present
setting there may not have been sufficient supervisor-subordinate
interaction for value congruence to influence performance. This is
especially problematic in a sales setting where the supervisor and
subordinate do not work together on a daily basis. In such a
setting, high value congruence could poten tially compensate for
the relative infrequency of interactions.
The findings with respect to fairness were more interesting. We
found that the district managers' levels of fairness were related
to sub ordinate performance on the four dimensions of personnel
respon sibilities, resource management responsibilities, customer
interaction
-
Table 1 Correlations Among Superior-Subordinate Value
Congruence, Fairness, and Performance Measures
1 2 3 456789
1. Superior-Subordinate Value Congruence ?
2. Supervisor's Value of Fairness -0.615** ?
3. Sales 0.131 0.023 ?
4. Profits 0.009 -0.079 0.611** ?
5. Overall Performance -0.030 0.396+ 0.340 0.223
6. Operations Management Responsibilities -0.199 0.436* 0.108
0.030 0.860** ?
7. Customer Interactions and Corporate Citizen- 0.872** ?
ship -0,134 0.430* 0.298 0.264 0.926**
8. Resource Management Responsibilities -0.272 0.547** -0.196
-0.175 0.714** 0.786** 0.685** ?
9. Personnel Responsibilities -0.250 0.475* 0.219 0.186 0.874**
0.867** 0.837** 0.713** ?
+ p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01
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CHERYL L. ADKINS AND CRAIG J. RUSSELL 213
and corporate citizenship, and operations management
responsibilities, and marginally related to overall performance,
but were not related to sales and profitability data.
Two alternative explanations for this finding are apparent.
First, the extent to which the supervisor holds fairness as a key
value may affect his or her supervisory style and thus affect
subordinate's perfor
mance. Researchers have found that procedural justice, a
manifestation of fairness, is related to employee acceptance of
performance appraisals (Greenberg, 1986; Landy, Barnes-Farrell,
& Cleveland, 1980; Landy,
Barnes, & Murphy, 1978). Employees may have internalized
perfor mance standards to a greater extent because of the
supervisor's degree of fairness. Thus, the supervisors' levels of
fairness may have a direct effect on subordinates' performance.
An alternative explanation of this finding is that the extent to
which the supervisor holds fairness as a key value affects his or
her
ratings of subordinate performance. Several researchers (DeNisi,
Caf
ferty, & Meglino, 1984; Feldman, 1981; Ilgen & Feldman,
1983) pro posed that performance ratings may be affected by the
cognitive schemas of the rater. Values as an element of schema may
similarly affect the
performance appraisal process. For example, the value of
fairness may affect the type of information raters attend to and
encode (e.g. Feldman, 1981; Ilgen & Feldman, 1983). Thus, for
raters high in fairness, inci dents of positive performance may be
more salient, and be more preva lent in memory. Alternatively, the
extent to which fairness is an impor tant rater value may affect
the execution of the ratings (e.g. Feldman, 1981; Ilgen &
Feldman, 1983). For raters high in fairness, actual ratings
may be somewhat lenient in an attempt to give the employee the
"bene fit of the doubt" (i.e. to be fair). This tendency may be
exacerbated by the fact that in the present setting the district
managers (raters) and store
managers (ratees) did not interact on a daily basis. Thus raters
with a
high level of the value of fairness may have overcompensated for
lack of
opportunities to observe performance by executing lenient
ratings. It is
important to note, however, that the present performance
appraisal data were to be used for research purposes only;
therefore, the raters should not have been motivated to rate
leniently because of concern for how the
rating might affect employee outcomes.
limitations and Future Research
The present study is not without limitations. First, the small
sam
ple size limits the statistical power of the study. Thus, the
findings with respect to the relationship between the supervisor's
value of fairness and subordinate performance are especially
notable.
Second, due to limitations of the site, it was not possible to
obtain
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214 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
the additional independent measures necessary to understand the
source of the relationship between the supervisor's value of
fairness and subor dinate performance. It may be due to actual
differences in employee per formance or due to differences in
superiors' encoding and execution of the performance appraisal.
Clearly, this is an issue for future research.
Third, also due to limitations of the site, it was not possible
to mea sure the number and types of interactions between the
district man
agers and the store managers. As noted above, Adkins, Ravlin,
and
Meglino (1992) found that the extent to which the job required
individ uals to work closely together moderated the relationship
between value
congruence between co-workers and job performance. In future
research the amount and types of actual supervisor-subordinate
interaction should be examined as a potential moderator of the
relationship be tween work value congruence and performance.
Similarly, in the pre sent setting, it was not possible to measure
either the extent to which the supervisor's value of fairness was
manifest in his/her behavior of the extent to which the subordinate
perceived the supervisor's behavior to be fair. Future research
should compare the relative influences of actual
values, behavioral manifestations of behavior, and subordinate
percep tions of supervisor values on subordinate performance.
Finally, although measures of performance such as store sales
and
profits are traditionally labeled "objective'' measures of
performance, these outcomes may be affected by factors in the
external environment of the organization that are beyond the
control of the store manager. Further, there may be indeterminant
lags between the time a store
manager exhibits a given behavior and the time it is reflected
in store sales and profits.
In sum, the null results are consistent with prior research
suggest ing that the extent of interaction between individuals
moderates how value congruence impacts performance. Evidence
suggests that the su
pervisor's fairness value is related to subordinate performance,
though further research is needed to determine how the relationship
operates.
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APPENDIX
Job Analysis and Development of Performance Appraisal
Instrument
Subjects. Two samples were drawn for use in the job analysis.
First, a
geographically representative sample of job incumbents (N = 70)
was
drawn to conduct structured interviews about job content. Job
content information obtained from the interviews was used to
develop a ques tionnaire on which a second sample (N
= 425) was asked to rate the
importance and frequency of occurrence for each
task/responsibility and its associated behaviors and duties.
Job Analysis Procedures. Procedures involved gathering
information about the target position's goals and objectives, task
requirements, and behavioral requirements. Three methods were used
to gather this infor
mation, including structured interviews with incumbents, review
by se nior operations and human resource managers, and a large
scale job analysis inventory. Structured interviews targeted store
manager goals and objectives, the tasks that had to be completed to
achieve each goal and objective, and the specific behaviors and
duties that had to be com
pleted to yield successful task performance. Seventeen tasks
identified from these interviews were considered by the 70
incumbents to be an exhaustive list of tasks contributing to store
managers' goals and objec tives. In addition, 176 job behaviors
considered to be critical for task
performance were listed (approximately 10 for each task). Next,
selected district managers (store managers' direct superiors),
corporate human resource personnel, and operations managers
grouped the 17 tasks into four categories based on the type of
organizational resource being managed. The four categories were:
Personnel Respon sibilities, Resource Management Responsibilities,
Customer Interaction and Corporate Citizenship, and Operations
Management Responsibili ties. Operations Management
Responsibilities were viewed by subject
-
CHERYL L. ADKINS AND CRAIG J. RUSSELL 217
matter experts as an overarching job requirement, embodying
informa
tion-oriented tasks and behaviors required in managing
personnel, raw
material, and interacting with customers/upper level management.
Finally, a job analysis inventory was developed around the 17
tasks
and 176 behavioral requirements. Incumbents (N = 425) were asked
to
rate the importance of each task and behavior (1 to 4 point
scale, per
mitting no mid-point response) and how frequently it had to be
per formed (1 to 5 point scale). Almost all job analysis items
received an
average "importance'' rating or average "frequency" rating
greater than the scale mid-points. Those few items that had mean
ratings lower than the scale mid-point for "importance" had ratings
higher than the scale
mid-point on the "frequency" rating and vice versa.
Consequently, all resource management categories appeared to be
important for success ful performance as an store manager. The task
and behavior items were
assembled into a performance appraisal instrument described
below. De tailed task descriptions are available from the second
author.
Performance Appraisal Procedures. In the present study, district
man
agers rated store managers on the 17 tasks, each grouped into
one of the four responsibility areas and displayed on separate
pages. After rating performance on each task in the four
responsibility areas, district man
agers provided overall responsibility area performance ratings.
Hence 21 performance ratings were obtained on each store manager
(17 task
ratings and four responsibility area ratings). Figure 1 contains
an exam
ple of the rating form for the first responsibility area. The
internal con sistencies of the combined task ratings for each
dimension ranged from .79 to .92 (coefficient alphas). When overall
area ratings were regressed
on the individual task ratings pertinent to that dimension, more
than 90% of the variance was explained; therefore; the present
paper exam ined only the overall responsibility area ratings. A
rating of overall per formance was also made.
-
Figure 1
Example of Performance Appraisal Rating for Customer Relations
and Corporate Citizenship
Customer Interactions and Corporate Citizenship -activities at a
local level that generates a desirable public image to as to
enhance the store's sales and profit objectives
1. Customer Relations i-2-3_4_a_ friendly, professional,
courteous behavior Needs Development Adequate Outstanding from all
employees
2. Selling 1-2-3-4_b_ - thorough knowledge of product/services
Needs Development Adequate Outstanding - establishing a helpful,
considerate relationship listening to customer needs, try to put
yoursejf in his/her place
handling customer concerns or objections follow through
- guarding against oversell arranging for customer to talk with
service manager or technician
- showing customer old parts
3. Maintaining Company Image 1_2_3_a_s_ - keep outside signs
dean and working Needs Development Adequate Outstanding keep
parking lots clean keep service trucks clean and attractive keep
employees attentive to their personal appearance
- all employees behave in a positive, upbeat manner toward
customers (no profanity, ignoring customers, etc.) - maintain a
clean and neat store office keep the rest room and waiting areas
neat and clean - keep showroom neat and clean encourage personal
involvement in the community (Lions club, etc.)
Overall Rating 1_2_3-4-&?
^_Needs Development_Adequate_Outstanding
Article Contentsp. 205p. 206p. 207p. 208p. 209p. 210p. 211p.
[212]p. 213p. 214p. 215p. 216p. 217p. [218]
Issue Table of ContentsJournal of Business and Psychology, Vol.
12, No. 2 (Dec., 1997), pp. 99-254Front MatterBalance Theory
Applied to Service Quality: A Focus on the Organization, Provider,
and Consumer Triad [pp. 99-120]Integrity Testing and Deviance:
Construct Validity Issues and the Role of Situational Factors [pp.
121-146]Modeling the Relationship between Pay Level and Pay
Satisfaction [pp. 147-158]Relationships of Stress, Locus of
Control, and Social Support to Psychiatric Symptoms and Propensity
to Leave a Job: A Field Study with Managers [pp. 159-174]Strategic
Interventions in Hospital Transitions [pp. 175-187]Computer-Based
Performance Monitoring and Productivity in a Multiple Task
Environment [pp. 189-204]Supervisor-Subordinate Work Value
Congruence and Subordinate Performance: A Pilot Study [pp.
205-218]Training Appraisees to Participate in Appraisal: Effects on
Appraisers and Appraisees [pp. 219-239]Mixed Messages: Co-Worker
Responses to the Pregnant Employee [pp. 241-253]