SUPERPOWER GEOGRAPHIES SUPERPOWERS The concept of a ‘superpower’ has developed to include economic, cultural, military and geographical influence, for example the development of the USA and USSR. Who are the superpowers? At present, the only superpower is the United States of America. Countries that used to be superpowers are Russia (as the USSR) and Britain (as the British Empire). Countries that may gain superpower status in the future include China and the other BRICS, and the European Union. Characteristics of superpowers A superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy, to command vast economic potential and influence and present a universal ideology. Superpowers have many common characteristics. Economic wealth brings global influence, money with which to develop infrastructure, and means with which to buy influence through foreign aid. Military power is often used as a threat or a bargaining chip. The superpower must have strong core beliefs and values which are believed to be superior to the beliefs of others. Resources are also required: land, fuel, minerals and people. USA and USSR After WW2, the USA and the USSR sought to increase their global dominance, starting a long period of hostile relations. The USA, a capitalist country, was strong militarily and industrially. It had been a creditor for countries weakened through war. Both countries build up arsenals and nuclear weapons. The USSR, a communist country, had a state-controlled economy. The USA’s post-war policy was to contain the spread of Soviet influence. In the past, power was in the form of control, such as colonies, whereas nowadays it is economic, in the form of trade, capital flows and resources. How does their power develop over time? The British Empire once covered about 25% of the world’s land area and had 25% of its population in the past. However, the cost of fighting two world wars and the damage to the British economy and infrastructure meant that is could not afford to run its colonies. Moreover, many of the people in the colonies wanted independence from Britain. The post-war period therefore marked the decline of the former British Empire and the independence of the former colonies. The collapse of the USSR as a superpower was later and different. In 1979 Russia invaded Afghanistan in an attempt to prop up the communist government there. Russian troops were later withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1985. During this period the USA had developed the neutron bomb, cruise missiles and a ‘Star Wars’ defence system with space satellites. Russia could not afford the arms race and its economy went downhill. The Russian president Gorbachev started Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. Free elections in Poland led to Solidarity, originally a banned trade union, gaining power, and this was followed closely by the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989.
17
Embed
SUPERPOWER GEOGRAPHIES - Physics & Maths Tutorpmt.physicsandmathstutor.com/download/Geography/A-level... · 2017-01-19 · SUPERPOWER GEOGRAPHIES . SUPERPOWERS . ... The EU has a
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
SUPERPOWER GEOGRAPHIES
SUPERPOWERS
The concept of a ‘superpower’ has developed to include economic, cultural, military and
geographical influence, for example the development of the USA and USSR.
Who are the superpowers?
At present, the only superpower is the United States of America. Countries that used to be
superpowers are Russia (as the USSR) and Britain (as the British Empire). Countries that may gain
superpower status in the future include China and the other BRICS, and the European Union.
Characteristics of superpowers
A superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy, to command vast economic potential and
influence and present a universal ideology. Superpowers have many common characteristics.
Economic wealth brings global influence, money with which to develop infrastructure, and means
with which to buy influence through foreign aid. Military power is often used as a threat or a
bargaining chip. The superpower must have strong core beliefs and values which are believed to be
superior to the beliefs of others. Resources are also required: land, fuel, minerals and people.
USA and USSR
After WW2, the USA and the USSR sought to increase their global dominance, starting a long period
of hostile relations. The USA, a capitalist country, was strong militarily and industrially. It had been a
creditor for countries weakened through war. Both countries build up arsenals and nuclear
weapons. The USSR, a communist country, had a state-controlled economy. The USA’s post-war
policy was to contain the spread of Soviet influence.
In the past, power was in the form of control, such as colonies, whereas nowadays it is economic, in
the form of trade, capital flows and resources.
How does their power develop over time?
The British Empire once covered about 25% of the world’s land area and had 25% of its population in
the past. However, the cost of fighting two world wars and the damage to the British economy and
infrastructure meant that is could not afford to run its colonies. Moreover, many of the people in the
colonies wanted independence from Britain. The post-war period therefore marked the decline of
the former British Empire and the independence of the former colonies.
The collapse of the USSR as a superpower was later and different. In 1979 Russia invaded
Afghanistan in an attempt to prop up the communist government there. Russian troops were later
withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1985. During this period the USA had developed the neutron bomb,
cruise missiles and a ‘Star Wars’ defence system with space satellites. Russia could not afford the
arms race and its economy went downhill. The Russian president Gorbachev started Strategic Arms
Reduction Talks. Free elections in Poland led to Solidarity, originally a banned trade union, gaining
power, and this was followed closely by the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989.
Rising superpowers
The economic rise of the BRICS and the oil-rich OPEC states brings economic benefits to many.
Equally there may be economic costs to the existing superpowers and environmental and resource
implications. In an increasingly globalised and interdependent world, it is likely that tensions will
develop as power shifts.
The BRICS increasingly challenge the post-Cold War order. This growing power can be explained by:
Resources: Russia has huge oil and gas reserves, giving it economic power and ‘energy
weapons’. The Gulf States have vast oil and gas resources. South Africa has the most
resources in all of Africa.
Alliances: EU growth from 6 countries in 1957 to an economic and political alliance of 28 in
2015. The EU has a GDP of US$18.5 trillion, while the USA has a GDP of US$16.8 trillion.
Economic power: China’s phenomenal economic growth since 1990 has propelled it to
become the third largest economy, after the EU and the USA, and turned it into the world’s
manufacturing workshop.
Demographic weight: some countries have economic potential because they are
‘demographic superpowers’ – China and India both have over 15% of global population and
huge market potential.
Nuclear weapons give countries power because they represent the ultimate threat. The USA,
Russia, China, France and the UK all are recognised as nuclear states under the Treaty on the
Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Pakistan, Israel, India and North Korea are not
signatories to the Treaty but have nuclear weapons.
Key terms
Capitalism: an economic system for the generation of goods and services based on private
enterprise. Most of the resources/means of production are owned by a relatively small number of
individuals or companies. Workers convert their labour for wages.
Cold War: the name given to the period of heightened tensions and competition between the USA
and the USSR and their allies between 1945 and the early 1990s.
Communism: a form of political development that envisages equality among people and a classless
society. It is a type of revolutionary socialism based on the common ownership of the means of
production and a shared economy. Each person should work according to their capacity and gain
according to their capacity.
Democracy: a form of political development in which the government is elected by the people in
free elections.
Rising superpowers: countries, or groups of countries, experiencing an increase in economic,
military, cultural and geographic influence.
Superpower: a nation or group of nations that has a leading position in international politics.
The geography of power and international influence can be seen through geographical patterns of
military reach, trade and cultural dominance.
Mechanisms of power
Military presence and force is often considered a form of hard power. This includes large air, naval
and land forces, nuclear weapons, military bases in foreign countries giving geographical reach,
military alliances such as NATO, diplomatic threats to use force if negotiations fail, and the use of
force. Superpowers use hard power mechanisms because they are the most obvious and
threatening. The USA has an enormous military reach around the world giving it more military power
than any other nation. Its military are present on every continent except Antarctica, but the USA has
kept a permanently manned scientific base at the south pole since 1957 and in 2003 opened a new
US$150 million base, reinforcing its superpower credentials. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
military alliance provides the USA with allies in North America (Canada), Europe (UK, France, Italy
and others) and the Middle East (Turkey). NATO was important during the Cold War period when the
USSR was considered the USA’s superpower enemy.
Aid and trade is considered to be between hard and soft power. Countries can favour certain trade
partners by reducing import tariffs. Other forms of this power include trade blocs and alliances,
providing allies with economic and technical assistance, using aid to influence policy or keep allies
happy, and using economic sanctions against countries.
Soft power is about culture and political ideology. This is promoted through the media to show a
particular image and message about a country. Hollywood, for example, allows the USA to export its
culture in the form of film, and Apple exports US culture as a recognised brand. Soft power gradually
persuades doubters that a particular action or view is in their interests.
The European Union
Europe may be seen as a superpower.
The EU has a population of about 493 million people, so it is one of the world’s largest
superpowers, and most of the population is wealthy in global terms.
In just 50 years, Europeans have made the likelihood of war between member nations
remote.
The EU has brought a number of its countries out of dictatorship into democratic
governments.
Surrounding the EU are 1.5 billion people who rely on the EU as their main trading partner
and source of foreign direct investment and aid.
Within the EU there are 28 different national governments, each with its own agenda, but
despite differences, the EU attempts to incorporate and change countries into stable
political and economic systems.
The USA: evolution of a superpower
After the Second World War, the USA had a greatly enhanced status and power. The Great
Depression of the 1930s had been replaced by an economy stimulated by wartime production.
Unlike Europe, the USA did not suffer from wrecked infrastructure. US involvement in the Second
World War – the large-scale air and land campaigns in Europe and the ‘island-hopping’ war against
Japan in the Pacific – set a precedent for the global projection of US military strength.
The USA also encouraged the establishment of international institutions and international law. The
United Nations headquarters were located in New York, and the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund were based in Washington. Although these were, and continue to be, international
organisations, US institutions had greater access to them than if they had been located elsewhere.
The growth of US military influence worldwide grew out of a number of doctrines. These included:
The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 which declared that European colonial intervention in the
western hemisphere would be resisted by force.
The Truman Doctrine of 1947 which committed the USA to support free peoples threatened
by communist takeover.
The Nixon Doctrine of 1969 under which arms shipments rather than US troops would be
supplied to allies in the fight against communism.
The Reagan Doctrine of the 1980s which provided US arms and training to groups seeking to
overthrow Soviet-backed rulers.
The USA had by far the world’s largest and most technologically advanced fleet of warplanes, ships,
tanks and artillery systems. Control of space and information are key aspects of US military strategy
for the 21st century. There are many interlocking strands in the USA’s global military presence,
including overseas bases, ships and aircraft that allow the USA to apply force to any part of the
globe, the supply of weapons and military training to a wide range of countries, and a network of
listening posts which gather and disseminate vital information.
The US defence industry employs over 2 million people. Annual spending on defence exceeds
US$100 billion a year. Federal funding for military research is US$40 billion a year, twice what is
spent on health, energy and environment combined. The institutions which have developed over 50
years of intensive military spending have created vested interests with huge political clout.
Most US warplanes, bombs and missiles are made by a small group of very large contractors,
including Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, TRW and Textron. In the early 1990s, when defence
spending dropped in the wake of Soviet collapse, the US government urged defence contractors to
merge with each other in order to consolidate their strength and maintain America’s defence
capabilities. The outcome was a series of rapid mergers, which gave rise to a handful of giant groups.
The USA accounts for half of all international arms sales. Much US military equipment destined for
export is manufactured abroad under license. For example, Turkey has made F-16s since the mid-
1980s. the USA closely cooperates with certain allies, including the UK and Israel, on high-tech
projects such as missile defence.
There is a vast procurement programme for spare parts, fuel, munitions and other supplies that
sustain the US military machine. Huge amounts are spent on developing new weapons. Although the
USA is widely acknowledged to have the world’s most advanced combat aircraft, it is busy making
the next generation of fighter planes.
Superpowers and space missions
The conquest of space has been a dream of humans for centuries, but it was only in the Cold War era
that getting into space became a possibility. This was because Nazi Germany had developed complex
rocket technology during the Second World War, which subsequently fell into the hands of the USA
and the USSR.
In 1957, the American public was stunned to learn that the communist USSR had launched a
satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit around the Earth. Sputnik 2 followed 1 month later, carrying a stray
dog named Laika who became the first animal in space. In 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the world’s
first astronaut – his Vostok orbiter circled the Earth. The USA managed the same feat in 1962. The
two superpowers then embarked on a race that stretched the human, financial and technical
resources of the two nations to the limit:
Vostok 6 took the first woman into space in 1963.
Voskhod 1 carried the first two-person mission in 1964.
Voskhod 2 conducted the first space walk in 1965.
Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, was less keen on a manned Moon mission than President Kennedy
(and President Johnson after Kennedy’s assassination in 1963) because of the huge financial cost.
After 1966, the USA began to pull ahead in the space race especially following the 1981 launch of the
Space Shuttle, Columbia.
The superpowers engaged in the space race for many reasons. Prestige was key: any space ‘first’ by
either side was as good as saying ‘capitalism is better than communism’ or vice versa. Technology
took great leaps forward, especially in the fields of electronic communication, computers, materials
science and rocketry (closely linked to nuclear missile delivery). Eventually, pure science experiments
were conducted in space, in the weightless environment. Closely linked to the space race were
developments in communication and spy satellites that continue to meet defence and economic
needs.
Today, there is a renewed space race, but it is no longer just between the USA and Russia. In an
increasingly multi-polar world it is not surprising that numerous nations are engaged in space
research and development. The current aims of the various national programmes are very different:
The Indian Space Research Organisation is focused on developing a heavy-lift version of its
GLSV rocket to make India self-sufficient in satellite launching.
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is focused on unmanned missions, satellite
technology and research.
The European Space Agency has the same goals as the JAEA.
Russia continues to plan manned space flight and has sophisticated technology that is not
matched by funding.
China launched its first manned space flight in 2003 as part of the Shenzhou programme.
China plans a space station and a manned Moon mission by 2020.
NASA plans to return to the Moon to build a Moon base by 2020, as a first step to reaching
Mars by 2037.
Key terms
Military industrial complex: the part of the economy that provides goods and services for the
military, such as aircraft, warheads, missiles, clothing, catering etc.
Patterns of power change over time, and can be illustrated through a study of the decline of the
British Empire and the reasons for the collapse of communism, versus the factors behind the rise
of emergent superpowers such as China and the EU.
Power change over time
The geography of superpowers changes over time as old superpowers decline and new ones
emerge. The number of superpowers in existence at any one time can also change.
A uni-polar world is one dominated by one superpower.
A bi-polar world is one where two opposing superpowers exist.
A multi-polar world is one with three or more superpowers.
There is a generally accepted timeline of changing superpowers.
The British Empire collapsed due to WW2. In 1956, the UK was lent US$3.5 billion by the USA, which
prevented national bankruptcy (the last repayment to the USA was made in 2006) but it was clear
the UK could no longer afford its empire. Over the next 20 years most colonies were given
independence. However, the seeds of the empire’s collapse were present long before 1946 as
internal and external forces undermined the imperial system of government.
The British Empire was affected by a number of factors that undermined its stability:
Pressure for greater independence in the ‘white’ colonies of Canada and Australia, followed
by open revolt in India in the 1920s and 1930s.
Internal pressures at home, such as the demand for female suffrage around 1900 and public
debate over the morality of the Boers Wars (1899-1902) in South Africa, and the Amritsar
massacre in India in 1919.
The rising power of the USA, Russia and Germany leading to arms races in the build up to
both world wars. From 1900, Britain had to focus far greater political and economic
resources on Europe compared to the Pax Britannica period.
The collapse of communism in Europe critically undermined the USSR.
Economic stagnation occurred in the 1980s. Incomes remained flat and people began to
wonder if communism was bringing them any benefits.
There was discontent over the USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan, which was seen by many
ordinary people in the USSR as a pointless conflict, yet one that cost 15,000 Soviet lives.
In order to try and reduce discontent the USSR’s leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, introduced a
series of reforms. Perestroika increased political freedom and glasnost increased economic
freedom. These reforms had the effect of undermining the whole communist system
because criticism of the leadership was possible.
The Chernobyl disaster undermined people’s faith in Soviet technology. Initially, the state
tried to cover up the disaster.
Satellite television and global news channels began to allow people in communist countries
access to ‘Western information’.
Rising crime, alcoholism and drug use made the system look corrupt and suggested that the
state could not solve all problems.
China underwent an economic transformation starting in 1978.
Since 1978. The standard of living in China has tripled, and market reforms have been
introduced gradually.
One of the first acts of Deng Xiaoping was to inject an element of free enterprise into
agriculture, allowing peasant families to keep for themselves anything they produced above
state quota, leading to an immediate leap in food production.
A similar approach was later applied to the industrial sector.
After Deng’s death in 1997, Jiang Zemin became the leader, and under his rule China saw
major improvements in its diplomatic standing and economic strength, although there were
growing disparities between rural and urban living standards.
The Yangtze valley became part of the Asia-Pacific trade bloc.
Developments in the Pearl River Delta Region have built upon Hong Kong’s success to create
a dynamic business region in southern China.
The Asian financial crisis saw the collapse of many Asian banks and the value of their stocks
and shares in the late 1990s, and many countries were forced to restructure their economies
and reduce their levels of debt.
Despite the Asian financial crisis, China’s GDP continued to grow by 8% a year.
China’s demand for the raw materials of this economic boom had a major impact on world
markets in oil, ore, metals, petrochemicals and machinery.
Despite rapid change, the structure of the Chinese economy still has the character of a poor
developing country, with almost half the population employed in the primary sector.
Industry accounts for 22%of jobs, but 51% of output, with manufacturing 35%, reflecting the
fact that China has become the world’s leading manufacturing centre, although much of the
value-added output is from foreign-owned plants in China’s special development zones.
There are differences in the influence of emerging powers (the BRICS) versus existing superpowers
(the USA) in terms of regional and global influence; these can be explained through theoretical
frameworks such as World Systems Theory and Dependency Theory. A study of India and China
might be undertaken to draw out contrasts between the two countries.
Liberal theories
The take-off model (Rostow, 1960)
Proposed that economic development is a linear, five-stage process. Countries ‘take-off’ and develop
when pre-conditions are met, such as transport infrastructure and industrialisation follows, creating
jobs, trade and consumers.
However, many countries borrowed heavily and invested the money into projects to meet Rostow’s
pre-conditions, yet failed to develop and instead ended up in debt.
The Asian model (World Bank, 1993)
Examined countries like China, South Korea and Taiwan which have developed rapidly since 1970
when they opened up to free trade and foreign investment, investing in education and skills
development.
However, this model fails to take full account of the support and aid provided to some Asian
countries by the USA during the Cold War. Early in their development, many NICs had protectionist,
not free-trade policies.
Marxist theories
Dependency theory (Frank, 1967)
Theorised that the world is divided into North vs South. The developed world keeps the rest of the
world in a state of underdevelopment, so it can exploit cheap resources. Aid, debt and trade
patterns continually reinforce the dependency.
However, since the 1960s NICs and RICs have broken out of the North-South divide mould. The
theory does not allow for developing countries to have a say in their own development.
World systems theory (Wallerstein, 1974)
In this theory, the world is divided into core, semi-periphery and periphery regions. Semi-periphery
nations are broadly equivalent to the NICs that developed in the 1970s. The theory recognised that
some countries could develop and gain power, showing wealth and power were fluid not static.
However, world systems theory is more a description of the world than an explanation of it. It does
not account for the rise of China and was written during the Cold War bi-polar era.
Map showing the core, semi-periphery and periphery nations according to Wallerstein’s theory.
China and India
India and China, although both growing economies, have many differences. China and India,
together containing one-third of the world’s population, have experienced tremendous economic
growth since 1990. Their successes in advancing average wellbeing imply major improvements for a
large section of humanity. Though both countries have achieved rapid, sustained economic growth,
their rates of progress have been very different. China has enjoyed the fastest sustained economic
advance in human history, averaging real per capita growth of 8% a year as of 2013. Its per capita
income was US$11,850 as of 2013 in PPP terms. Meanwhile, real per capita income growth in India
has been decreasing since 2010, from 8.8% to 3.7% in 2013 and the per capita income reached
US$5,350 in 2013.
Key terms
Feudal: a pre-capitalist mode of production in which land was held by rich landlords and peasants
worked the land for the lord, but received protection from him.
Kondratieff cycles: a long-term fluctuation in the world economic system (approx. every 50 years).
Also known as long waves. Each cycle heralds the rise of new technologies, major infrastructural
investments, changes in the international location of industry and technological change.
Purchasing Power Parity: the value of gross national income related to local prices.
Socialism: a movement to establish a classless society by substituting public ownership for private
ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange.
THE ROLE OF SUPERPOWERS
Power can be maintained directly or indirectly; colonial direct rule and its legacy versus neo-
colonial models of indirect influence; for instance trade, aid and debt.
Neo-colonialism
Left-wing geographers argue that superpowers use subtle, indirect ways to maintain power today.
These ways are often termed as neo-colonialism. Aid is often given to allies and ‘friends’ rather than
the most needy countries and much aid is tied in various ways. Debt repayments channel money
from the developing world to the developed world. Even debt relief schemes, such as the HIPC
scheme have been criticised. HIPC countries must follow the economic policies of bankers in the
developed countries in order to qualify for debt relief.
China is conducting large neo-colonialism efforts in South America, the Caribbean and Africa. It is
targeting those countries traditionally rejected by the West because of political ideology or
corruption.
CELAC
CELAC first met in January 2015. It comprises all South American countries, some Caribbean
countries, Mexico and China. This is part of a drive to boost China’s influence in the region
(previously dominated by the USA) as it wants a greater sphere of influence. The countries are
cooperating over energy, infrastructure construction, agriculture, manufacturing, and technological
innovation.
China is buying oil from Venezuela, copper from Peru, copper from Chile and soybean from
Argentina and Brazil. In return, China is investing US$250 billion dollars in the region mainly in terms
of loans and in the construction industry. High speed rail and new roads will be developed. There will
also be regional cooperation in education, anti-corruption and natural disaster relief.
China’s interest in the region is not just fuelled by the need for raw materials (economic goals). The
region provides a market for Chinese goods, needs infrastructure which Chinese companies can
provide, and is a bilateral trade opportunity.
The USA does not have a coherent policy for this region and is still holding a trade embargo against
Cuba.
China in Africa
Both state-owned and private Chinese companies are doing business in various African countries.
State-owned companies are more secretive and do not like to give interviews. Africa is worth
US$100 billion in trade to China.
China is conducting large amounts of construction work in Luanda (capital of Angola) and has a large
influence in the oil industry as well as a large presence in the port. Another project is a long railway
link inland in Zimbabwe (800 miles long) that allows locals to conduct trade between small
settlements along the railway. In Lusaka in Zambia there is a large Chinese community, especially
within chicken farmers. There is also a lucrative copper mining industry in Zambia. In Dar el Salem in
Tanzania (one of China’s closest allies) there is a large port where copper and other minerals are
exported from Tanzania to China and other allies.
Economic control
Former colonisers gained economic control, first and foremost, through the import of primary
goods. Colonies still needed the colonial power. Raw materials were extracted, the profits went to
the colonial power, and there was little reinvestment in the colony, so the economy had a narrow
base. One colony might rely solely on the export of a single raw material, for example Mauritius
earns 90% of its income from sugar exports, and Zambia received 90% of its income from copper. All
of Comoros’ agricultural export earnings are from spices.
Trade via TNCs was another method of gaining economic control. TNCs have their roots in colonial
businesses such as the UK’s East India Company. Stock markets are all located in the West. Most
TNCs originated in Europe or the USA, and they dominate the extraction and sale of primary goods.
This means they have an economic influence over nations. Their priority is profits, distributing
wealth among company shareholders.
TNCs also have benefits:
They raise living standards, e.g. in China, the world’s largest recipient of FDI, wages have
increased.
They allow for the transfer of technology e.g. Samsung, which has learned to design, market
and sell its products to foreign markets.
TNCs bring political stability e.g. in Eastern Europe and China, where investment by TNCs has
contributed to economic growth and stability.
They also raise environmental awareness through ‘green credentials’ like packaging and
cloth bags.
Foreign aid has been given to peripheral countries by richer countries such as the USA, but only with
conditions attached to them, such as letting donor countries’ companies build dams or airports, or
for goods or services which must be purchased from the donor nation. Aid can be given in the form
of loans, equipment, teachers or health workers however all this is done to create greater trading
ties and the neo-colonial power is a big winner.
LICs owing large sums of money to HICs gives the HICs large amounts of control over them. In the
1970s, LEDCs borrowed money from rich countries at high interest rates in order to develop,
however could not pay back the loans so standards of living fell in many countries. Income is used to
pay off debts e.g. in Africa.
Debts can be written off – in 1995 the US wrote off Mexico’s debt.
In 1981 wages halved and the price of basic foodstuffs rise dramatically.
In 1982 Mexico announced it could no longer afford to pay its debts, which amounted to
US$100 billion, primarily to the USA.
By this time many of the banks that had provided funds to Mexico had lent so much that
they had to continue lending in order to enable Mexico to continue repaying its debts.
In 1995 the US government guaranteed to underwrite all of Mexico’s foreign debt.
Military control
A characteristic of a superpower is to take control, through war, of troublesome regions which
threaten superpower security, such as the USA and Afghanistan.
Key terms
Aid: any help that is given, such as financial, personnel, loans, equipment and skills.
Debt: the money owed by one country to another.
Superpowers play a key role in international decision-making, policy and action through direct and
indirect processes (the UN, G8, NATO, the EU, the Davos group).
The United Nations
The United Nations is probably the most influential and best-known international alliance in the
world. It was established in 1945 and included 193 member nations by 2012. 26 countries signed the
founding Charter of the UN, which aims to ‘save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,
which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small’.
The UN provides a forum where member nations can express opinions and grievances, suggest
actions to resolve tensions and disputes or ask for or offer assistance to other nations.
The UN General Assembly
The General Assembly is the core of the UN. All members appoint an ambassador to represent their
country at the assembly. These ambassadors discuss international issues and try to resolve disputes
by political means. At the assembly each member nation has one vote. In this way differences in the
wealth, power and prestige of nations are overcome. Decisions are reached by a simple majority
vote. Matters discussed by the assembly include international peace talks, strategies for settlement
of national or international conflict, disarmament, preserving human rights and international
political cooperation. Although the decisions of the assembly have no legally binding force, they
carry the weight of world opinion on major national and international issues. Each year the General
Assembly elects a new president and 21 vice-presidents. To make sure that all the world’s
geographic areas get equal representation the presidency rotates each year between five regions:
western Europe, eastern Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa.
The UN Security Council
Under the United Nations Charter the UN Security Council has the primary responsibility for
maintaining international peace and security. The council has five permanent members (the UK, the
USA, Russia, China and France) and 10 other members who are each elected for a two-year period.
Whereas all other UN organisations can only make recommendations to governments to take action
of some kind, the Security Council has authority to direct member nations to take action.
The Security Council can employ a number of measures to control conflict, including:
Requiring member nations to place economic sanctions, such as trade restrictions or
embargoes, on aggressor nations.
Insisting that nations are brought before the International Court of Justice.
Limited military intervention, such as the direct involvement of UN peacekeeping forces.
The UN forces comprise military personnel drawn from the armed forces of member nations.
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was founded in 1949 to counter the rise of communist power
in what was then the USSR. The Warsaw Pact was NATO’s communist counterpart. These two
international alliances represented the division of East-West political relations between about 1950
and 1990. The NATO alliance comprised the USA, Canada, Norway, the UK, Denmark, West Germany,
the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and Iceland. The
Warsaw Pact nations included the former USSR, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Romania and Bulgaria.
Originally NATO was an economic alliance between western Europe and the USA to assist the
redevelopment of West Germany after the Second World War. It became a main means for the
western European nations to contain the spread of communism by tying the military might of the
USA to the affairs of Europe. However, the USSR viewed the rearming or West Germany and the
establishment of NATO military bases in western Europe as a threat to its own safety. The Warsaw
Pact alliance was created to counter NATO’s growth. By the end of the 1960s both alliances had
strong but roughly equal military forces to oppose one another, which ensured peace of a kind.
Since the collapse of communism the member nations of the former Warsaw Pact have been seeking
to join NATO. They view NATO as a means by which they can gain access to Western democracy and
Western economic markets. Belonging to NATO will help to protect them from possible conflict with
Russia, which is still a powerful nation with nuclear capabilities.
The G8, 13 and 20
The G8 countries are Japan, the USA, France, Italy, the UK, Germany, Canada and Russia. The group
formed in 1975 as an informal meeting of the leaders of western, capitalist economies, largely in
response to the 1973 oil crisis and the recession that followed. Canada joined in 1976 and the group
pursues shared economic and political goals. All member states sat on the USA’s side in the Cold War
with the USSR. Russia joined in 1994 following the collapse of the USSR. This move recognised the
renewed importance of Russia as an emerging capitalist power, and exporter of natural resources
and nuclear power. The leaders at each meeting represent 65% of global wealth, 95% of nuclear
weapons and 75% of global military spending. G8 nations make up only 15% of world population.
By 2005 the G8+5 (G13) began meeting as the G8 plus Mexico, Brazil, China, South Africa and India.
This shift reflected the increasing importance of the emerging powers in trade, climate change
negotiations and the world economy.
A major shift occurred in 2008-2009 at three summits (London, Washington and Pittsburg) where
the global financial crisis was at the top of the agenda. These summits were G20 summits – the G13
plus Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Argentina, Indonesia, South Korea and Turkey. It is likely that in
the future the G20 will become the key informal international decision-making forum, reflecting a
fundamental shift in power towards the emerging economies, especially in Asia.
WTO
The World Trade Organisation was set up to help trade between countries flow more freely. A key
belief of the WTO is that global trade can help to reduce poverty, and promote peace and stability.
Together, they try to work out a set of trade ‘rules’.
The WTO aims to lower barriers to trade, so that countries can export goods and services more
freely, within the agreed rules. In past centuries, when countries fell out over trade they often went
to war. Now, through the WTO, they can settle trade disputes peacefully.
Davos Group (WEF)
The World Economic Forum is a global partnership that started in 1989. The leaders of businesses,
governments, international organisations, academics and civil societies meet in Davos to discuss
politics, economics, societal issues and technology.
International organisations and Iraq
Iraq has been a member of the UN since 1945. In the conflict in Iraq, the UN Security Council refused
to endorse US-US military invasion. However, following the bombing of the United Nations
headquarters in Baghdad in August 2003, the UN pulled out of Iraq, in 2004 the UN sent a mission to
Iraq to help build a new government. Critics have argued that the US has limited the role of the UN
in Iraq on purpose, but at the same time has used the UN to legitimise its actions there. By 2006
there were troops from over 20 non-US military forces operating in Iraq. Most were European, but
there were also troops from El Salvador, Australia, South Korea and Mongolia.
NATO had no role in the campaign in Iraq, but took action to protect Turkey from potential spill-over
impacts from the Iraq War. Since 004 NATO’s role in Iraq has been in training, equipping and giving
technical assistance, but not involvement in combat.
Among the G8 countries there was some opposition to the war – France, German and Russia were all
against the war. China was also against the war. In 2003 the G8 countries agreed a multilateral deal
to reconstruct Iraq’s economy; at that time Iraq had external debts of US$190 billion.
The actions of the international community have therefore been varied and at times contradictory,
but it became a conflict in which there was a great deal of international involvement.
Control of trade, in terms of generating wealth, power and maintaining global influence is
important.
The role of trade
The world trade system is essential in a western ‘free trade’ system. The USA and EU have been very
influential at the World Trade Organisation in the past. In a globalised world, TNCs play a crucial role
in world trade, and most TNCs originate in the EU and USA. Strong trade links across the world are
vital as there is a strong correlation between volume of trade and standards of living. MEDCs and
LEDCs have different export and import patterns. MEDCs mostly export machinery, transport
equipment, chemicals, agricultural products, and services. Their range of imports is similar. By
contrast, LEDCs have a much smaller range of exports. These are mostly agricultural products and
raw materials. The range of imports is similar to that of MEDCs, but is likely to be cheaper and less
sophisticated.
USA’s trade
The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership is a deal to cut tariffs between the US and EU,
making it easier for companies to access each other’s markets. Industries the TTIP affects include
pharmaceuticals, cars, energy, finance, chemicals, clothing and food and drink.
The USA lifted trade restrictions on Cuba in 2015.
The Trans-Pacific Partnership consists of the USA and 12 other countries, not including China or
Russia, and could be seen as a turn away from Asia and a way of countering China’s influence.
China’s trade
Today, China is a mature economy, with more outward investment than inward investment. Export
earnings are strong: electronic equipment, machinery, clothing, furniture, optical and medical
apparatus, vehicles, iron and steel articles and advanced IT products are the main source of income.
China is the world’s largest producer of solar panels and the second largest producer of wind power.
The telecommunications market is a key area for development, and new companies such as Huawei
are emerging onto the international market, and becoming major competitors for European and
American brands.
Sino-African relations
In Africa, the opportunities outweigh the challenges for the Chinese government. Since 2009, China
has been Africa’s biggest trading partner. The state is driving most of the investment, rather than
privately-owned Chinese companies. China promotes economic and political cooperation and energy
development. There is no interference in the internal affairs of other countries. However, in 2013
China abandoned that policy to engage in mediation dialogue with South Sudan over the conflict
there. China has an oil stake in South Sudan and broke its ‘non-interference’ policy to protect its
overseas economic interests. China invests into African finance sectors, manufacturing, agriculture
and infrastructure. One-third of China’s energy comes from Africa: oil from Angola and Saudi Arabia,
copper from Zambia. China dispatched 170 combat troops to Mali under UN mandate. The high
demand for diamonds is causing growing affluence in Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Critics say that China’s involvement in Africa is neo-colonialism, and that aid and debt makes the
developed world more controlling of the developing world. China openly supports the dictatorships
in Sudan and Zimbabwe, both of which have been rejected and opposed by the West.
China and foreign TNCs
TNCs are unable to compete with China in Africa. China is offering much better incentives than other
mining companies, such as building roads and railways. Since 2006, China has spent US$10 billion on
infrastructure projects. Due to technology transfer from China, Nigeria has recently sent its second
satellite into orbit. Sudan has three weapons factories built with assistance from China. The African
Aid programme run by China aims to offer 18,000 government scholarships and train 30,000 Africans
by 2015.
China and Google
In March 2014, Google said they would no longer censor websites, in retaliation to which China
banned them. Baidu is the Chinese search engine, and it prospered from this protectionism, but it
also shows how tough China’s government regime is.
Russia’s trade
Russia is the world’s leading gas producer. Pipelines are state-owned and Gazprom has a monopoly
on gas exports to the EU. Russia has been known to manipulate gas and oil supplies for political
purposes, however the EU is diversifying its energy mix to reduce dependency on Russia. The gas
cartel would strengthen Russia's leverage over Europe. In 2006, NATO military advisors warned
against an ‘OPEC for gas’ with Qatar, Libya and Algeria.
Russia would gain more influence if more pipelines were built to China. As a world supplier of gas,
Russia could have economic and political power. However, the Russian economy is shrinking due to
the sanctions from the west in response to the invasion of the Ukraine. Russia’s old allies are
Venezuela and Cuba.
Superpower influence extends to the idea of a developing ‘global culture’ of ideas and norms – for
instance ideas of Americanisation and ‘McDonaldisation’ – which has led to a backlash among
some groups.
McDonalds
On an average day over 58 million customers are served at 32,000 McDonald’s restaurants in 109
countries around the world. The first restaurants were located in the USA and Canada, and then
spread to Europe, Australia and Japan in the early 1970s.
In Beijing, McDonalds has lost its American role as fast and cheap food. It has become a middle-class
consumption place, somewhere for a special family outing. In Japan, there is a similar leisurely use of
McDonalds, it is not a place of exotic social prestige, but a youth hangout.
McDonalds has been at the centre of anti-capitalism, animal rights and environmental rights
protests. Protesters argue that the company is merely a profit-making organisation, which values
money above all else. However, McDonalds has donated over US$180 million to McDonald’s
Children Charities and claims to donate more money than any other commercial enterprise in the
USA, over US$50 million annually.
Coca-Cola
Founded in 1886, the Coca-Cola Company is the world’s leading manufacturer, marketer and
distributor of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups used to produce nearly 400 brands.
The Coca-Cola Company continues to be based in Atlanta and employs 49,000 people worldwide.
Coca-Cola is one of the most recognised trademarks in the world. Nowadays, Coca-Cola is located in
more than 200 countries, where drinks are produced by local people with local resources. Coca-Cola
produced brands that embrace distinct tastes and local preferences.