Superdiverse repertoires

Superdiverse Superdiverse repertoiresrepertoires

Jan Blommaert & Ad BackusJan Blommaert & Ad Backus

Babylon, Tilburg Babylon, Tilburg UniversityUniversity

From competence to From competence to knowledgeknowledge

What is it to know a language?What is it to know a language? ‘‘maximal’ knowledge: fluency in multi-maximal’ knowledge: fluency in multi-genres and varieties, ‘voice’genres and varieties, ‘voice’

‘‘intermediate’ knowledge: specific genres, intermediate’ knowledge: specific genres, registers, varietiesregisters, varieties

‘‘temporary’ learning (age groups or e.g. temporary’ learning (age groups or e.g. via traveling)via traveling)

‘‘minimal’ knowledge: single-word, minimal’ knowledge: single-word, restricted registers and functions restricted registers and functions (« sayonara », « hasta la vista »…)(« sayonara », « hasta la vista »…)

‘‘recognizing’ language: attributive recognizing’ language: attributive identity functionsidentity functions

All of this belongs to a repertoire: a All of this belongs to a repertoire: a biographical complex of functionally biographical complex of functionally organised linguistic resources: organised linguistic resources: repertoire as indexical biographyrepertoire as indexical biography

And is the result of entirely And is the result of entirely different modes of acquisitiondifferent modes of acquisition From ‘encountering’ language (in informal From ‘encountering’ language (in informal learning environment)learning environment)

To ‘learning’ language (in formal learning To ‘learning’ language (in formal learning environment)environment)

Increasing density of ‘ephemeral’ learning Increasing density of ‘ephemeral’ learning processes (e.g. tourism, Facebook etc)processes (e.g. tourism, Facebook etc)

Jan’s repertoireJan’s repertoire ‘‘Maximum’: Dutch, EnglishMaximum’: Dutch, English ‘‘Intermediate’: French, German, Latin, Intermediate’: French, German, Latin, Spanish, SwahiliSpanish, Swahili

‘‘Minimal’: Japanese, Chinese, Italian, Minimal’: Japanese, Chinese, Italian, Greek, Finnish, Russian, Portuguese, a Greek, Finnish, Russian, Portuguese, a number of African languages…number of African languages…

‘‘Recognising’: Turkish, Arabic, Korean, Recognising’: Turkish, Arabic, Korean, Northern Sami, Gaelic, Berber, Polish, Northern Sami, Gaelic, Berber, Polish, Albanian, Hungarian, Czech, Serbo-Albanian, Hungarian, Czech, Serbo-Kroatian, Thai, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Kroatian, Thai, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Yiddish, Schwytsertüütsch, several African Yiddish, Schwytsertüütsch, several African languages…languages…

Ephemeral learning modesEphemeral learning modes You take whatever is (cheaply) availableYou take whatever is (cheaply) available Assemble it into a functionally adequate Assemble it into a functionally adequate varietyvariety

Always ‘incomplete’ and by degreesAlways ‘incomplete’ and by degrees Functions:Functions:

Linguistic, communicativeLinguistic, communicative IndexicalIndexical EmblematicEmblematic Aesthetic …Aesthetic …

The point...The point...

Definition of ‘language’Definition of ‘language’ Definition of ‘competence’Definition of ‘competence’ Understanding specific forms of Understanding specific forms of diversity – not as diversity – not as deviation/transgression/’bad deviation/transgression/’bad language’/wronglanguage’/wrong

UG not a great basis for any of UG not a great basis for any of this this

Usage-based linguistics isUsage-based linguistics is

My own perspectiveMy own perspective

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

Language Contact Theories

Linguistic Theories

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Usage-based theory about language, including language contact and

change

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Usage-based approachUsage-based approach

Typical approach of Cognitive LinguisticsTypical approach of Cognitive Linguistics Linguistic competence is usage-basedLinguistic competence is usage-based

‘‘you are what you say and hearyou are what you say and hear’’ competence is competence is notnot independent of usage independent of usage

Linguistic competence is an inventory of Linguistic competence is an inventory of specific and schematic unitsspecific and schematic units

Basic aim: theory of mental representationBasic aim: theory of mental representation No different from other linguistic theoriesNo different from other linguistic theories

Language use results from cognitive Language use results from cognitive processesprocesses

Therefore: mental representation is always Therefore: mental representation is always part of the explanationpart of the explanation

Usage-based approachUsage-based approach Basic hypothesis: Basic hypothesis: mental representation built up mental representation built up on the basis of usageon the basis of usage

Ingredients: Ingredients: human cognitive skills human cognitive skills and and linguistic experiencelinguistic experience Cognitive skills: Cognitive skills: storage in memorystorage in memory, pattern , pattern recognition, focusing joint attention, recognition, focusing joint attention, intention reading, cooperationintention reading, cooperation

Linguistic experience (interaction): exposure Linguistic experience (interaction): exposure (‘input’) and use (‘output’)(‘input’) and use (‘output’)

Competence is continuously updated; i.e. it is Competence is continuously updated; i.e. it is dynamicdynamic Repeated neuromotor routines ease processing: Repeated neuromotor routines ease processing: increasing increasing entrenchmententrenchment

Competence Competence varies between individualsvaries between individuals, but not , but not too much (we understand each other)too much (we understand each other)

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Usage-based approachUsage-based approach

Two important characteristics: Two important characteristics: 1) no strict division between lexicon 1) no strict division between lexicon

and syntax; and syntax; 2) diachronic issues (as well as 2) diachronic issues (as well as

synchronic variation) put back in the center synchronic variation) put back in the center of linguistic theory. of linguistic theory.

Historical linguistics and sociolinguistics Historical linguistics and sociolinguistics not seen as separate disciplines anymore not seen as separate disciplines anymore

Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov & Marvin Herzog. Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov & Marvin Herzog. 1968. Empirical foundations for a theory of 1968. Empirical foundations for a theory of language change. In Winfried P. Lehmann & Yakov language change. In Winfried P. Lehmann & Yakov Malkiel (eds.), Directions for Historical Malkiel (eds.), Directions for Historical Linguistics: A Symposium, 95–195. Austin: Linguistics: A Symposium, 95–195. Austin: University of Texas Press.University of Texas Press.

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EntrenchmentEntrenchment

What determines degree of entrenchment?What determines degree of entrenchment?

Usage frequency (corpus Usage frequency (corpus frequencies) frequencies)

Entrenchment (online Entrenchment (online measures)measures)

(e.g. Arnon, 2009; Bannard & Matthews, 2008; (e.g. Arnon, 2009; Bannard & Matthews, 2008; Bybee & Scheibman, 1999; Caldwell-Harris & Bybee & Scheibman, 1999; Caldwell-Harris & Morris, 2008; Ellis & Simpson-Vlach, 2009; Morris, 2008; Ellis & Simpson-Vlach, 2009; Tremblay, 2009)Tremblay, 2009)

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Usage-based approachUsage-based approach

Applies:Applies:To language (Langacker, Croft, Bybee, To language (Langacker, Croft, Bybee, Fillmore, Goldberg, Gries, ...)Fillmore, Goldberg, Gries, ...)To many other things: fashion, trends To many other things: fashion, trends in TV series, how to order a drink ... in TV series, how to order a drink ... (e.g. Bakhtin, Stockwell)(e.g. Bakhtin, Stockwell)

Bybee, Joan (2010). Language, usage and Bybee, Joan (2010). Language, usage and cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressPressStockwell, Peter (2002). Cognitive poetics. An Stockwell, Peter (2002). Cognitive poetics. An introduction. London: Routledge.introduction. London: Routledge.

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Beyond LinguisticsBeyond Linguistics

Memory is not just for languageMemory is not just for language Usage-based approach to linguistic Usage-based approach to linguistic representation may morph into usage-representation may morph into usage-based approach to knowledge based approach to knowledge representationrepresentation Including ‘cultural knowledge’ (the Including ‘cultural knowledge’ (the ‘brought along’ of anthropology)‘brought along’ of anthropology)

Domains would include everything Domains would include everything that requires cognitive controlthat requires cognitive control

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Language = Cultural domainLanguage = Cultural domain

Other domains where we establish Other domains where we establish routines (* = requires routines (* = requires communication):communication):

Fixed route to your officeFixed route to your officeOrder a drink in a bar *Order a drink in a bar *Establish a running routeEstablish a running routeDance moves *Dance moves *What to have for breakfastWhat to have for breakfastWhere to sit in class *Where to sit in class *Crossing a street *Crossing a street *Whether or not to make stupid little Whether or not to make stupid little jokes during a presentation *jokes during a presentation *

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VariationVariation Idiolectal and group differences to Idiolectal and group differences to be expected:be expected: Linguists: Linguists: metathesismetathesis, , codeswitchingcodeswitching, , X-barX-bar, , usage-based modelusage-based model

Mechanics : ….Mechanics : …. Linguistic competence varies from Linguistic competence varies from person to personperson to person

This is a consequence of:This is a consequence of: That knowledge is usage-based That knowledge is usage-based Our differing livesOur differing lives

Requires synchronic and diachronic Requires synchronic and diachronic perspectives combinedperspectives combined

Synchrony and diachrony in general Synchrony and diachrony in general linguisticslinguistics

Descriptive linguistics: tends to be Descriptive linguistics: tends to be strictly synchronicstrictly synchronic

Sociolinguistics: tends to be synchronicSociolinguistics: tends to be synchronic If change is studied, it’s ‘change in If change is studied, it’s ‘change in progress’, read off from synchronic progress’, read off from synchronic variationvariation

Interactional analyses often based on Interactional analyses often based on agency: what is someone doing at a agency: what is someone doing at a particular moment in time (e.g. in a particular moment in time (e.g. in a particular communicative situation)?particular communicative situation)?

Usage-based linguistics: both Usage-based linguistics: both perspectives neededperspectives needed

Synchrony and diachrony: Synchrony and diachrony: changechange

Example from Dutch Turkish: the Dutch Example from Dutch Turkish: the Dutch word word gedoogpartnergedoogpartner

Interference: synchronic phenomenon: Interference: synchronic phenomenon: first use of the word in Turkishfirst use of the word in Turkish

Continuous selection of the Continuous selection of the ‘interference’ variant: decreasing sense ‘interference’ variant: decreasing sense of cross-linguistic influence: of cross-linguistic influence: increasing entrenchmentincreasing entrenchment

‘‘Interference’ variant becomes part of Interference’ variant becomes part of the language: change in progress: any the language: change in progress: any Turkish equivalent is oustedTurkish equivalent is ousted

Endpoint: change (loanword)Endpoint: change (loanword)

Communicative factorsCommunicative factors Change results from selection in Change results from selection in communicationcommunication

Asymmetry influences communicative Asymmetry influences communicative decisionsdecisions Language choiceLanguage choice Choices Choices withinwithin interaction, interaction, withinwithin utterances utterances

Choices may beChoices may be IntentionallyIntentionally creative (‘proposing’ an creative (‘proposing’ an innovation)innovation)

IntentionallyIntentionally marked (propagating a change in marked (propagating a change in progress)progress)

UnintentionallyUnintentionally propagating a change in propagating a change in progress, changing the progress, changing the normnorm without knowing it without knowing it

Based on Based on entrenchmententrenchment Long-term: storage in memoryLong-term: storage in memory Short-term: priming; alignment in conversationShort-term: priming; alignment in conversation

PropagationPropagation Language Change = change in what is unmarked (in what Language Change = change in what is unmarked (in what is the is the normnorm))

Norm/Definition of ‘language’: Norm/Definition of ‘language’: a structured inventory a structured inventory of linguistic (specific and schematic) unitsof linguistic (specific and schematic) units

Specific units equivalent to wordsSpecific units equivalent to words Schematic units equivalent to rulesSchematic units equivalent to rules

Basic hypothesis: everything is storedBasic hypothesis: everything is stored Memory traces that match current update get entrenched Memory traces that match current update get entrenched furtherfurther

Disuse leads to decay: degree of entrenchment is Disuse leads to decay: degree of entrenchment is loweredlowered

Challenges:Challenges: Does storage take place without conscious attention?Does storage take place without conscious attention? Every usage event is unique: when does it count as ‘the Every usage event is unique: when does it count as ‘the same’?same’?

Describing a normDescribing a norm Serious empirical problem!Serious empirical problem! Language = inventory of linguistic units in the Language = inventory of linguistic units in the mind of the speaker. mind of the speaker.

Technically, one could describe one’s complete Technically, one could describe one’s complete inventory, no?inventory, no?

Wrong: language is a ‘moving target’. Any Wrong: language is a ‘moving target’. Any complete inventory, if such were possible, would complete inventory, if such were possible, would be obsolete the next second. Besides, there is no be obsolete the next second. Besides, there is no reason to privilege that one individual.reason to privilege that one individual.

Better to have a good theory that combines Better to have a good theory that combines synchrony and diachronysynchrony and diachrony

Better to have a good theory that operates at a Better to have a good theory that operates at a more cumulative level: describe the common ground more cumulative level: describe the common ground (conventions) that most people (in a community) (conventions) that most people (in a community) share.share.

Why study language contact Why study language contact phenomena?phenomena?

The interesting thing about contact The interesting thing about contact phenomena is that they illustrate that phenomena is that they illustrate that languages change all the time, that they languages change all the time, that they are are dynamicdynamic

My claims: My claims:

1.1.Understanding change means Understanding change means understanding understanding how competence or knowledge how competence or knowledge is formedis formed (usage-based)(usage-based)

2.2.Understanding how knowledge is formed Understanding how knowledge is formed means understanding means understanding normativitynormativity

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Norms and normativityNorms and normativity

Language change = Language change =

Change in Change in conventions conventions = Change in = Change in norm norm

Interesting thing about Interesting thing about linguisticlinguistic norms: on either side of the border of norms: on either side of the border of awareness (or conscious control)awareness (or conscious control)

(Blommaert, Jan & Ad Backus 2011). Repertoires (Blommaert, Jan & Ad Backus 2011). Repertoires revisited: ‘Knowing language’ in superdiversity, revisited: ‘Knowing language’ in superdiversity, Working Papers in Urban Language & Literacies Working Papers in Urban Language & Literacies Paper 67)Paper 67)

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Kinds of Kinds of norms/yardsticksnorms/yardsticks

Individual internal norms Individual internal norms (entrenchment)(entrenchment)

Cumulative shared internal norms Cumulative shared internal norms (common ground) (common ground)

(Clark, Herbert 1996. (Clark, Herbert 1996. Using languageUsing language. Cambridge . Cambridge University Press)University Press)

External norms (‘norm’ in the External norms (‘norm’ in the everyday sense of the word)everyday sense of the word) - often - often codifiedcodified

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What do we have norms about?What do we have norms about?Any behavior that’s under cognitive controlAny behavior that’s under cognitive controlLinguisticLinguistic examples: examples:Genre conventions (e.g. fairy tale, school/academic Genre conventions (e.g. fairy tale, school/academic register, service encounters, etc. >> cf. Clark, register, service encounters, etc. >> cf. Clark, Bakhtin, Bourdieu)Bakhtin, Bourdieu)

(Briggs, Charles & Bauman, Richard (1992). Genre, (Briggs, Charles & Bauman, Richard (1992). Genre, intertextuality, and social power. intertextuality, and social power. Journal of Linguistic Journal of Linguistic Anthropology Anthropology 2 (2): 131-172)2 (2): 131-172)

Syntactic structures (jury still out?)Syntactic structures (jury still out?)Whether or not it’s okay to use particular foreign Whether or not it’s okay to use particular foreign wordwordAnything, reallyAnything, really

Perhaps best source of evidence: expectancy Perhaps best source of evidence: expectancy violations, creativity, discourse about correctnessviolations, creativity, discourse about correctness

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Why do we have norms?Why do we have norms?

Group cohesion, culture, being normal, to Group cohesion, culture, being normal, to belong, ...belong, ...1.1.‘‘Soft’ mechanisms 1: Coercion, Peer Soft’ mechanisms 1: Coercion, Peer pressure, Accommodation, Admiring pressure, Accommodation, Admiring imitation, ‘just’ imitationimitation, ‘just’ imitation

(Eckert, Penelope (2012). Three waves of (Eckert, Penelope (2012). Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the variation study: The emergence of meaning in the study of variation. study of variation. Annual Review of Annual Review of AnthropologyAnthropology, 41: 87-100), 41: 87-100)

2.2.‘‘Hard’ mechanisms: Enforcement of Hard’ mechanisms: Enforcement of standards (‘policing’)standards (‘policing’)

But: grey area between hard and softBut: grey area between hard and soft

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What are What are linguisticlinguistic norms norms like?like?

Many linguistic norms are adhered to Many linguistic norms are adhered to automaticallyautomatically They are very entrenchedThey are very entrenched

Especially what’s very frequentEspecially what’s very frequent

Deviations are more or less easily Deviations are more or less easily spotspot Depends on Depends on how set in stone how set in stone the norm isthe norm isE.g. Ungrammatical word order, use of E.g. Ungrammatical word order, use of ain’tain’t, , expressions that are too formal for the expressions that are too formal for the situation, ...situation, ...

Norms can easily be brought to Norms can easily be brought to attentionattention

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Norms in contact situationsNorms in contact situations

So deviation from the norm is easy So deviation from the norm is easy to spotto spot Conscious awareness always just around Conscious awareness always just around the cornerthe corner

Interpreted in bilingual settings Interpreted in bilingual settings as: loss/attrition, poor as: loss/attrition, poor proficiency, influence from another proficiency, influence from another language (interference)language (interference)

Negative associations cause anxietyNegative associations cause anxiety

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Judgment dataJudgment data

Asked Dutch Turks acceptability Asked Dutch Turks acceptability judgments of:judgments of:TR-Turkish TR-Turkish piyano çalmak piyano çalmak (‘hit’); and(‘hit’); andNL-Turkish NL-Turkish piyano oynamak piyano oynamak (‘play’) (‘play’)

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Judgment dataJudgment data

Asked Dutch Turks acceptability Asked Dutch Turks acceptability judgments of:judgments of:TR-Turkish TR-Turkish piyano çalmak piyano çalmak (‘hit’); (‘hit’); andandNL-Turkish NL-Turkish piyano oynamak piyano oynamak (‘play’) (‘play’)

And what did they say?:And what did they say?:It should be piyano It should be piyano oynamakoynamak, , certainly certainly notnot piyano piyano çalmakçalmak

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Judgment data on acceptability of NL-Turkish and TR-Judgment data on acceptability of NL-Turkish and TR-Turkish syntactic constructionsTurkish syntactic constructions

Dutch-dominant bilinguals give: •lower ratings to conventional Turkish sentences, and •higher ratings to unconventional sentences.

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Linguistic external norms and Linguistic external norms and purismpurism

Deviations trigger purism. Deviations trigger purism. And purism can be annoying, or harmful.And purism can be annoying, or harmful.

Tariana: you get laughed at if you use a Tariana: you get laughed at if you use a foreign word (Aikhenvald)foreign word (Aikhenvald)

Nahuatl: Hispanicized form looked at Nahuatl: Hispanicized form looked at negatively; result: people hesitate to negatively; result: people hesitate to use the language, and language dies (Hill use the language, and language dies (Hill & Hill)& Hill)

But who cares anymore about French But who cares anymore about French influence on English?influence on English?

Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2002. Language Contact in Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2002. Language Contact in Amazonia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Amazonia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hill, Jane & Kenneth Hill. 1986. Speaking Mexicano. Hill, Jane & Kenneth Hill. 1986. Speaking Mexicano. Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico. Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

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Expressions of anxiety (1)Expressions of anxiety (1)

Since my Turkish is bad, I can’t express Since my Turkish is bad, I can’t express myself very well in Turkish. Some words myself very well in Turkish. Some words don’t come to mind. I don’t feel don’t come to mind. I don’t feel comfortable when I’m talking and I get comfortable when I’m talking and I get stuck. I can explain everything in Dutch stuck. I can explain everything in Dutch better than in Turkish, that’s why I better than in Turkish, that’s why I prefer to speak Dutch all the time.prefer to speak Dutch all the time.

Backus, Ad, Derya Demirçay & Yeşim Sevinç (Forthc.) Backus, Ad, Derya Demirçay & Yeşim Sevinç (Forthc.) Converging evidence on contact effects on second Converging evidence on contact effects on second and third generation Immigrant Turkish. To appear and third generation Immigrant Turkish. To appear in Ad Backus, Carol W. Pfaff & Annette Herkenrath in Ad Backus, Carol W. Pfaff & Annette Herkenrath (eds.),(eds.),Turkish in Northwestern Europe versus Turkish in Northwestern Europe versus Turkish in Turkey. Turkish in Turkey. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Copenhagen: Copenhagen University.University.

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Expressions of anxiety (2)Expressions of anxiety (2)

I feel comfortable while talking I feel comfortable while talking Dutch. I feel bad when I have to Dutch. I feel bad when I have to speak only Turkish, I can’t speak only Turkish, I can’t remember the words in Turkish.remember the words in Turkish.

(Backus, Demirçay & Sevinç forthc.)(Backus, Demirçay & Sevinç forthc.)

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Expressions of anxiety (3)Expressions of anxiety (3)

Sometimes, I try to play with my cousin’s Sometimes, I try to play with my cousin’s friends there [friends there [i.e. in Turkeyi.e. in Turkey], and I ], and I attempt to say something but I stop. I attempt to say something but I stop. I can’t talk most of the time, because the can’t talk most of the time, because the people there know Turkish very well, but I people there know Turkish very well, but I don’t. And they mostly don’t understand don’t. And they mostly don’t understand what I say. And it gets worse. When I can’t what I say. And it gets worse. When I can’t explain it in Turkish, I call my mother or explain it in Turkish, I call my mother or father and tell them in Dutch. Then, father and tell them in Dutch. Then, theythey talk to the people. That happens in Turkey talk to the people. That happens in Turkey often.often.

(Backus, Demirçay & Sevinç forthc.)(Backus, Demirçay & Sevinç forthc.)

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What is language?What is language? No such thing as “a language”, as commonly understood.No such thing as “a language”, as commonly understood. Knowing Finnish is not the same as knowing all of FinnishKnowing Finnish is not the same as knowing all of Finnish Language is not distinct and discreetly bounded: one’s Language is not distinct and discreetly bounded: one’s

Finnish may be full of Swedish and EnglishFinnish may be full of Swedish and English Talking is a cognitive activity, and since it’s done in Talking is a cognitive activity, and since it’s done in

interaction it’s also a socio-cultural activityinteraction it’s also a socio-cultural activity Relies on wide inventory of resources (conventions) and Relies on wide inventory of resources (conventions) and

abilitiesabilities Everybody talks a bit differentlyEverybody talks a bit differently Enough similarity safeguards communication, but it’s on a Enough similarity safeguards communication, but it’s on a

cline: all communication is ‘intercultural’ and all change cline: all communication is ‘intercultural’ and all change is ‘contact-induced’is ‘contact-induced’

Abstracting away from differences and imposing artificial Abstracting away from differences and imposing artificial boundaries gives us ‘languages’: products of socialization boundaries gives us ‘languages’: products of socialization (equally for registers)(equally for registers)

But there are also built-in mechanisms that work towards But there are also built-in mechanisms that work towards similarity: accommodation, alignment, need to be similarity: accommodation, alignment, need to be understood, cooperation (from Grice to Tomasello). Result: understood, cooperation (from Grice to Tomasello). Result: speech communities. speech communities.