INVESTIGATING THE FORAGING PATTERNS AND DISTRIBUTION OF NOCTURNAL FRUGIVORES WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON CONSERVATION THREATS IN NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA Submitted to Submitted by Murali Krishna, Awadhesh Kumar, Parimal Chandra Ray & Kuladip Sarma 0
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Murali Krishna [Type the abstract of the document here. The abstract is typically a short summary of the contents of the document. Type the abstract of the document here. The abstract is typically a short summary of the contents of the document.]
INVESTIGATING THE FORAGING PATTERNS AND DISTRIBUTION OF NOCTURNAL FRUGIVORES WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON
CONSERVATION THREATS IN NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
Submitted to
Submitted by Murali Krishna, Awadhesh Kumar,
Parimal Chandra Ray &
Kuladip Sarma
0
Suggested citation: Krishna, C. M., Kumar, A., Ray, P.C., Sarma, K. & Deka, J. (2015). Investigating the Foraging Patterns and Distribution of Nocturnal Frugivores with Special Focus on Conservation Threats In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Final report to the Rufford Small Grants Program (UK). Krishna, C. M. (editor). Pp. 36
Wildlife Resource & Conservation Lab,
Department of Forestry,
North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology
Front cover: Middle Box: Particolored Gliding Squirrel (Top left); Common Palm Civet (Top Right & Bottom Left) Masked Palm Civet (Bottom Right); The Team in the centre. Lower Box: Panoramic View of Namdapha National Park. Back cover: Camp at Hornbill (Top) & solar plates for charging the equipment (Bottom)
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Investigating the Foraging Patterns and Distribution of Nocturnal Frugivores with Special Focus on Conservation Threats In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh,
India
Final report January 2015
Project Investigator Murali Krishna
Research Affiliates Dr. Awadhesh Kumar, Parimal Chandra Ray & Kuladip Sarma
Technical Support
Dr. Jyotishman Deka (RS & GIS)
Project period: January 2014 ‐ December 2014
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PROGRAM ASSOCIATES
PROJECT INVESTIGATOR RESEARCH AFFILIATES RESEARCH AFFILIATES
Murali Krishna Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Parimal Chandra Ray
RESEARCH AFFILIATES TECHNICAL SUPPORT LOCAL FIELD STAFF
Kuladip Sarma Dr. Jyotishman Deka Bironjay Basumtary
LOCAL FIELD STAFF LOCAL FIELD STAFF LOCAL FIELD STAFF
Erebo Chakma Tinku Chakma Sambu Chakma
OTHER FUNDING SOURCES
Idea Wild Grant, USA – Equipment Grant. (2011 - 2012)
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CONTENTS
Page Number Acknowledgements 1 Summary 2 Introduction 4 Study Area 8
Objective 1 Foraging and distributional patterns of nocturnal frugivores in Namdapha National Park
Methods 9 Results 9 Discussion 19
Objective 2 Drivers involved in hunting of nocturnal frugivores in Namdapha National Park
Methods 20 Results 20 Discussion 21
Objective 3 Status of few nocturnal frugivores (additional objective)
Methods 23 Results 23 Discussion 24
Photo plates 26 References 31 Appendix 36
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Acknowledgments We thank the PCCF, Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department, for providing us with
permissions to carry out the research. I thank the Field Director, Assistant Field
Director, Research Officer (Tajum Yomcha), and the Range officers, Beat officers, Field
staff (permanent & contingency) of Namdapha National Park cum Tiger Reserve for
helping us in various ways to carry out the research work and for providing logistic
support.
We thank the Chakmas, Lisus, Lamas, Miju-Mishmis community peoples for their
support during the project. The Head-man’s of the Lama Camp, Budhisutta, 32nd Mile
for their kind help during the project. I thank Y. Srinivas (Wildlife Institute of India (WII))
for his inputs during the project. Also, I thank Karthik Teegalapalli (National
Conservation Foundation (NCF)), Ambika Ayyundorai (National University of
Singapore) for their guidance during the project planning and execution. I also thank
Rubul Buragohain, Amal Bawri and Anup Kumar Das (all the three from NERIST) for
helping us in identifying the plant specimens. Acknowledging Pupla Singpho and &
Pikon has not to be forgotten for his their kind help in arranging accommodation and for
other logistic support at Miao in during our tough times.
Will Duckworth (Co-Chair, Small Carnivore Conservation, IUCN), Dr. Aparajita Datta
(Senior Scientist, NCF, India) & Dr. Srinivasulu, (Osmania University) are sincerely
thanked for their inputs without which the project could have not been possible.
The work was also made possible from the equipment grant provided by Idea Wild
Grant, USA which has to be acknowledged.
Big thanks to Ranjan Kumar Das for helpful photography trips and for sharing his
knowledge about the area. Last but not the least, I thank, Bironjay Basumatary, Erebo
Summary We have been involved in various project with regard to ecology and conservation of
primates, birds in Namdapha National Park since 2010. It was in 2011, we started our
work on Nocturnal Mammals, mainly the Red Giant Gliding Squirrel. I was involved in
studying the ecology of the species. Namdapha is a home to array of frugivores. If we
look up globally, the work on diurnal frugivores appear to be vast but spare data occurs
on the ecology and conservation aspects of nocturnal frugivores. Thus the idea was to
put up a study that focuses on the ecology and conservation aspects of nocturnal
frugivores in Namdapha. It is a home to four species of gliding squirrels and six species
of Civets and a Loris.
The ecology of the species especially the feeding habits were observed during the
study. Also, the distribution maps of the species were build and are overlaid so that
these maps will help the Forest department in formulating the conservation action plans
of the species within the park. Also, data on hunting and use pattern were collected
from local tribes with great difficulty as none were interested in sharing the data.
Moreover the forest department’s strict orders have restricted the movement of locals
into the park for non timber forest products (NTFP’s) and the village head-man have
asked the people of the respective villages to stop hunting thus calling for a ban.
However, the encounters of the species especially the civets were very low. But, the
data collected is first of its kind using the spot light technique and scan sampling.
Contribution of work by each research investigator
Ecological data was conducted by me and point location data were collected by Parimal
Chandra Ray. Dr. Awadhesh Kumar has provided us with technical inputs of data
collection. Kuladip Sarma accompanied me in few visits and is important in distribution
map building and overlay of different species. Jyotishman Deka was involved in map
building and modelling work.
Plant identification was mostly done by Rubul Burgohain, Amal Bawri and Anup Kumar
Das with the help of photographs and specimens at NERIST.
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Disclaimer: The data presented in few portions of the report are preliminary findings, And further data collection and analysis is needed for drawing final conclusions. Note: There is no mention of tribe name and village names in many places throughout the text. Because, the people’s denied to put their tribe name and village name. So keeping the ethics in mind, we have not mentioned much about the tribes and villages.
(The whole document is prepared in Word of Office 2013. So the graphics and fonts might look different when viewed under lower versions of Office viz., 2003; 2007; 2010)
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Introduction
Eastern Himalaya The Eastern Himalayan region is a congregation of globally important plants diversity
along with more than 175 species of mammals and 500 species of avifauna. The reason for
such rich diversity could be perhaps due to multiple bio-geographic origins, its considerable
climatic variability, and its topographic complexity that has created isolated habitat islands
stretching across its vast mountain ranges. The variation in altitudes ranges from 100 meters to
more than 8,000 meters, and rainfall varies from 2,000 mm per year in monsoon-facing (south
and east-facing) slopes to desert-like conditions in the northern and western rain-shadows. The
Eastern Himalayas’ biological diversity is paralleled by great political and cultural diversity. The
region is home to more than 100 million people of multiple ethnicities and religions. It covers a
vast range of area lying between Nepal and Myanmar including India. The Indian States viz.,
Sikkim, North Bengal and other north-eastern states (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
11. Ficus heterophylla Red giant gliding squirrel Winter Moraceae
12. Ficus heteropleura
Common palm civet
Masked palm civet
Red giant gliding squirrel
Particolored gliding squirrel
Winter, summer
Moraceae
13. Ficus rumphii Red giant gliding squirrel Summer Moraceae
14. Gynocardia odorata
Common palm civet Winter Achariaceae
15. Magnolia graifitti Masked palm civet
Common palm civet Summer
Magnoliaceae
16. Neolamarckia cadamba
Masked palm civet
Large Indian civet
Small Indian civet
Red giant gliding squirrel
Particolored gliding squirrel
Slow loris
Winter, Monsoon
Rubiaceae
17 Syzygium cumini
Common palm civet
Small Indian Civet
Particolored gliding squirrel
Monsoon
Myrtaceae
18. Unknown sp. Common palm civet Winter
Fig 1: Family wise list of tree species.
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Non plant products fed on by nocturnal frugivores:
Apart from the plant products, observations were made where the civets were seen feeding on
birds, fish and small mammals. Most feeding observations were on pompadour green pigeon by
Small Indian Civet followed by the other species as mentioned in table 4. Highest feeding on
non-plant products was observed in summer season.
Table 4: List of Non- plant products fed by the nocturnal frugivores
S.No Animals predated on Dependent Nocturnal Mammals Season No. of
Observations
1. Pompadour Green pigeon
Small Indian Civet (SIC)
Common palm Civet (CPC)
Masked palm Civet (MPC)
Winter
4 (SIC)
6 (SIC)
2 (MIC)
2. Rodent Small Indian Civet (SIC)
Common palm Civet (CPC) Summer
2 (MIC)
1 (MIC)
3. Silver Eared Mesia Small Indian Civet (SIC) Monsoon 2 (SIC)
4. Fish Large Indian Civet (LIC) Summer 1 (LIC)
Distribution Pattern:
Predictive distribution modelling was done to show the possible distribution of the
nocturnal frugivores in the tropical belt with respect to their present environment in the
Namdapha National Park. The modelling was done to produce distribution maps based on the
GPS locations collected from ground and with the help of bio-climatic variables. The distribution
maps are as shown below (Fig 2 – Fig 6). Jackknife validation was done and the Area under
curve (AUC) was found near to 0.99 making the model acceptable. The influence of the bio-
climatic variable for each species are mentioned in the table 5. We could build the maps only to
5 species.
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Table 5: Showing the important bioclimatic variable influencing the species
distribution
S.No: Species Influencing
Bio-climatic variable
Percent Contribution Permutation Importance
1. Common Palm Civet Bio2* 37.3 73.7
2. Large Indian Civet Bio2* 52.4 70.2
3. Masked Palm Civet Bio3** 24.1 20.6
4. Red Giant Gliding Squirrel Bio3** 25.3 29.7
5. Bengal Slow Loris Bio2* 48.5 32.9
*Bio 2 is Mean diurnal range (mean of monthly max. and min. temp.)
**Bio 3 is Isothermality
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Fig 2: Showing the possible distribution pattern on Common palm civet.
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Fig 3: Showing the possible distribution pattern on Large Indian Civet.
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Fig 4: Showing the possible distribution pattern on Masked palm civet.
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Fig 5: Showing the possible distribution pattern on Red Giant Gliding Squirrel.
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Fig 6: Showing the possible distribution pattern on Bengal Slow Loris.
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Discussion:
Feeding:
In the present study, as the encounter rates of the species were less (discussed in
objective 3) and thus the data collected was not much. And as such, final conclusions on the
feeding habits can’t be completely drawn. Through this study, it was understood that the gliding
squirrels seemed to be much frugivorous in comparison to civets. There was very less data
collected on Bengal slow Loris. So, we have not included the species in discussion with regard to
diet.
All the species seemed to be highly frugivorous seasonally. Whereas the civets
depended on animal matter in summer season. Similar observations were made for masked
palm civet from Japan (see. Matsuo & Ochiai, 2009). Even in case of observations made for
Common palm civet in Kerala of India, It was observed that the species fed mostly on fruit
matter followed by animal matters (Jotish, 2011). Also, civets i.e., Binturong in general are
termed as hypo carnivores which depends upon a lot of fruit and animal matters (Prater
1971, Lambert 1990). All these observations support our observations. Also, fig dependency
by civets was observed along with gliding squirrels in summer and winter seasons. High
level of Fig dependency was even doubted in case of civet species like Binturong in a study
conducted by Murali et. al., 2013. In this study, it was observed that the binturong heavily
depended on fig species in winter in Namdapha National Park. The gliding squirrels were
highly frugivorous seasonally. They depended on resins, flowers along with young and
mature leaves during the fruit deficit seasons (Personal observation) making it a strong
frugivores seasonally.
Distribution:
The species was found to be distributed along the river and in the Hornbill, Haldibari
and Happy valley areas of the park which fall under tropical belt. These areas too harbour
the tree species that are mostly fed upon by these nocturnal frugivores. Most portions
towards the northeast portion of the park fall under temperate and alpine scrubs, And thus
the species distribution doesn’t appear to fall under this region. Also, no point location data
was collected from that regions as these regions remain mostly inaccessible. Moreover, our
predictive modelling distribution maps were based on the ground thruthing data that signifies
the authenticity of the final outputs.
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Objective 2.
Drivers involved in hunting of nocturnal frugivores in Namdapha
National Park.
Methods:
Hunting and use pattern:
Snowball sampling approach (Goodman, 1961) was used in which, a hunter was asked to
introduce to other hunter and a traditional healer to another. The hunter and traditional
healers initially in the community were selected through the suggestions from village head-
man. Thus the focus of this study was not to quantifying hunting but to examine the practice
of hunting and to know the use pattern in the park. Animal species hunted were identified by
using the mammals of India book (With coloured photographs). The questionnaire survey
was followed to get further information as mentioned below.
Questionnaire Survey:
In this method, semi structured interviews were conducted to know the quick responses on
the methods of hunting, Season of hunting, purpose of hunting, preferences among the
nocturnal mammals, use pattern such as for cultural, bush-meat and trade. Mostly the
surveys were conducted during the evenings when locals are free from their work.
(Questionnaire attached as appendix I)
Results:
A total of 17 ex-hunters and 9 traditional healers were interviewed from 5 villages which
included Chakma, Lisu and Miju-mishmi people. The hunters preferred local guns for hunting
followed by snare and mentioned monsoon and winter as their favourable hunting season.
Traditional healers explained the use pattern of the nocturnal frugivores and the uses are
mentioned in table 6. No differentiation on the use pattern of the species are mentioned
separately in the table tribe wise as the tribes have common beliefs in most of the cases.
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Table 6: List of Animals hunted and their use as collected from our questionnaire
based survey
S.No: Species Use Season of use Other Comments
1. Red giant gliding squirrel
Bush meat & ethno-zoological
Throughout the year
Kernels of Oryza spp. are stored in the urine and are consumed for the treatment of kidney stones.
2. Particolored gliding squirrel Bushmeat Throughout the
year ---
3. Binturong Bushmeat & cultural use Winter
The hair of the species is tied to the waist of the children on Thursdays to treat fever and also from evil spirits.
4. Common palm civet Bushmeat Winter Hunted in winter as the species odour remains less due to fat deposit
5. Masked palm civet Bushmeat Winter Hunted in winter as the species odour remains less due to fat deposit
6. Large Indian civet Bushmeat Winter Hunted in winter as the species odour remains less due to fat deposit
7. Bengal slow loris Bush meat & ethno-zoological
Throughout the year
Skin and hair used in healing the cuts and wounds
Discussion:
Hunting of wildlife is a long back practice in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The
tribals have a long history of hunting and dependency on various wildlife species as a source
of bushmeat (Aiyadurai, 2007). It was also observed that the wildlife species is hunted as a
part of bush-meat collection, sport hunting and for ritual and ethno-zoological purposes.
Wildlife plays an important role in ethno-zoological purposes in the tribal states of Northeast
India and Southeast Asia in general (see-Alves et al. 2010). In the present study, it was
observed that the civets were mostly hunted as a part of bushmeat. The species were
hunted in winter and the reason for preference in winter is due to its bulkiness and the
species emit less smell in the season. Also, the hunters used local guns and snare traps to
kill and trap the species respectively. Some have even reported to use catapults for killing
the gliding squirrels.
The ethno-zoological use of the gliding squirrels was observed in the study area.
However, the decline in hunting practice and due to strict orders from the Gaon Buras
21
(village head-men), the people were not interested in sharing the information. Also, the forest
department has laid strict orders on hunting thus bringing down the hunting practice in the
protected area. The use of slow loris skin and hair in the treatment of wounds was observed.
Old skins of slow loris were observed in the villages. The use of slow loris in ethno-
zoological purposes and as taboos is noted in few south-east Asian countries also (See
Nijman & Nekaris, 2014). The main reason for the practice of wildlife hunting in the park is
due to many socio-economic aspects. This can be better understood through Datta’s popular book chapter on Threatened Forests and Forgotten people Pages 165-199.
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Objective 3.
Status of few nocturnal frugivores (additional objective)
Methods:
Spotlight count method (Lee et al., 1993; Ray et al., 2012) was used in the established
permanent trails in the different study areas. In this method, nocturnal mammals were
counted 2-4 nights per month in a season between 1800-2400 hrs – when the nocturnal
mammals seem to be most active. Nocturnal mammals were detected by an orange/red
reflection produced from its eyes (Barrett, 1984; Lee et al., 1986). Also, on confirmation of
animal, attempt was made to identify the species.
Encounter Rates: The encounter rate was calculated as the number of gliding squirrels
sighted per kilometre of trail walked by following the method of Sutherland (2002).
Results:
Out of 14 trails with walking effort of 48 km, it was observed that the encounter rates were
high in case of Red giant gliding squirrel (1.3 individuals/km) followed by particolored gliding
squirrel and the least encounter rates were observed for Small and Large Indian Civets (0.1
individuals/km each) (Table 7). The encounter rates were calculated for only winter season.
Table 7: Encounter rates of different nocturnal species:
S.No Species Trail length (Km)
Total Walking effort (Km)
Encounter rate (Individuals/km)
1. Red giant gliding squirrel 14 48 1.3
2. Particolored gliding squirrel 14 48 0.9
3. Common palm civet 14 48 0.2
4. Masked palm civet 14 48 0.2
5. Small Indian civet 14 48 0.1
6. Large Indian civet 14 48 0.1
7 Bengal slow loris 14 48 0.4
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Discussion:
Namdapha National Park was threatened in the past due to hunting practices. Low
encounter rates were observed in the previous studies conducted by Datta et al., (2008).
Currently, due to the ban on hunting in the surrounding villages along with the strict orders of
forest department has brought down hunting pressure. However, hunting still gets unnoticed
in few areas especially in rainy season. The reason is the lack for forest department staff
and though topography along with harsh climatic conditions. Also, lack of basic medical
facilities make the tribals to depend on the wildlife for various purposes.
The encounter rates were observed high for Red giant gliding squirrel followed by
Particolored gliding squirrels. This can be compared to various studies around the world.
The reasons in variations in encounter rate could be habitat quality, type, survey season etc.
(Table 8). Also, less encounter rates were observed for the civet species. Similar
observations were made by Datta et al., (2008) in the study area through camera trapping
surveys. The reasons for less encounter rates could be due to historic hunting practice.
Table 8: Encounter rates of Giant gliding squirrels observed in different studies
till date:
Study Site Species Encounter rate (individuals/km)
Source
Chitou Experimental
Forest
Red giant gliding Squirrel
(P. petaurista)
0.47 (Conifer Forest)
1.96 (Hardwood forest)
Lee et al., 1993
Assam and Meghalaya,
India
Red giant gliding Squirrel
(P. petaurista)
0.10 - 0.77 (Various forest
types)
Radhakrishna et al.,
2006
Khao Ang Rue Nai
Wildlife Sanctuary,
Eastern Thailand
Red giant gliding Squirrel
(P. petaurista)
0.36 (Primary forest) Plisoungnoen et al.,
2010
Joypore Reserve Forest,
Assam, India
Red giant gliding Squirrel
(P. petaurista)
0.85 Ray et al., 2012
Western Ghats, India Brown giant gliding
squirrel (Petaurista
phillipensis)
0.55 Kumara & Singh
2004
Western Ghats, India Brown giant gliding
squirrel (P. phillipensis)
0.28 (Brahmagiri-Makut)
0.03 (Pushpagiri-Bisale)
Kumara & Singh
2006
24
0.29 (Sirsi-Honnavara)
1.33 (Nagarahole)
Western Ghats, India Brown giant gliding
squirrel (P. phillipensis)
1.5 (Cardamom plantations)
1.29 (Moist deciduous forest)
0.7 (Evergreen forest)
0.3 (Coffee plantations)
None (Teak Forest)
Ashraf et al., 1993.
Forest fragments of
Western Ghats, India
Brown giant gliding
squirrel (P. phillipensis)
0.1 (forest edges)
3.92 (forest interiors)
5.62 (Coffee plantations)
Nandini &
Parthasarathy, 2008.
Tropical Deciduous
forests, Rajasthan, India
Brown giant gliding
squirrel (P. phillipensis)
0.05 Koli et al., 2013
Final Words:
Local authority of Namdapha National Park i.e. the forest department being the
primary organization along with the support of local, regional and national level Non-
Government Organizations (NGOs) and researchers and scientists working in around the
park are the first hands to provide support for conservation and management of park’s
wildlife. Also, they should be involved in spreading the awareness about wildlife importance
among the local communities apart from educating them. The foresaid groups and
organizations have to highlight the importance of the area at broader scale leading to
advertise the Namdapha National Park to be a best destination for wildlife and nature
tourism. It will help in generating the employment as well as improving livelihood standard of
local people if this boosts the tourists to reach this area. The more the tourists the more the
employment leading to species conservation. Species conservation is nowhere. It is in our
hands if properly taken care.
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Photo Plates:
A view of Namdapha National Park
A trail that was surveyed
A Red giant gliding squirrel.
26
A Binturong over a Ficus drupeace tree A Common Palm
A Masked Palm Civet A Particolored gliding squirrel feeding
over Neolamarkiana cadamba fruit
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Other Wildlife & Skins Sighted during the Survey in the park and in the villages
A Bengal Slow Loris skin with hair seen
during the village survey
A Bengal slow Loris
A Barking deer A Leopard Cat
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Few fruit species fed by Nocturnal frugivores
Artocarpus sp. fed by the particolored
gliding squirrel
Ficus rumphii
Unripe Neolamarckia cadamba fruits fed by
the gliding squirrels Comparison among figs of different
species.
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People at Work
PI (Murali Krishna) at work
The team Video-graphing the species
in the night The team during the night walk (to the
left Erebo Chakma and towards the right Tinku Chakma)
The team in the morning (on the left Parimal Ray, PI in the
middle & on right Erebo Chakma) under a huge fig tree
A tough river crossing
Bironjay Basumatary holding the search lights during the survey
An elephant hired to carry the luggage for
camping inside the jungle
Along with village heads men of 32nd mile village
Along with Research officer (Tajum
Yomcha) of Namdapha National Park before the start of the night survey
With Kuladip (right) before the start
of survey.
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Alves, R.R.N., Souto, W.M.S. & Barboza, R.R.D. (2010). Primates in traditional folk
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Region. CEPF Grant, July 2011.
Arunachalam, A., Sarmah, R., Adhikari, D., Majumder, M. & Khan M.L. (2004).
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Ashraf, N.V.K., Kumar, A., & Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1993). On the relative abundance of the two
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