Page 1
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, SOITS,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Lesson No.: 1 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma
Understanding Environment
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Need for Environmental Awareness
1.4 Importance of the Environment
1.5 Components of the Environment
1.6 Major Global Environmental Issues
1.7 Environment Management Systems
1.8 Summary
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Self Assessment Questions
1.11 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
define the term environment;
explain the need for environmental awareness;
describe the importance of environment; and
explain some global environmental issues.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The planet Earth is the only planet that supports life. The earth provides us with so many
resources that we directly benefit from. Human beings interact with nature and vice-versa. In
ancient times, our environment was pure and pristine. The plants, animals and humans lived in a
Page 2
healthy environment that was free of pollution and contamination. This is not the case today.
Further, before the year 1900, no city of five million existed. Our populations have increased
dramatically over the years and the various technologies that we use presently require increased
inputs of energy, space and resources. The tremendous impact of human activities has changed
the physical environment and has put it out of balance with nature. The degradation of the
environment has further accelerated due to industrial activities and industrial revolution. This
industrial revolution has improved the quality of life on hand but at the same time it has caused
serious impacts on the earth‟s environment and living beings. Human beings exploit the
environment in different ways and we need to understand that this has upset the natural
environment. Several industrial accidents such as the Bhopal gas tragedy, Chernobyl disaster,
Fukushima Daiichi disaster and so on have occurred due to industrial reasons. The problems
faced today are directly or indirectly related to the environment and sustainable solutions need a
sound environmental knowledge. Anthropogenic factors have degraded our environment and
there is a need for scientific awareness, assessment, monitoring and early warning. It is thus
important to sensitize environmental issues right from school children to adults. Presently, the
issues such as global warming, climate change, pollution and natural resource depletion
increasingly require the expertise from different disciplines for addressing these problems.
Understanding our environment and the processes that control it is very important. We need to
adopt sustainable solutions that accommodate the present social, economic and cultural needs
without compromising those of the future generations.
Scope of Environmental Science
Environmental Sciences is a compilation of numerous subjects. Its scope is enormous and the
subject requires a sound knowledge of biology, geology, chemistry, mathematics, physics,
biochemistry, statistics, microbiology, genetics and biotechnology, social sciences, economics,
management practices and strategies, engineering and technological aspects, agricultural
sciences and computer applications. This way it is an interdisciplinary subject. The subject‟s
specializations include: Environmental sciences, environmental geology, environmental
chemistry, environmental microbiology, environmental biotechnology, environmental
economics, environmental management, environmental engineering, and so on.
Page 3
1.2 DEFINITIONS
Let us now learn some definitions related to environment.
Environment: The term environment means surroundings. Our environment is the entire web of
biological and physical interactions, which characterize the relationships between life and
the earth.
Environmental Sciences: It is an interdisciplinary subject and involves the study of various
subjects in relation to the environment. It helps in understanding a scientific basis for
establishing standards for acceptably clean, safe, healthy environment for humans and the
natural ecosystem. Environmental science starts by understanding how the natural world
in which we live works.
Environmental Engineering: This involves the study of the technical processes that are used to
minimise pollution.
The Environment Protection Act: This act was approved by the Government of India in 1986. It
defines the environment as the sum total of water, air, land, the interrelationships among
themselves, with human beings and with other organisms and property.
Ecosystem: Basic functional unit of organisms and their environment, interacting with each other
and within their own components.
1.3 NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
Let us now learn how developing awareness to environmental issues is the first step to achieving
sustainable development. The following paragraphs will explain this clearly.
1.3.1 Awareness
Every day we use so many things for our living. We throw so much trash at home in our offices
and so on. Have you ever wondered where all this trash goes? Why is trash not segregated right
from the collection points in each Indian city? In developed countries there are separate bins
marked for textiles, white glass bottles, coloured glass bottles, kitchen wastes, electronic wastes
and so on. There is a heavy fine imposed when trash is not disposed off properly. In some
countries people can be even imprisoned for this. Therefore, environmental awareness among
Page 4
people is important and it involves developing an understanding towards environmental
problems. Each of our actions count such as the way we respond to our environment, using our
resources carefully and adopting eco-friendly lifestyles. In olden days our forefathers resourced
only so much material from nature what was essential to them, thereby conserving the precious
natural resources. But, during the past few years, there has been a gradual decline in our natural
resources and the quality of our environment. We have put an increasing stress on nature, with
growing demands for food, water, mineral and energy due to increasing population and changing
lifestyles. Environmental problems, issues and challenges are complex and multifaceted. The
survival and progress of a country depends on the sustainable use of resources. An example
worth emulating is the government of Himachal that imposed a ban on plastics in 1998 and today
polythene and plastic bags are not seen in the whole state. Sikkim became the first state in 2016
to ban the use of single use plastics. More states need to follow such examples. It shows the role
of public cooperation with the government in conserving the environment. In the same way solid
wastes need to be managed well. Industries should also treat the industrial wastes and dispose
them in a proper way.
The book Silent Spring (1962), authored by the famous biologist writer and ecologist
Rachel Carson triggered the environmental awareness movement all over the world. Carson's
work showed that residues of DDT used as pesticide and other chemicals used to enhance
agricultural productivity were toxic. It warned the general public about the long-term effects of
misusing pesticides. Her work challenged the practices of the agricultural scientists and the
government and called for a change in the way we perceive nature. This was coupled with the
major oil spills and threats to endangered species. To address these problems various
environment conferences were held and the subject received worldwide attention and
importance. The Stockholm Conference on Human Environment (Sweden, 1972), The
conference held at Rio de Janeiro, 1992 by the United Nations on Environment and Development
(UNCED), The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002), are some
conferences that have made the public aware regarding the deterioration of the environment of
our earth.
It is understood that there have been five major mass extinctions on our planet. Each of
these major events was characterized by the end of dominant life forms. These include the
Page 5
extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period. Then life
evolved again and new species developed their new niches. Edward Wilson, biologist, believes
that human beings will be responsible for precipitating the sixth mass extinction event (Wilson,
2002). If the present trends continue, then it is possible that almost 50 % of all species will
become extinct within the next hundred years. Therefore, there is a strong need to change our
living styles, attitude towards our environment and living beings and measure the impacts of our
activities for betterment.
1.3.2 Indian Government and the Environment
As far as the Indian context is concerned, the most fundamental feature of India‟s ancient
philosophy is our respect for the environment. In India, environmental protection and the using
resources sustainably started in the 1970‟s. The Fourth five-year plan (1968 – 73) recognized the
need to integrate the environmental perspectives in planning and developmental processes. In
1970, the Government under the chairmanship of Sh. Pitambar Pant set up the Committee on
Human Environment for preparing a country report for the UN Conference on Human
Environment to be held in Sweden in 1972. Following this, a National Committee on
Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) was set up in 1972 in response to the Pant
Committee recommendations. In 1980, the Tiwari Committee was constituted for recommending
the legislative measures and administrative policies to bring about environmental protection.
Following the recommendations of this committee, the Government of India constituted the
Department of Environment effective from November 1st 1980 to be responsible for all matters
relating to the environment. Then, finally in 1985, a fully-fledged Ministry of Environment and
Forests was constituted to coordinate the environmental matters at the national level.
It may be relevant to mention here that, our country is one of the very few countries that
have provided constitutional safeguards for the preservation and protection of the environment.
Article 48 A and 51 A (g) in the section on directive principles of state policies in The Indian
Constitution, approved in the year 1976 states that the “State shall endeavour to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife in the country and to protect
and improve the natural environment including the forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have
Page 6
compassion for the living creatures.” Despite this the importance of Environmental Studies was
not recognized in the Indian curriculum. Hence, the Honourable Supreme Court of India in 1991,
on a public litigation interest filed by Sh. M.C. Mehta in 1988, made it mandatory to include the
subject environmental studies in all the universities and colleges. This was basically to create
environmental awareness among the Indian citizens.
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Our environment provides us with so many natural resources such as water, forest, biodiversity
and so on. The ecosystem provides us with services and products. The services provided include
provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. The provisioning services include the
various products that we obtain for fuel, food, water and genetic resources. The regulating
services provided to us include the climate regulation, biogeochemical cycling of elements, water
purification services and so on. The cultural services are those provided to us for our recreation,
tourism, spiritual and aesthetic purposes. The supporting services provided include those such as
production of oxygen, and soil formation processes. In this way the environment is of utmost
importance to all organisms and humans.
1.5 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
We have learnt that the environment is everything that surrounds us and its importance for all
species on the earth. Now let us learn about the various components of the environment and how
they are beneficial for our survival.
1.5.1 Ecosystem
The environment consists of the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the hydrosphere. The
surface of the Earth is called the biosphere and is composed of smaller units called the
ecosystems. An Ecosystem consists of all the life forms and the non-living environment found in
a particular place. An ecosystem comprises of a community of living organisms such as plants,
Page 7
animals, microbes (biotic) along with the nonliving (abiotic) components of the environment
such as air, soil, and so on interacting together as a system. The living and nonliving components
of the environment interact through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Each organism depends in
some way on other living and nonliving things in its environment. They can be large or small.
The Earth hosts a variety of life forms and the surface of the Earth, as a whole is an ecosystem.
The study of natural ecosystems will help us to understand the interrelations between living
beings and the environment and how the impact of human beings is influencing the natural
world. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.
The atmosphere, solar energy, and our planet‟s magnetic fields support life on Earth. The
atmosphere absorbs the energy from the Sun, recycles water and other nutrients, and works with
the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects us
from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space. Without water, the elixir of life, the
biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth would not be possible. Water is vital for all living
beings. The solid component of the upper part of earth is called the lithosphere. Soil is the
uppermost layer of the lithosphere. The surface of the Earth (air, water and land) is called the
biosphere.
1.5.2 Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the outer most layer of the earth consisting of crust and the uppermost mantle.
They comprise the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth. There are two types of crust. They are
continental and oceanic crust. The continental crust contains a variety of rocks such as igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is lighter than the oceanic crust and older than oceanic
plates. These rocks are derived from the upper mantle. The oceanic crust is much younger as it is
constantly being formed at spreading zones and recycled in subduction zones. New oceanic crust
forms when crustal plates separate. Molten rock from the upper mantle that has collected in
magma chambers oozes onto the ocean floor forming a layer of rocks between the spreading
plates. This is the newest and youngest crust on the surface of the Earth. The crust consists of
rocks and soil which are very important to life. Soil consists of inorganic and organic matter. The
minerals such potassium, calcium, silicon, iron, manganese, and so on can be present in soil.
Page 8
Organic constituents such as polysaccharides, compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur are
all found in soil and in soil fertility. Various industrial processes have polluted the soil and
contaminated the food we eat with heavy metals and other hazardous chemicals.
1.5.3 Hydrosphere
Our planet has abundant water resources on its surface. Liquid water is not found on other
planets, the cosmos, the sun or interstellar space. Water is possible only on a planet of the right
mass and chemical composition and at the right distance from the sun. Water is essential for life
and without water there will be no life forms. The earth surface is approximately 510 million
square km; 362 million is covered by water and 325 million square km by open oceans. The total
amount of water on the Earth is 1.5 billion square km out of which 97 % is marine water. Water
forms two important aquatic environments, the fresh water and marine respectively. Water is
vital for all living beings, in the formation of soil and so on. Water has different residence times
in various reservoirs and the largest reservoir is the oceans. The residence time is the average
time a substance stays within a specified region of space, such as a reservoir. For example, the
residence time of water stored in deep groundwater, is approximately 10,000 years. The
hydrologic cycle or the water cycle describes the storage and movement of water between the
hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. Water can be stored in any one of the
following reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and
groundwater. Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs
through the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. All the biochemical reactions are
dependent on water in our body. Two important sources of water are the surface and ground
water. The process of taking water from these sources is known as water withdrawal and the
water thus consumed and not returned is known as water consumption. Pollutants disturbing
water bodies are domestic wastes or sewage, pesticides, industrial wastes, plastics, polythene,
solid wastes, dead organic matter, acidic material, mine tailings, dyes etc. All the environmental
pollutants in fresh water ultimately end up in the sea. Seventy-seven percent of the pollutants in
the ocean come from the combined input of land runoff and atmospheric deposition. Only 12%
of the ocean's pollutants come from shipping accidents while 10% are from ocean dumping.
Page 9
1.5.4 Atmosphere
Atmosphere in Greek is „atmos‟ meaning vapour and „sphaira‟ meaning sphere. It is a layer
of gases surrounding the earth. The earth‟ atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, along with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts. Oxygen is
essential for living organisms for respiration. Certain bacteria are able to fix nitrogen in the
presence of lightening to produce ammonia which is used in the formation of basic building
blocks such as nucleotides and amino acids. Carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis by plants,
cyanobacteria and so on. The atmosphere shelters organisms from genetic damage from the sun‟s
ultraviolet radiations and cosmic rays. The present composition of the Earth's atmosphere is the
product of billions of years of biochemical transformations over geological time by the earth‟s
organisms. The atmosphere is comprised of different layers based on temperature. These layers are the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The region at about 500 km above the Earth's
surface is called the exosphere. These layers possess differences in their composition, temperature and
pressure. The lowest layer is the troposphere and 3/4th
of the earth‟s atmospheric mass resides
within the troposphere. It is this layer where the earth‟s weather develops. The depth of this layer
is approximately 17 km at the equator and 7 km at the poles. The stratosphere extends from the
top of the troposphere to the bottom of the mesosphere. It contains the ozone layer at altitudes 15
- 35 km. It is here that most of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed. The top of the
mesosphere ranges 50 - 85 km and here most meteors burn. The thermosphere extends from
85 km to the base of the exosphere at 690 km. This consists of the ionosphere and here the
atmosphere is ionized by incoming solar radiation. Finally, the exosphere starts from 690 -
1,000 km above the surface, where it interacts with the earth‟s magnetosphere.
1.5.5 Biosphere
The term biosphere comes from the Greek word „bios‟ meaning life and „sphaira‟ meaning
sphere. It is also known as ecosphere. This is the segment of the Earth where life exists. It was
named so by the geologist Eduard Suess in 1875. He defined biosphere as the place on Earth's
surface where life dwells. This layer extends up to 10 km above sea level and to depths of the
ocean more than 8 km deep. The biosphere is the global ecological system which integrates all
Page 10
organisms, their interrelationships with other and with the earth‟s different segments such as
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Therefore, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating
systems containing ecosystems. Biospheres do not exist on any other planet or in extraterrestrial
space.
1.6 MAJOR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Air and water pollution, soil degradation, deforestation, desertification, shrinking wetlands,
inadequate public health and sanitation, water scarcity, falling groundwater tables, over
extraction of water for irrigation purposes are some of the global environmental problems.
Environmental degradation, poverty and economic development are closely inter-linked. An
important factor contributing to environmental degradation is the overuse and misuse of the
common property resources (for example, oceans, air, which is free of cost and owned by
nobody). This was referred to as the tragedy of the commons by biologist Garret Hardin, 1968.
Conservation of precious natural resources is important as they may take millions of years to
form.
1.6.1 Environmental degradation
It is the damage to our biosphere as a whole due to anthropogenic activities. It results when our
resources are being consumed at a faster rate than nature can replenish them, when heavy
pollution results in degradation and when man destroys ecosystems in the process of
development. The end result of unsustainable development is desertification, deforestation,
declining standards of living, the extinctions of large numbers of species, health problems,
conflicts for dwindling resources, water scarcity and many other major social, economic and
political problems. Environmental degradation would culminate in environments that are no
longer able to sustain human populations. An unsustainable situation occurs when total of
nature's resources is used up faster than it can be replenished. This situation will result in a total
collapse of our earth systems or most popularly as the `dooms day` as described by Meadows et
al in their famous „The Limits to Growth‟, 1972. The goal of environmental sustainability is to
Page 11
minimize these and other causes, to stop and reverse the processes they lead to. Sustainability
requires that we use nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally.
Some of the key environmental problems that lead to degradation include the following:
Rapid population growth
Rapid consumption of resources
Little emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction strategies
Degradation of parts of the earth‟s life support systems
Poverty, which drives poor people to use renewable resources unsustainably
Failure of economic and political systems to encourage sustainable development
Management of our environment with little knowledge about how ecosystems work
Some major environmental problems in India include:
Land degradation, deforestation practices
Air, soil, water pollution, hazardous wastes and improper solid waste disposal
Unplanned power generation, shortage of electricity and power quality and quantity
The loss of wildlife
Destruction and erosion of genetic resources (crop, animal, fish, tree genetic resources)
Major global environmental problems include global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion,
acid precipitation, deforestation, hazardous waste, increasing human population, threat to
biodiversity and depletion of our energy resources. Also, the impacts of mining, construction
of dams and their socio-economic aspects, pollution and waste management are very
important environmental issues. It is important for us to understand the transport and fate of
pollutants and toxins in air/water/soil. Proper management of the environment includes the
conservation and enhancement of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological processes and
life support systems essential for a functional biosphere, sustainable management practices.
Activity
1. Make an observation of your surroundings.
2. Is it polluted? Do people complain of health problems?
3. Are there any steps taken to control the pollution by the authorities?
Page 12
1.6.2 Global warming and Greenhouse effect
The earth receives energy from the sun, which warms the earth‟s surface. As this energy passes
through the atmosphere, a certain percentage (about 34%) gets scattered called albedo. Some part
of this energy is reflected back into the atmosphere from the land and ocean surface. The rest
(66%) remains to heat the earth (Fig 6.1). In order to establish a balance, the earth must radiate
some energy back into the atmosphere. As the earth is much cooler than the sun, it does not emit
energy as visible light but emits through infrared or thermal radiation. However, certain gases in
the atmosphere form a sort of blanket around the earth and absorb some of this energy emitted
back into the atmosphere. Without this blanket effect, our earth would be around 30°C colder
than it normally is. These gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, along with
water vapour, comprise less than one per cent of the atmosphere. They are called 'greenhouse
gases' as the working principle is same as that which occurs in a greenhouse. The greenhouse gas
layer functions like a green glass house, where the glass allows sunlight to come in but prevent
the heat from going out. Glass easily transmits short wave length solar energy into the
greenhouse and is almost opaque to the longer wavelengths radiated by the interiors of the
greenhouse. This trapping of the radiation is responsible for the increased temperatures inside the
greenhouse. This phenomenon is known as the green house effect and this process results in
warming the air in the lower layers leading to global warming. This gas blanket has been in place
ever since the creation of the earth. Since the industrial revolution human activities have been
releasing more and more of these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This leads to the blanket
becoming thicker and upsets the „natural greenhouse effect‟. The resulting enhanced greenhouse
effect is more commonly referred to as global warming or climate change. The most important
green house gases are CO2, methane, Chlorofluorocarbons and nitrous oxide. Scientists predict
1.5 - 4.5°C increase in temperatures by 2100. This may result in glaciers melting, sea levels
rising, and redistribution of dry and wet regions.
Atmospheric CO2 levels have been increasing at an alarming rate since 1970. During the
pre-industrial era, the amount of carbon dioxide remained constant but now it has increased from
250 to 411 ppm. Economic activity, technology and population explosion are driving factors in
enhancing global warming. It may reach 450 ppm by 2040. This will increase the earth‟s
temperature. The Kyoto protocol formulated in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, entered into
Page 13
force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the protocol. The main aim is to
control emissions of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in ways that reflect underlying national
differences in green house gas emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions.
Table 1 The Major greenhouse gases, their sources and atmospheric concentration
Major Green house
Gases
Atmospheric
concentration (ppb)
Sources
Carbon dioxide 375,000 Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation
Methane 1,850 Swamps, marshes, paddy fields,
wetlands, livestock, natural gas leaks,
fermentation from enteric processes of
animals, biomass burning
Nitrous oxide 316 Fertilizers, fossil fuels, biomass
burning
Chlorofluorocarbons
and halocarbons
1.2 Aerosols, plastic foams, industrial
solvents, air conditioning, refrigeration
(Source: Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2007)
Scientists predict that the greenhouse gases will increase the global average temperatures by
approximately 6 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of this century. Also extreme floods, droughts
and heat waves, are likely to occur with increasing frequencies. Some more effects likely to
occur include:
Climate-related diseases are likely to double by 2030.
Floods as a result of coastal storm surges can affect people.
Rapid loss of biodiversity and a decline in natural resources.
Changes in the rainfall and monsoon patterns.
Melting of ice caps and glaciers.
Thermal expansion of the oceans and the sea level rise.
Climate change can cause disastrous effects on the ecosystems.
Disruption of marine ecosystems and flooding of the coastal wetlands.
Page 14
Frequent storms in many regions where storms were never experienced.
Floods can result in the spread of infectious diseases.
Groundwater can become contaminated.
1.6.3 Acid rain
Another common effect of air pollution is acid rain. When rainwater goes below a pH of 5.6, it is
called acid rain as normal rainwater has a pH of 5.6 due to the dissolution of CO2 in rainwater.
The phenomenon occurs when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil
fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and fall as
acidic rain, snow or fog. These gases can also be emitted from natural sources like volcanoes.
Acid rain causes extensive damage to water, forest, soil resources and even human health. They
can be wet depositions, where the acidic substances are dissolved in rain, dew, fog, snow and dry
depositions, where acidic particulate matter in dry form can be deposited on vegetation,
monuments etc. Acid rain mobilizes heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, calcium etc in soils,
rocks, sediments that are slowly leached and enter the surface water bodies. Many lakes and
streams have been contaminated and this has led to the disappearance of some species of fish in
Europe, USA and Canada as also extensive damage to forests and other forms of life. It is said
that it can corrode buildings, monuments and be hazardous to human health. Because the
contaminants are carried long distances, the sources of acid rain are difficult to pinpoint and
hence difficult to control. For example, the acid rain that may have damaged some forest in
Canada could have originated in the industrial areas of USA.
1.6.4 Ozone layer depletion
Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen and is a strong oxidant. It derives its name from the Greek
word ozein meaning smell as it has a pungent smell in a concentrated form. About 90 % of the
ozone in the atmosphere is present in the stratosphere. This protective ozone is formed as a
product of a photochemical equilibrium. Ozone is being continuously formed in the stratosphere
by the absorption of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and is also removed by chemical
reactions converting it back to molecular oxygen. The balance between creation and removal is
affected by increasing stratospheric concentrations of chlorine, nitrogen and bromine, which act
Page 15
as catalysts speeding up the removal process. The most prominent ozone destructive gases are
the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are very stable compounds, relatively unaffected by the
usual pollutant removal process in the troposphere. CFC molecules can be broken by ultraviolet
radiation freeing the chlorine that is available to destroy ozone. Ozone can be removed from the
stratosphere by catalytic reactions involving chlorine, nitrogen, hydrogen oxides or bromines. It
is the enhancement of these reactions by anthropogenic activities that are of concern. Ultraviolet
radiations are of three kinds UV-A (320 - 400 nm), UV-B (280 - 320 nm) and UV-C (200 - 280
nm). Of these UV-B is known to be most damaging to biological systems. The ozone layer
present in the stratosphere filters out the harmful UV-B radiations from the Sun, thereby
protecting life on our earth. Pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), released from
refrigeration, air conditioning systems, solvents, plastic foams, aerosols, propellants destroy this
equilibrium and the ozone (O3) present in the stratosphere. The result is the thinning of the ozone
layer, particularly at the poles. In addition to reducing ozone concentrations, CFCs are
themselves potent greenhouse gases and trap an enormous amount of heat. In addition the
supersonic aircrafts flying at stratospheric heights can cause major disturbances in the ozone
layer. In spite of the slow vertical mixing of pollutants some of the pollutants like CFCs enter the
stratosphere and remain there for many years until they are converted to other products. They
stay for about 60 -100 years in the stratosphere. This results in depletion of the layer.
1.7 ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)
Environmental management and economic development are mutually supportive aspects of the
same agenda. The ISO 14001 (International Organization for Standardization, Geneva) defines it
“as the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities,
responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources for developing, implementing,
achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental policy”. The ISO 14001 environmental
management system standard is the most widely recognized EMS framework and more than
12,000 entities have had their EMSs certified conforming to ISO 14001.
1.7.1 Objectives of Environmental Management
To protect of the environment
Page 16
To promote the prudent use of natural resources
To increase awareness among residents, establishments, institutions, the general public of
the value and importance of the environment
To actively promote environmental policies in all aspects of management and its
implementation.
Some important organizations in India working in the field of environment
There are several leading NGO‟s in India working on different issues in the field of environment
where they have developed expertise. The Centre for Science and Environment is one of India‟s
leading environmental NGO with a deep interest in sustainable natural resource management and
they bring out a bimonthly magazine, Down to earth where current environmental issues are
brought to the notice of the general public. TERI is an organization based in New Delhi. Their
main focus is on efficient utilization of energy, sustainable use of natural resources, large-scale
adoption of renewable energy technologies and the reduction of all forms of waste working for
development towards sustainability. Some of the other important government organizations
devoted to environmental management in India are the Geological Survey of India, Botanical
survey of India, Zoological survey of India, Forest Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India
(Dehradun), Environmental Protection Agency, Forest Research Institute (Dehradun), Bombay
Natural History Society (Mumbai) that bring out their magazine Hornbill, Salim Ali Institute for
Ornithology and Natural History (Coimbatore), etc.
Solutions to global environmental problems require both a through awareness and
knowledge of the problems. We have a moral obligation to keep our environment clean and free
from pollution and hand it over safely to our future generations.
1.8 SUMMARY
Page 17
In this unit we have studied about the term environment, the need for awareness and the
importance of our environment. We have also learnt about the different components of the
environment such as atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the hydrosphere and ecosystem.
The ecosystem consists of all the life forms and non-living things in a particular place. The study
of natural ecosystems will help us to understand the interrelations between living beings and the
environment and how the impact of human beings is influencing the natural world. The chapter
also introduces you to some major global environmental issues. Finally it introduces you to some
objectives of environmental management.
1.9 Key words
Ecosystem: It consists of all the life forms and the non-living environment found in a particular
place.
Lithosphere: It is the outer most layer of the earth consisting of crust and the uppermost mantle.
They comprise the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth.
Environmental degradation: It is the damage to our biosphere as a whole due to anthropogenic
activities.
Acid rain: When rainwater goes below a pH of 5.6, it is called acid rain.
CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon.
EMS: Environmental management system.
1.10 Self Assessment Questions
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Define environment and justify the need for public awareness on environmental issues.
2. Trace the history of environmental protection measures taken by Government of India.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Describe some major global environmental issues.
Page 18
2. What are the objectives of environmental management?
1.11 References and Suggested Further Readings
Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2007. Environmental Studies for Undergraduates, (First Edition) (As
per UGC notified syllabus) Unicorn Publishers, New Delhi, 363 pp. ISBN 978-81-7806-
132-0.
Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th
Edition, Pearson publication, 624 p.
Botkin, D.B., and Keller, E.A. (2010). Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J (2002). Environmental Science: Towards a sustainable future.
Prentice Hall.
Key to Self Assessment Questions
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Environment: The term environment means surroundings. Our environment is the entire
web of biological and physical interactions, which characterize the relationships between
life and the earth.
Environmental awareness among people is important and it involves developing an
understanding towards environmental problems. Each of our actions count such as the
way we respond to our environment, using our resources carefully and adopting eco-
friendly lifestyles. During the past few years, there has been a gradual decline in our
natural resources and the quality of our environment. We have put an increasing stress on
nature, with growing demands for food, water, mineral and energy due to increasing
population and changing lifestyles. Environmental problems, issues and challenges are
complex and multifaceted. The survival and progress of a country depends on the
sustainable use of resources.
Rachel Carson was responsible for triggering the environmental awareness movement.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
Page 19
The most fundamental feature of India‟s ancient philosophy is our respect for the
environment. The Fourth five-year plan recognized the need to integrate environmental
perspectives in planning and development. In 1970, the Government under the
chairmanship of Sh. Pitambar Pant set up the Committee on Human Environment for
preparing a country report for the UN Conference on Human Environment to be held in
Sweden in 1972. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination was
set up in 1972 in response to the Pant Committee recommendations. In 1980, the Tiwari
Committee was constituted for recommending the legislative measures and
administrative policies to bring about environmental protection. Department of
Environment was effective from November 1st 1980. The Ministry of Environment and
Forests was constituted in 1985 to coordinate the environmental matters at the national
level.
It may be relevant to mention here that, our country is one of the very few countries that
have provided constitutional safeguards for the preservation and protection of the
environment.
Key to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
To protect of the environment
To promote the prudent use of natural resources
To increase awareness among residents, establishments, institutions, the general public of
the value and importance of the environment
To actively promote environmental policies in all aspects of management and its
implementation.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
Environmental degradation
Global warming and Greenhouse effect
Acid rain
Ozone layer depletion
Page 20
Subject: Course: Environment Management
Course Code: CP-103 Author: Professor S.R. Gupta
Lesson No.: 2 Vetter:
HUMAN POPULATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON
ENVIRONMENT
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History of population Increase
2.3 Demography
2.4 Population Estimates and Projections
2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids
2.6 Population Implications on Environment
2.7 Summary
2.8 Key words
2.9 Self-assessment questions
2.10 References/Suggested readings
2.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you will be able to:
Understand History of population Increase
Population change, increase and Demographic Transition Model
Population growth, variation among nations, and Population Age Structure
Human Population Impact on Environment
Page 21
2.1 Introduction
Population in the world is currently growing at a rate of around 1.02% per year, the
current average population increase is estimated at 83 million people per year (UN
2017). The world population will continue to grow in the 21st century, but at
a much slower rate compared to the recent past (UN 2017). At present the world's
population is growing rapidly in developing countries, whereas the rate of
population increase has slowed down in industrially developed nations. The ever
increasing global human population has its impact on the environment. Natural
resources of the planet earth are finite, and there are greater risks from over-
population. Humans have used natural resources to fulfill their needs even at the
expanse of environmental degradation. Researchers have developed a mathematical
equation to describe the impact of human activity on the earth, revealing that
people are causing the climate to change 170 times faster than natural forces
(Steffen et al. 2015). Population pressures on the environment are changing
spatially and temporally, with marked implications for the planet‟s biodiversity and
economies (Venter et al. 2016). It has been found that 75% the planet‟s land surface
is experiencing human pressures especially in regions of high biodiversity (Venter
et al. 2016). Though earth has a capacity to support more people, in the long-run
there must be an upper limit of population growth.
2.2 History of Population Increase
The history of the human population growth can be viewed in four major periods
(Figure1). An early period of hunters and gatherers, in which human population
was probably less than a few millions. During the prehistoric era, the world
population was stable. During the neolithic transition, about 8,000BC, there was a
significant increase in population when humans began to farm and raise animals.
Page 22
The estimated world population was approximately five million, ''increasing to 50
million by 1000 B.C.' Until the Middle Ages, human populations were held in check
by diseases, famines and wars, and thus grew very slowly. By 1650, world
population had expanded about 50 times, i.e., from 10 million to 500 million.
.
During industrial revolution, there was improvement in healthcare and better food
supplies, which led to rapid increase in population. A tremendous change occurred
with the industrial revolution and human population reached one billion in 1820.
The trends in population increase beyond 1800 are summarized as follows:
Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of years.
In 1820 the world's population reached one billion.
In the early 1970s, the world's population reached three billion.
In October 1999, less than 30 years later, the population doubled to six
billion. This was an historic milestone in the growth of world population.
On October 31, 2011, world population reached seven billion
The human population to reached one billion in thousands of years , whereas only
200 years to reach 7 billion. Annual growth rate of human population reached its
peak in the late 1960s, when it was at around 2%. World population has doubled in
40 years from 1959 (three billion) to 1999 (six billion).
Page 23
Figure 1. World population growth through history, the graph shows the
extremely rapid growth in the world population that has taken place since
the 18th century. ( adapted from McFalls Jr., J.A . 2007.US Population
Reference Bureau).
2.2.1 Thomas Malthus and His Essay on Population
Thomas Robert Malthus was an English Economist who proposed a systematic
theory of population. In 1798, Malthus published his famous book, Essay on the
Principle of Population. According to Malthus, it is not possible to maintain a
rapidly growing population on a finite resource base. Populations are likely to
outgrow their food supplies. In Essay on the Principle of Population ,Malthus
proposes the principle that human populations grow exponentially (i.e., doubling
with each cycle, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32) while food production grows at an arithmetic rate (2,
4, 6, 8, 10). Malthus argued that human population growth is exponential while
natural resources (particularly food) are fixed, and their availability can only grow
linearly. Thus, he argued that unless the human population was regulated in some
Page 24
way, the population would surpass resource availability. This scenario of arithmetic
food growth with simultaneous exponential human population growth predicted a
future when humans would have no resources to survive leading to famine, disease,
and population collapse, known as the 'Malthusian catastrophe (Figure 2). To
avoid such a catastrophe, Malthus suggested controls on population growth.
Figure 2. The Malthusian growth model that predicts periodic catastrophe
with unchecked human population growth (https://www.e-
education.psu.edu/geog30/node/328)
The Malthusian Theory of Population has been criticized because mathematical
proposition is not supported by facts and history, undue emphasis has been placed
on the relation between population and food supply, the role of scientific discoveries
and inventions. The critics are of the view that new technologies and better
healthcare will continue to save human race from a Malthusian fate, and growth of
human population may not be reason to worry in nearby future.
2.3 DEMOGRAPHY
It is the study of the size, composition, and distribution of human populations and
the causes and consequences of changes in these characteristics. Specialists in this
field are called demographers. Human populations grow or decline through the
Page 25
interplay of three processes, i.e., births, deaths, and migration. These three
variables are the components of population change and are depicted in Figure 3.
Births - usually measured using the birth rate , demographers use the birth
rate, or crude birth rate (the number of live births per 1,000 people in a
population in a given year)
Deaths - usually measured using the death or crude death rate (the number of
deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year). (Number of deaths per
1,000 of the population per year).
Migration - the movement of people in and out of an area.
Page 26
Figure 3: The variables of population change.
2.3.1 Population change
It is calculated by subtracting the number of people leaving a population (through
death and emigration) from the number entering it through birth and immigration)
during a specified period of time (usually a year):
Population change = (Births+ Immigration)- (Deaths + Emigration)
Population gain
Population loss
HUMAN
POPULATION
Natural change
Migrational change
Births Immigration
Deaths Emigration
+ +
- -
Page 27
Births minus deaths constitute natural increase. When deaths exceed births, the
result is natural decrease. Subtracting emigrants from immigrants yields net
migration, which also can be either positive or negative
Births – deaths = natural increase/decrease, whereas Immigrants – emigrants = net
migration
2.3.2 Rate of Change
Births and deaths are natural causes of population change. The difference
between the birth rate and the death rate of a country or place is called the natural
increase. The natural increase is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the
birth rate.
The rate of natural increase is given as a percentage, calculated by dividing the
natural increase by 10. For example, if the birth rate is 20 per 1,000 population, and
the death rate is 8 per 1000 population, then the natural increase = 20 - 8 = 12.
That is 12/1000, which is equal to 1.2%.
The doubling time is a frequently used concept in discussing human population
growth, it refers to the time for a population to reach twice its present size, and can
be estimated by using the formula:
Td = 70/annual growth rate, where Td is doubling time , annual growth rate is
expressed as a percentage. For example , a population growing at 2% per year
would double in approximately 35 years. While calculating doubling time, it is
assumed that population is growing exponentially ( has a constant rate of growth).
2.3.3 The Demographic Transition Model
The observation and documentation of this global phenomenon has produced a
model, the Demographic Transition Model(DTM), which helps explain the
changes in population demographics. Based on an interpretation of demographic
history, the DTM was developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren
Page 28
Thompson on the basis of observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates
in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. This model helps to
understand the changes in a country‟s demographics, based on the relationship
between crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR).
Using the Demographic Transition Model, demographers can better understand a
country‟s current population growth based on its placement within one of five
stages. The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is a graph that represents
population change over time. It studies how birth rate and death rate affect the
total population of a country (Figure 4). Even though all countries are experiencing
changes in population at different rates, they are all going through the similar
process of the DTM and are in one of these stages
Figure 4. The five stages of the demographic transition model (adapted from
https://www.rgs.org)
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
High
fluctuating
Early
expanding
Late
expanding
Low
fluctuating Decline
Natural Increase In Population
Bir
ths
and
dea
ths
per
1,0
00
peo
ple
per
yea
r
High
Low
Time
Page 29
Stage 1: High fluctuating – A period of high birth and death rates, both of which
fluctuate. Natural change ranges between increase and decrease.
Stage 2: Early expanding – A period of high birth rates, but falling death rates.
The population begins to increase rapidly. Examples are Bolivia, Nigeria and India
Stage 3: Late expanding – A period of falling birth rates and death rates. The
rate of population growth slows down as the rate of natural increase lessens.
Examples are Argentina and China.
Stage 4: Low fluctuating – A period of low birth and death rates. The population
as a whole
becomes older. Death rate kept low by improving healthcare. Examples are USA
and UK, Poland, Sweden
Stage 5: Decline – the demographic transition model suggests that birth rate may
decrease to a level below death rate and create a natural decrease; something which
over time could cause a total population decrease. Few countries have reached this
stage, meaning any analysis of it is based on very limited evidence.
Most of the less economically developed countries are at stage 2 or 3 (with a growing
population and a high natural increase). In contrast, the more economically
developed countries are now at stage 4 of the model and some such as Germany
and Japan have entered stage 4.
Limitations of the DMT model
The model was developed after studying the experiences of countries in Western
Europe and North America. Therefore patterns experienced today in many
Page 30
different countries of the world may be different. The original model doesn't take
into account the fact that some countries now have a declining population and are
at stage five.
2.4 Population Estimates and Projections
The 2017 Revision of the World Population Prospects is the twenty-fifth round of
official United Nations population estimates and projections, which have been
prepared since 1951 by the Population Division of the Department of Economic and
Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. The world population was 6 billion
at the end of 1999. In just the next 12 years, i.e., in the year 2011, global
population reached 7 billion(UN 2011). The global human population is estimated
nearly 7.55 billion as of mid-2017(Table 1), implying that the world has added
approximately one billion inhabitants over the last twelve years.
Population is unevenly distributed among the world‟s regions. Sixty per cent of the
world‟s people live in Asia (4.5 billion), 17 per cent in Africa (1.3 billion), 10 per cent
in Europe (742 million), 9 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean (646
million), and the remaining 6 per cent in Northern America (361 million) and
Oceania (41 million). China (1.4 billion) and India (1.3 billion). China (with 1.4
billion inhabitants) and India (1.3 billion inhabitants) remain the two most
populous countries of the world, comprising 19 and 18% of the total global
population, respectively.
Among the ten largest countries of the world, one is in Africa (Nigeria), five are in
Asia (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, and Pakistan), two are in Latin America
(Brazil and Mexico), one is in Northern America (United States of America), and one
is in Europe (Russian Federation). Amongst these, Nigeria‟s population, currently
the seventh largest in the world, is growing the most rapidly. Consequently, the
population of Nigeria is projected to surpass that of the United States shortly before
2050, at which point it would become the third largest country in the world.
Page 31
Table 1. Population of the world and regions, 2017, 2030, 2050 and 2100,
according to the medium-variant projection (UN Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, 2017)
Population (billions)
Region 2017 2030 2050
World 7. 550 8. 551 9. 772
Africa 1. 256 1. 704 2. 528
Asia 4 .504 4. 947 5. 257
Europe 0.742 0.739 0.716
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
0.646 0.718 0.780
Northern
America
0.361 0.395 0.435
Oceania 0.041 0.048 0.057
The Most Populous Countries of the World
The 2017 Revision, published by the UN Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, shows that currently China and India are the two most populous countries
of the world.
Demographics of India
India, the country of a high demographic heterogeneity. Some salient features of
Population demography are ( www.Worldometers.info) As of 1 January 2018, the
population of India has been estimated to be 1.346 billion people based on the latest
United Nations estimates
India population is equivalent to 17.74% of the total world population
The population density in India is 450 per Km2 (1,167 people per mi2).
The total land area is 2,973,190 Km2 (1,147,955 sq. miles)
Page 32
32.8 % of the population is urban (439,801,466 people in 2018);the median
age in India is 27.0 years.
The sex ratio of the total population was 1.070 (1,070 males per 1 000 females)
which is slightly higher than global sex ratio (in the world there were 1 016 males
to 1 000 females as of 2017).
Demographics of China
The current population of China is 1,412,404,766 as of January 8, 2018,
based on the latest United Nations estimates.
China population is equivalent to 18.67% of the total world population, 58.2
% of the population is urban
China ranks number one in the list of countries by population.
The population density in China is 150 per Km2
The median age in China is 37.3 years
It has been reported that population in China is rapidly aging. The “One Child
Policy” was enacted in 1979, which was primarily aimed to slow the country‟s rapid
population growth. Since early 2016, families have been allowed to have two
children, but even with this change in place. The aging population in China is going
to impact its future economic growth prospects and will exert huge pressure on
finances of the country.
Projected Growth of the Global Population
Today, the world‟s population continues to grow, more slowly than in the recent
past. Ten years
ago, the global population was growing by 1.24 per cent per year. Today, it is
growing by 1.10 per cent per year, adding an additional 83 million people annually.
Demographers project that the world population will increase by slightly more
than one billion people over the next 13 years, reaching 8.6 billion in 2030, and to
increase further to 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100 (UN 2017). With
roughly 83 million people being added to the world‟s population every year, the
Page 33
upward trend in population size is expected to continue, even assuming that
fertility levels will continue to decline.
From 2017 to 2050, it is expected that half of the world‟s population growth will be
concentrated in just nine countries: India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Pakistan, Ethiopia, the United Republic of Tanzania, the United States of
America, Uganda and Indonesia (ordered by their expected contribution to total
growth).
2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids
2.5.1 Fertility: Adding New People
Fertility refers to the number of births that occur to an individual or in a
population. The total fertility rate (TFR) is commonly used because it represents
the average total number of children a woman will have. But the TFR is a synthetic
rate; it does not measure the fertility of any real group of women. The TFR is a
valuable measure for knowing fertility trends or comparing different populations.
2.5.2 Population structure
Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid. A population
pyramid can be drawn up for any area, from a whole continent or country to an
individual town, city or village. A population pyramid, or age structure graph, is a
simple graph that conveys the complex social narrative of a population through its
shape. The overall shape of the pyramid tells us about the present balances between
the different age groups and between males and females. The diagram can be very
helpful when making forecasts about future population totals and population
growth rates. The pyramid of age is also important because the data helps to predict
the population growth in the future.
Every population pyramid is unique, most can be categorized into three prototypical
shapes: expansive (young and growing), constrictive (elderly and shrinking), and
Page 34
stationary (little or no population growth). There are the three basic shapes of
population pyramids which are described as follows:
Expansive : Expansive population pyramids are used to describe populations that
are young and growing. They are often characterized by their typical „pyramid‟
shape, which has a broad base and narrow top (Figure 5a). These types of
populations are typically representative of developing countries like India and
Indonesia. According to this type of graph, the populations of India, Indonesia,
Nigeria, Mexico, Brazil, Bangladesh, and Pakistan will continue to grow at a rapid
pace.
Constrictive: A constrictive pyramid has fewer people in the younger age
categories, whereas more people are elderly (Figure 5b). Constrictive pyramids
typically have an inverted shape with the graph tapering in at the bottom.
Constrictive pyramids have smaller percentages of people in the younger age
groups; a large portion of the population has access to quality education and health
care. For example, the population pyramid of Japan.
Stationary: Stationary, or near stationary, population pyramids are used to
describe populations that are not growing ( Figure 5c). For example, Sweden show
stationary age categories because of relatively low, constant birth rates, and a high
quality of life
Page 35
Figure 5. Three Types Population pyramid structures, (a) expansive, (b)
constrictive and (C ) stationary . Source: United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017). World Population
Prospects: The 2017 Revision. New York: United Nations.
From these three population pyramids, we can now understand that their shape is
controlled by:
The birth rate – the higher it is, the broader the base of the pyramid.
The death rate – the lower it is, the taller the pyramid.
The balance between the two rates – whether births exceed deaths or vice versa.
According to UN report, 2017 (United Nations, 2017) the male population being
slightly larger than the female population at the global level. There are 102 men for
every 100 women. Children under 14 years of age represent roughly 26 percent of
the world‟s population, while older persons aged 65 or over account for 8.68 percent
of human population. More than half (61 per cent) are adults between 15 and 59
years of age. The graphic representation of the Distribution of the world‟s
population by age and sex, 2017 is shown in Figure 6.
Expansive (a) Population pyramid
India
Stationary ©
Population pyramid Sweden
Constrictive (b) Population pyramid
Japan
Page 36
Figure 6. Distribution of the world’s population by age and sex, 2017.
(Source: United Nations, 2017).
2.5.4 Population Structure and Ageing
Population growth rates of countries vary considerably, but a trend of slowing down
has begun to affect humans. Population is a major consequence of decrease in
fertility and mortality, and increase in life expectancy. Globally the population of
those aged 60 or more represents 11% of total population (800 million) and is
predicted be 22% (about 1 billion) in the year 2050 (the UN population Division).
The old-age-dependency ratio is number of individuals 65 years or older per 100 in
the 15-to64 years old working population..
Eurostat‟s population projections analyzed the likely impact of ageing populations
on public spending by the European Commission. Increased social expenditure
related to population ageing, in the form of pensions, healthcare and institutional or
private (health) care, is likely to result in a higher burden for the working-age
population (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics- accessed 9 December, 2018). A
number of important policies in social and economic fields will be affected. For
example, population ageing and it‟s likely to impact the sustainability of public
Page 37
finances and welfare provisions, or the economic and social impact of demographic
change
2.6. Population Implications on Environment
2.6.1. IPAT Equation and the Ecological Footprint
A classic attempt to explain the relationship between a human population and its
impact on the environment is the IPAT equation. The equation maintains that
impacts (I) on ecosystems are the product of the population size (P), affluence (A),
and technology (T) of the human population in question (Figure 7). This equation
was developed by biologist Paul Ehrlich and environmental scientist John Holdren
in 1971, IPAT is an equation that expresses the idea that environmental impact (I)
is the product of three factors: population (P), affluence (A) and technology (T) (
Figure 7).
ENVIRONMENT
Affluence
Technology World
population
ECONOMIC IMPACT
Resource use Habitat
Destruction Hunger Disease
IMPACT I = P x A x T Ecological Footprint
Less Economic Development
High Economic Development
Page 38
Figure 7. The impacts of human growth on the environment. The
population (P), affluence(A), and destructive technology(T) impact the
environment according to the IPAT equation (Ehrlich and Holdren, 1972).
An analogous model is the ecological footprint which increases with
development. High economic development contribute to resource use and
habitat destruction, whereas less economic development can lead to
problems like disease and hunger
2.6.2. The ecological footprint
It is a standardized measure of how much productive land and water is needed to
produce the resources that are consumed, and to absorb the wastes produced by a
person or group of people. Since the 1970s, humanity has been in ecological
overshoot as the annual demand on resources exceeds the generative capacity of
Earth. It is clear that human population is using more natural resources and
services through overfishing, deforestation, and emission of more carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere than forests can sequester. According to Global Footprint
Network, humans require 1.7 planets to produce enough natural resources to match
our consumption rates and a growing population. At current population levels, our
planet has only 1.7 global hectares (gha) of biologically productive surface area per
person.
The Ecological Footprint per capita : It is a nation's total Ecological Footprint
divided by the total population of the nation. Ecological footprint per capita of some
countries in the year 2013 are shown in Table 3. It is high for United States( 8.6) ,
whereas very low for a least developed country like Burundi ( 0.6) To live within
the means of our planet's resources, the world's Ecological Footprint would have to
equal the available biocapacity per person on our planet, which is currently 1.7
global hectares. So if a nation's Ecological Footprint per capita is 6.8 global
hectares, its citizens are demanding four times the resources and wastes that our
Page 39
planet can regenerate and absorb in the atmosphere
(http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)
Table3. Ecological footprint per capita some countries in2013
(http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)
Countries Ecological footprint per capita
in global hectares in 2013
United States 8.6
Japan 5.0
China 3.6
India 1.1
Nigeria 1.1
Burundi 0.6
Aggregate ecological footprint :The countries with the highest aggregate
ecological footprints have high population. The Ecological Footprint of the top five
countries makes up about 50% of the global total ( Figure 8). Analysis of the 2014
National Footprint Accounts reveals that China (16 per cent) and the USA (15 per
cent) have the greatest aggregate ecological footprint. China with its largest
population shows high ecological footprint. Total Footprint of USA is high because
of its greater per capita consumption. \
Page 40
Figure 8. Share of total Ecological Footprint among the top five countries
with the highest demand and the rest of the world (Global Footprint
Network, 2014).
2.5.2 Impact of Population on Environment
The impacts of population on environment in terms of consumption, urbanization,
biodiversity loss, deforestation, air pollution, and climate change, are discussed
as follows:
Unsustainable patterns of Consumption: In developed nations, the
unsustainable patterns of consumption and production are of great concern. The
mass production of goods is using large amounts of energy, creating excess
pollution, and generating huge amounts of waste. A study undertaken in
2009 showed that the countries with the fastest population growth also had the
19%
13.70%
7.10%
3.70%
3.70%
52.80%
China United States India Brazil Russia Rest of world
Page 41
slowest increases in carbon emissions. Individuals living in developed countries
have, in general, a much bigger ecological footprint than those living in the
developing world. The increasing unsustainable consumption patterns have caused
problems of air pollution, water scarcity and waste generation, and human health in
south-east Asia ( UNEP 2016).
Urbanisation : It is an increase in the number of people living in towns and
cities. Urbanization occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to urban
areas and it results in growth in the size of the urban population and the extent of
urban areas. The regular increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
is because of increase in employment and easy access to education. The world has
urbanized rapidly since 1950 and projections indicate that it will continue to
urbanize in the coming decades (Table 4). Northern America and Latin America and
the Caribbean are the most urbanized regions, with 80 per cent or more of their
populations residing in urban settlements in 2014. Africa and Asia remain mostly
rural, with 40 per cent and 48 per cent of their respective populations living in
urban areas in 2014, As per UN estimate India‟s urban population is projected to be
814 million i.e., 50 per cent of total population by 2050 (United Nations 2015).
Table 4 The world urban population in 1980, 2014 and
2050
(http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-population/)
Year Billion people Share of
urban
population
1980 4.439 39%
2014 7.349 54%
2050 9.725 66%
Page 42
Cities are hotspots of production, consumption and waste generation, including
greenhouse gas emissions (Grimm et al 2008). During the past century, the high
urban population growth has taken place on <3% of the global terrestrial surface,
yet having global impacts in terms of 78% of carbon emissions, 60% of residential
water use, and 76% of wood used for industrial purposes ( Brown 2001).
Megacities in India include Ahmadabad (6.3 million), Hyderabad (7.7 million),
Bangalore (8.4 million), Chennai (8.6 million), Kolkata (14.1 million), Delhi (16.3
million) and Greater Mumbai (18.4 million( GOI 2011; Kumar et al. 2017). Increase
in human population and urbanization, and the various economic activities are
producing huge amounts of solid wastes. Population growth and particularly the
development of megacities are making solid waste management in India a major
problem.
Loss of Biodiversity: Research suggests that the growth of human population,
technological change and unequal consumption in different regions of the world
contribute substantially to the loss of biological diversity. Increasing human
impacts will cause extinctions of species, decline of wild species populations, and
habitat destruction. The number of documented extinctions since 1500 AD is 784
species and the extinction rates are 50 to 500 times higher than previous rates
calculated from the fossil record (Baillie et al, 2004). The populations of agricultural
and domestic animal species have increased alongside humans, whereas
biodiversity has declined globally. The impact of food production on biodiversity
affects every system of the planet (Crist et al. 2017). Land conversion for crop and
animal agriculture is the chief driver of habitat loss. Thousands of animal species
are at critical risk of becoming extinct due to unsustainable farming and fishing
methods and climate change according to latest report of RED List of endangered
species of the IUCN released in December, 2017.
Deforestation :Many of the worlds‟ most threatened and endangered animals live
in forests, and 1.6 billion people rely on benefits forests offer, including food, fresh
water, clothing, traditional medicine and shelter. Forests cover almost 30 percent of
Page 43
the world‟s land area and provide shelter to over 80% of all terrestrial biodiversity
(United Nations, 2015). About 1.6 billion people worldwide are dependent on forest
ecosystems as their source of income (United Nations, 2015). The world lost almost
130 million hectares of forest between 1990 and 2015 (FAO 2016). According to the
World Resources Institute (WRI), only 15% of forests remain intact, around 30% of
global forest cover has been cleared and an additional 20% has been degraded.
Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees in forests. Trees are usually
removed to make way for agriculture, roads, and urban development. Deforestation
is a particular concern in tropical regions because these forests contain much of the
world‟s biodiversity.
The problem of Air Pollution: Air quality is one of the leading environmental
threats to public health. Air pollution issues are especially acute in rapidly
urbanizing and industrializing nations such as India and China. About 90 per cent
of people in Sub-Saharan Africa are exposed to indoor air pollution, impacting both
economies and livelihoods while contributing to increased emissions of greenhouse
gases.
Climate Change :Human population growth is a major contributor to global
warming as humans use fossil fuels for their economic growth and to support
improved lifestyles. When fossil fuels are burned, these emit carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere which traps warm air inside like a greenhouse. The UN
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth and Fifth
Assessment Reports (IPCC 2007; IPCC 2014), has provided a strong scientific
evidence of global warming. It is now clear that climate change is being caused by
people that threaten the livelihoods and well-being of all people and societies. The
extreme climate events such as storms, heat waves, droughts, and devastating
floods are intensifying. The extreme climate events cause direct destruction and
have pervasive impacts on food security, infectious disease transmission, and
economic stability that continue to occur for many years.
Page 44
2.7 SUMMARY
i. According to a new United Nations report, the world population on October
12, 2017 is 7.6 billion which is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8
billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100.
ii. Demography is the study of the size, composition, and distribution of human
populations and the causes and consequences of changes in these
characteristics.
iii. The Demographic Transition Model helps to understand the changes in a
country‟s demographics, based on the relationship between crude birth rate
and crude death rate.
iv. China (with 1.4 billion inhabitants) and India (1.346 billion inhabitants) are
the two most populous countries of the world.
v. As of 1 January 2018, the population of India has been estimated to be 1.346
billion people, constituting 17.74% of the total world population, 32.8 % of the
population is urban.
vi. There are the three basic shapes of population pyramids, i.e. expansive,
constrictive, and stationary.
vii. IPAT Equation explain the relationship between a human population and its
impact on the environment. The equation maintains that impacts (I) on
ecosystems are the product of the population size (P), affluence (A), and
technology (T).
viii. Humans require 1.7 planets to produce enough natural resources to match
their consumption rates and population growth according to Global Footprint
Network.
ix. Population growth has impacts on the environment because of high
consumption, urbanization, biodiversity loss, deforestation, air pollution,
climate change, , and waste generation.
Page 45
x. Climate change is being caused by people that threaten the livelihoods and
well-being of all people and societies. .
2.8 KEY WORDS
Population Growth, Malthusian Growth Model, Demography , Population Change,
Doubling Time, The Demographic Transition Model, United Nations Population
Estimates, Population Age Structure, Population Pyramids, IPAT Equation, the
Ecological Footprint, Population impact on Environment
2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.The principle that human populations grow exponentially, while food
production grows at an arithmetic rate was put forward by :
(a) Adam smith (b) Charles Darwin
(c) Thomas Malthus (d) Stuart mill
2.The global human population according to The 2017 Revision of the
World Population Prospects is :
(a) 4.55 billion (b) 7.55 billion
(c) 6.26 billion (d) 8.55 billion
3. The study of trends in human population growth and prediction of
future growth is called:
(a) Demography (b) Biography
(c) Kalography (d) Psychology
4.Doubling time (Td) of population can be calculated by:
(a) Td =70/annual growth rate
(b) Td = annual growth rate / 70
Page 46
(c) Td = 70 × annual growth rate
(d) Td = 70 + annual growth rate
5.The average life expectancy around the world is currently:
(a) Decreasing (b) Increasing
(c) Not changing (d) Stabilizing
6. Which of the countries is near to zero population growth?
(a) Brazil (b) India
(c) Nigeria (d) Sweden
7. The Demographic Transition Model to understand the changes in a
country’s demographics was developed by:
(a) Warren Thompson (b) Charles Darwin
(c) Thomas Malthus (d) None of these
8. The most populous country in the world in the year 2017 is:
(a) Brazil (b) India
(c) China (d) Nigeria
9. The urban population in India as per population data of January 2018
is:
(a) 32.8 % (b) 40.8 %
(c) 50.8 % (d) 48.8 %
10. population pyramids are used to describe populations that are young
and growing are:
(a) Expansive pyramids (b) constrictive pyramids
(c) Stationary pyramids (d) inverted pyramids
11. The relationship between a human population and its impact on the
environment can be described by …………..Equation.
Page 47
12. A nation's total Ecological Footprint divided by the total population of
the nation refers to:
(a) The Ecological Footprint per capita (b) Aggregate ecological footprint
(c) Carrying capacity (d) Population overshoot
13. An increase in the number of people living in towns and cities is called:
(a)Migration (b) Immigration
(c) Urbanization (d) None of the three
14. The number of documented extinctions since 1500 AD is………….
Species.
15. The large-scale removal of trees in forests to make way for agriculture,
roads, and urban development is called:
(a)Afforestation (b) Plantation
(c) Restoration (d) Deforestation
Self-Assessment Questions
1. What are the principal reasons for the growth of population rapidly in the
20th century?
2. Discuss the importance of age structure of human population.
3. Explain the demographic transition model.
4. Define doubling time of human population.
5. Discuss in brief the history of population growth.
6. Explain the IPAT equation and its significance.
7. What is ecological footprint?
8. Write an essay on impact of human population on environment.
Page 48
2.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Baillie JE, Hilton-Taylor C, Stuart SN (eds; 2004) A Global Species Assessment.
Gland, Switzerland: The World Conservation Union. www.iucnredlist.org
Brown L. R.2001. Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth (Norton, New
York,
Crist E., Mora C., and Engelman R. (2017). The interaction of human population,
food production, and biodiversity protection. Science 356 : 260-264
Ehrlich, P.R. and J.P. Holdren, 1972. Critique: One Dimensional Ecology. Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists 28(5): 16, 18-27.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (2016). Global
Forest Resources Assessment 2015: How are the world’s forests
changing? (Second Edition). Food & Agriculture Org. Retrieved
from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf
Global Footprint Network (2014). Global Footprint Network ANNUAL REPORT
2014. www.footprintnetwork.org
Grimm, N. B., Faeth, S. H., Golubiewski, N. E., Redman, C. L., Wu, J., Bai, X., &
Briggs, J. M. (2008). Global change and the ecology of
cities. Science, 319(5864), 756-760. DOI: 10.1126/science.1150195.
IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z.,
Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M. and Miller, H.L. (ed.). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. pp.
996.
IPCC, (2014).Summary for Policymakers. In: Field CB (ed) Climate change 2014:
Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK/New York, pp. 1–32.
Kumar S., Smith S. R., Geoff Fowler, Velis C., Kumar S.J.,Shashi
Arya, Rena, Kumar R., Christopher Cheeseman. (2017). Challenges and
opportunities associated with waste management in India. Royal Society
Open Science; DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160764.
Page 49
McFalls Jr J. A.(2007). “Population: A Lively Introduction, 5th Edition,” Population
Bulletin 62, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau).
Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O. and Ludwig, C (2015). The
trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great acceleration. Anthropocene
Review 2, 81–98.
UNEP (2016). GEO-6 Regional Assessment for Asia and the Pacific. United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
UN (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division) (2014). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision,
Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/352).
UN (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division) (2015). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision,
(ST/ESA/SER.A/366).
UN (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division) (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. New York:
United Nations. http://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends
UN (2011). World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision. Population Division of
the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the UN, New York:
United Nations. Secretariat. http://www.esa.un.org/wpp/
Venter, O., E. W. Sanderson, A. McGrach, H. Possingham, P. Wood, B. Fekete, W. F.
Laurance, M. Levy and J. E. M. Watson (2016). Sixteen years of change in the
global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity
conservation. Nature Communications.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12558
Page 50
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, SOITS,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Lesson No.: 3 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma
Overview of Environmental Laws
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definitions and Nature of Environmental laws
3.3 Various Environmental laws
3.4 Some laws in relation to National Environment
3.5 Five Year Plans on Environmental Issues
3.6 International Environmental Laws and Agreements
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Words
3.9 Self Assessment Questions
3.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
define the term environmental law;
explain the various national laws and policies in relation to the environment; and
describe the international laws in relation to environment.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter you will learn about the various environmental laws enforced in order to protect
our environment from deterioration. Law is an instrument of social change which helps us bring
about a positive change in the human society. The air, water, soil, has been polluted and laws and
policies are most important for environmental protection. Paul Harrison, has pointed out that an
overall development of human beings with due respect to nature is of utmost importance.
Page 51
Environmental law can be defined as set of laws, policies and certain procedures enforced by
different government agencies for protecting the environment. Industries, chemical spills, tankers
in the ocean, solid wastes, and hospital wastes have caused serious havoc to our natural
environment. Even the biodiversity is endangered and wildlife poaching is responsible for
species extinction and dwindling biodiversity. Environmental law establishes protection for our
scarce natural resources and natural surroundings, like land, air and water. We have understood
that our planet is facing risk from anthropogenic sources. Solutions for such problems lie in
developing strategies for correcting our behaviour towards the environment. Environmental law
creates a framework for the same. Law is a way of regulating human behaviour.
In this unit we shall learn about the laws and policies in India relating to environment protection,
including the conservation of forest and natural resources, coastal zone management, and some
international environmental conventions.
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Let us now learn some definitions related to environment.
3.2.1 Definitions
The Environment Protection Act: This act was approved by the Government of India in 1986. It
defines the term environment as “the sum total of water, air, land, the interrelationships
among themselves, with human beings and with other organisms and property”.
Environmental Law: This discipline deals with a system of statutes, common laws, treaties,
conventions, regulations and policies for the protection of our natural environment that
are impacted by anthropogenic activities.
Some environmental laws regulate the impacts of human activities. These include setting limits
for permissible levels of certain chemicals or heavy metals or permits and so on. Some other
environmental laws are preventive which assess the possible impacts before the human activities
can occur. These include mining or projects proposed for major developmental activities.
Environmental law started in the 1960s and is now a specialized area of law. It is most important
for sustainable development. Certain policy concepts such as public participation, environmental
justice, and paying for pollution by the polluter principle have been important solutions for
Page 52
dealing with environmental pollution. Further, some more concepts such as eco-taxes, tradable
emission allowances, standards such as ISO 14000 and negotiated agreements have also played
positive roles.
3.2.2 Nature of Environmental Laws
These include laws related to the air, water, land, flora, fauna, natural resources and human
habitation. There exist a number of Acts and protective laws for humans in relation to the air,
water, land, noise, nuclear, thermal pollution and also for other living organisms. We need to
protect as well as manage our environment properly. Globally, many Constitutions and
international treaties in the world recognize the right to protect the environment and the right to
live in clean and healthy environments. In our country, the constitution of India in Article 21
states that every person has the right to life. Further, Articles 51 A (g) (ii), 39 (b), (c), 19 (e))
imposes duty on the citizens to protect the environment. The Article 48A includes for the
protection of our environment, forest and wildlife of India by the government. Article 31 A and
31C gives powers to the government for the acquisition of forest, lands, estates and other natural
resources for common good (Article 39(b) and (c) of directive principles).
3.3 VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Respecting nature, worshipping nature and protection of environment is rooted in Indian culture.
Let us now learn about the environmental laws that exist in India.
3.3.1 Environmental Legislations in India (Before 1980)
There have been various laws in our country from the 1853 onwards. The details of the laws are
summarized in the following paragraphs.
Some Laws in relation to Water Pollution
The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolkata) Act, 1853: This very old act aims to remove
nuisances and encroachments in the Islands of Bombay and Kolaba below high water mark.
The Oriental Gas Company Act, 1857: This law deals with the control of water pollution
from oriental gas company discharges.
Indian Penal Code of 1860: It is the main criminal code of India. It has 23 chapters
consisting of 511 sections.
Page 53
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897: This act prohibits the killing of aquatic fishes using
explosives or by poisoning waters.
The Indian Ports Act, 1908: This act deals with the prohibition of oil discharge in ports.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927: This act deals with the prohibition of poisoning of water
bodies within forest areas.
The River Boards Act, 1956: This act enables the states to enroll the central government
in setting up an Advisory River Board for issues related to cooperation of inter-states.
Some Laws in relation to Air Pollution
Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905: This act aims to prevent air pollution in Calcutta and
protect marble structures.
Bombay smoke nuisance Act, 1912: This act aims to prevent smoke and air pollution in
Bombay.
Some Laws in relation to Wild Life Conservation
The Madras Wild Elephant Act, 1873: This act is the first wildlife Act to protect wild
Elephants.
The Elephant Preservation Act, 1879: It protects wild Elephants.
The Wild Bird Protection Act, 1887: It prohibits trade in wild birds.
The Wild Birds and Animal Protection Act, 1912: This act regulated the hunting of wild
birds but it failed in the control for wildlife trade.
The Hailey National Park Act, 1937: It aimed to protect the unique ecosystem of Western
Himalayas in Corbett National Park then Hailey National Park.
Some Laws in relation to Forest Conservation
There have been many laws for protecting forest resources. They include Indian Forest Act,
1865; Indian Forest Act, 1878 and Forest Policy of India, 1884.
Page 54
Indian Forest Act, 1927: It deals with laws in relation to forest resource protection, forest
produce, and the taxes/ duty on forest products and timber.
All the above acts show that India worked hard for environmental quality even before
independence. But, the environment received more importance in the Fourth five year plan
(1969-74). Also the United Nation conference on human environment, held in 1972 at Sweden
further strengthened the need for environmental protection and legislations. It also proposed that
developing nations need to balance their population growth. In 1976, the 42nd Amendment to the
constitution of India, introduced significant provisions in constitution relating to the environment
protection. The National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) was
constituted in 1972. It focussed on the issues related to environmental management,
improvement of human environment, population growth and economic development. During this
period various acts were passed which include: The Indian wildlife protection Act of 1972 and
the water prevention and control of pollution Act of 1974. It was only after the United Nations
Conference at Stockholm, Sweden in 1972 that constitutional sanction was given for
environment protection through the 42nd Amendment in 1976. This was a part of the Directive
Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights and Duties. In 1980 the Tiwari Committee
was formed for environmental legislations and it led to the formation of a Department of
Environment and later on a full fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests.
3.3.2 Environmental Legislations in India (1980 - present)
The Government of India is effortlessly working for environment protection. The list of
environmental Acts, Rules and Notifications in India from 1980 to present is given in the
following paragraphs.
(a) Water Pollution
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended 1988: It deals with the
prohibition of pollutant discharges into water bodies more than a given standard.
Penalties exist for non-compliance.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 1992, 2003: This
Act deals with the prevention and control of water pollution by collecting a cess on water
used by industries and local authorities.
Page 55
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978: This Act deals with
standards for the type and location of water meters with indicators, pressure gauges that
every consumer needs to install.
(b) Air Pollution
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: This Act deals with the prohibition
of fuels and pollutants in the air and regulates devices that pollute the air. The Act gives
the power to Central Pollution Control Board for establishing industrial plants. The board
tests the air in air pollution control areas, inspects the pollution control equipments, and
manufacturing processes employed.
(c) Environment Protection Act, 1986
The Act is enacted under Article 253 of the Indian constitution for environmental
protection and to address major environmental hazards. Under this Act, the central
government is empowered for taking necessary measures for protecting the environment.
It also gives standards for emissions and discharges; regulation of the location of
industries; hazardous wastes management and for protection of human health and
welfare. The salient features are as follows.
Gives procedures for pollutant emission standards.
Gives parameters for the location and operation of industries in different areas.
Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999: It prohibits construction of
some industries; restricts units in the Taj Trapezium; lays conditions for the
construction of around Archaeological Monuments.
Several rules have been notified for the management of hazardous chemicals, wastes,
and so on.
Subject to the provision of this Act, all powers have been given to the Central
Government for taking necessary steps for environmental protection and to improve
the environmental quality.
(d) Noise Pollution
Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000: This was formed under EPA and amended
twice in 2002 and 2006. It prohibits loud noise and pollution due to noise. The Ministry of
Environment, Forests and Climate Change has recently notified the Noise Pollution (Regulation
and Control) Amendment Rules, 2017 for amending the Noise Pollution (Regulation and
Page 56
Control) Rules, 2000. During night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) or during
cultural or religious festival occasions the public address systems and loud speakers can be used.
The term “festive occasion” has been specifically defined in the amended rules. The amended
rules have given the power to State Governments to declare silence area / zone which is less than
100 meters around hospitals, educational institutions and courts.
(e) Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000: These have been introduced
for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.
(f) Coastal Regulation Zone
This notification, issued by the central government by virtue of its power under EPA declares
limits of and prohibitions in coastal regulation zones. There are 30 notifications between 1997 -
2009. The notifications put regulations on various activities, including construction. It also
provides for some protection to the backwaters and estuaries.
(g) Environment Impact Assessment
This notification came in 1994 and was amended in 2006. It deals with projects or activities that
require prior environmental clearance from the concerned regulatory authority. The stages of
prior Environment Clearance (EC) for new projects are also notified. There is also provision for
the constitution of State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority.
(h) Animal Welfare
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 and Rules (18), 1965-2006. This act was passed for
the prevention of inducing unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and the prevention of
cruelty to animals. For the promotion of animal welfare the Animal Board of India has been
established by the Central Government.
(i) Bio Diversity Conservation
Biological Diversity Act, 2002: This act deals with the conservation of biodiversity, and
sustainable management of these resources.
(j) Forest Conservation
Page 57
These include: Forest Conservation Act, 1980, amended 1988, Rules, 1981, amended 1988,
1992, 2003. It basically deals with the protection and the conservation of the forest resources.
(k) Wild Life Protection
The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended 1993, The Wildlife (protection)
Amendment Act, 2002 and set of 9 Rules, 1973-2003. The act deals with the protection of birds
and animals in their natural habitats.
(l) Hazardous Substances Management Rules
o The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001: This rule deals with the
manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries and its safe disposal
practices.
o The Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2000: This deals
with the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and proper
disposal of municipal solid wastes.
o The Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999 amended Rules, 2003:
This restricts the manufacture, sale, distribution, and use of plastic carry bags and
containers less than 8 x 12 inches (20 x 30 cms) in size and having minimum
thickness of 20 micron.
o Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous micro-
organisms; genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989, Amended 2006,
2007. This deals with environmental and human health protection in relation to
gene technology applications and microorganisms.
o The Manufacture, Storage and import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989,
Amended 2000. It deals with the industrial activities associated with hazardous
chemicals and isolated storage facilities.
o The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2008, 2009. This deals with the management of hazardous wastes and
those applicable for import and export.
o Biomedical Waste Management and Handling Rules, 1998 amended 2003. This
deals with hospitals and other health care institutions to abide legally for the
proper handling of hospital waste.
Page 58
Activity 1
4. Visit a lake or a water body. What do you see – fishes, crustaceans? Make an
observation of the same.
5. Are there any laws to protect fishes from being hunted down? If so write them in your
note book.
6. Do you observe water birds and animals around the lake?
7. Are there any laws to protect the birds from being hunted down? Record your
observations.
3.4 Some laws in relation to National Environment
The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995: This gives compensation for damages to
persons, property and the environment that has come from activities related to hazardous
substances.
The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: This has been formed for
addressing problems related to restrictions of areas for types of industries etc. They are
performed subject to certain safeguards under the Environment protection act.
Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992: This act gives public liability
insurance for providing relief to those persons who are affected while handling hazardous
substances. It was amended in 1992, and the Central Government was given the
authorization for establishing the Environmental Relief Fund, for relief payments and The
Public Liability Insurance Rules, 1992, amended in 1993.
3.5 Five Year Plans on Environmental Issues
Discussion on various plans is given below:
(a) Sixth Plan (1980-1985): The recommendations of the Tiwari Committee led to the
formation of the Department of Environment on 1st November, 1980. It was assigned the
following functions:
o To act as a nodal agency for environmental protection and eco- development.
Page 59
o To carry out environmental appraisal of development projects through other
ministries/agencies as well as directly.
o To have administrative responsibility for Pollution monitoring and regulation;
conservation of critical ecosystems designated as Biosphere Reserves and the
conservation of the marine ecosystem.
o Major activities in water and air pollution control were undertaken. The activities
were Environment Impact Assessment, natural living resource conservation,
ecological studies by the Botanical Survey of India and Zoological Survey of
India, environmental information, education, training and awareness programmes.
o A ten year review in respect of appendices on flora for CITES prepared.
o An integrated study of the Ganga basin was completed. The integrated River
Basin Studies for the Brahmaputra, Indus and Narmada were proposed.
o The Wildlife Institutes were set up in 1982-83 for scientific knowledge on
wildlife research.
(b) Seventh Plan (1985-1990): This includes the following:
o A lot of progress occurred under the Ganga Action Plan, forestry and wildlife,
wasteland development, and island development sectors.
o Waste recycling and prevention of coastal pollution programmes were initiated.
o Through the Environmental Appraisal Committee the Environment Impact
Assessment of major river valleys, hydroelectric, mining, industrial and thermal
power projects were done.
o National Forest Policy was formulated in 1988 for ensuring environmental
stability and maintenance of the ecological balance.
o Implementation of the 10 point National Wildlife Plan was initiated.
o Considerable amount of land area was brought under the afforestation programme
and the National Development Board set up in 1985.
(c) Eighth Plan (1992-1997): This includes the following:
o Pollution abatement activities were undertaken. This comprised of the
management and operation of national air and water quality network, controlling
pollution at sources, river basin studies, hazardous waste management;
development of criteria for eco-labelling of consumer products, remedial
Page 60
measures for vehicular pollution; training of personnel engaged in controlling
pollution and organising nationwide awareness programme for prevention and
control of pollution, promoting adoption of Clean Technologies in small scale
industries.
o Certain incentives were given for adopting efficiency enhancing and waste
minimisation practices like enhancement of cess rates on water consumption, duty
concessions on import of certain pollution control equipment, accelerated
depreciation on pollution abatement equipment.
o Studies pertaining to improved methodology and techniques of EIA were done.
o Biodiversity Conservation was initiated in 1991-92.
o Environmental research programmes, climate change research, Man and
Biosphere Programme were undertaken.
o For environmental education for children more than 5000 clubs were started.
o The National River Conservation Plan was approved in 1995.
o Several steps for afforestation and eco-development were also undertaken.
(d) Ninth Plan (1997-2002)
o Attempts were made to phase out lead in motor spirit and to improve the quality
of high speed diesel.
o Some specific programmes were started. They were: National River Conservation
Programme started the National Lake Conservation Programme, Taj Trapezium,
schemes to protect Himalayan ecosystem and biodiversity, programmes for
sustainable development of islands. Further the Islands Development Authority
(IDA) was constituted in 1998.
o Management of biosphere reserves, biodiversity conservation, environmental
education and training was strengthened.
o Wetland development programmes were also formulated.
(e) Tenth Plan (2002-2007)
o Population and economic growth with environmental conservation was
considered as a necessity.
o Action plans began for reducing pollution levels.
Page 61
o Prioritization of hazardous waste management through collection, processing and
disposal.
o Emphasis is laid on environmental educational education amongst masses through
the involvement of NGOs and Youth educational institutes.
(f) Eleventh Plan (2007-2012)
o Increase in tree cover and forests by five percentage points.
o All major cities should have WHO standards of air quality by 2011-12.
o All urban waste waters should be treated by 2011-12 to clean the rivers.
o Energy efficiency should be increased by twenty percentage points by the year
2016-17.
3.5 National Policies related to Environment
There are number of policies framed by government of India on various environmental issues
like
o National Forest Policy, 1988: Under this the objective is to maintain one third of
the country‟s geographical area under forest and tree cover. In the hills and in
mountainous regions, two-third of the area is to be maintained for the prevention
of erosion and land degradation and to ensure the stability of the fragile eco-
system. It ensures environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance.
o National conservation strategy and policy statement on Environment and
Development Policy, 1992: This ensures that the demand for the environment
does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present as well as future generations.
o The other National Polices are given below:
o National Policy on Abatement of Pollution, 1992
o National Slum Policy, 1999
o National Agricultural Policy, 2000
o National Population Policy, 2000
o National Health Policy, 2002
o National Water Policy, 2002
o Science and Technology Policy
Page 62
3.6 International Environmental Laws and Agreements
International Environmental law deals with environmental issues worldwide such as
protection of biodiversity or marine ecosystems and so on. This has led to many
international agreements and declarations. The nature of these agreements is usually
multilateral. The subsidiary agreements arising from the primary treaty is known as a
protocol such as the Kyoto Protocol. Some important international environmental
conferences include: the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(1972), United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED,
1992); and World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002).
3.6.1 Stockholm Conference
This was the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in 1972 at Stockholm,
Sweden. It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues. This
conference was a historic event in the development of international environmental politics. The
conference outcomes were:
1. Declaration concerning the environment and development;
2. An Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and
3. Resolutions relating to the financial and institutional arrangements. The conference gave
26 principles, which include:
o Fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in a good
quality environment.
o Intergenerational equity, maintenance, restoration and improvement of renewable
resources.
o Appeal to the people to manage the environment properly.
o Understanding the relationship between economic, social and environmental
development.
o States should cooperate in developing international environmental law.
o States should adopt and implement suitable environmental standards.
o The International Organizations should co-ordinate in such activities that facilitate
better environmental management.
3.6.2 Rio conference
Page 63
This conference aimed to stop environmental degradation of the planet. This United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development was held in 1992 at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. It
aimed to understand how development could support socio-economic development and
prevent the deterioration of the environment. It also stressed on the need for global
partnership for solutions to environmental problems. The issues addressed in the Rio
conference include the following:
Systematic study of patterns of production of toxic substances.
Alternative sources of energy.
Use of public transportation systems to reduce vehicle emissions and pollution.
The growing demand and limited supply of water.
It also adopted three important non-binding instruments in the forms of Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development; Agenda 21; Forest Principles.
3.6.2.1 Framework Convention on Climate Change
A major achievement of the Rio summit was the agreement on the Climate Change Convention
which later led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
3.6.2.2 Convention on Biological Diversity
This was also an achievement of the Rio summit. It prevented the destruction of natural eco-
regions and so-called uneconomic growth.
3.6.3 Johannesburg treaty
The Earth Summit or the World Summit on Sustainable Development took place in 2002 at
Johannesburg, South Africa by the United Nations. This mainly discussed sustainable
development. Some key features of the treaty include: Poverty eradication, (ii) consumption and
production, (iii) the natural resource base, (iv) health, (v) small island developing states, (vi)
Africa (vii) other regional initiatives, (viii) means of implementation, and (ix) institutional
framework. The Plan of Implementation contains over 30 targets, the majority of which have
been established in the Millennium Declaration.
3.6.4 CITES
Page 64
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora - CITES
was convened in 1973. It is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was
drafted in 1963 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It entered into force in
1975. The main objective is to ensure that the international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild.
3.6.5 Vienna Convention
This Convention deals with Ozone Layer protection. It is a multilateral environmental
agreement. It was agreed at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and came into force in 1988.
3.6.5.1 Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was a protocol to the Vienna
Convention. It is an international treaty for the protection of the ozone layer. It aimed to phase
out the production of ozone depleting substances. It entered into force in 1989.
3.6.6 Stockholm Convention on POP
This is an international environmental treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants signed in 2001 and
effective from 2004. It aimed at eliminating the production and use of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs).
3.6.7 Basel convention
It was an international treaty that aimed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between
nations. It also aimed to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed
countries. It does not address radioactive wastes. It also aimed reduce the amount and toxicity of
wastes generated for environmentally sound management practices. The Convention entered into
force in 1992.
3.6.8 Cartegena protocol on biosafety
This is an international agreement on biosafety. It is a supplement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity effective since 2003. It aimed to protect biological diversity from the
potential risks of biotechnology specifically in relation to the genetically modified organisms.
3.7 LET US SUM UP
Page 65
In this unit we have studied about environmental law, the various laws in India in relation to the
national environment and the five year plans on environmental issues in our country. Finally we
have also understood the various international environmental laws and Agreements that have
taken place for environmental protection and quality.
3.8 Key words
Convention: It refers to an agreement between states, for example covering environmental
issues.
Treaty: It refers to a binding agreement between two or more countries on subjects such as
climate, peace and so on.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.
3.9 Self Assessment Questions
Self Assessment Questions 1
3. Describe the laws in relation to water pollution after 1980‟s.
4. Explain the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. List the important rules.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Describe the environment programmes under the eighth five year plan.
2. List some laws in relation to the National Environment.
3. List some important international laws and agreements.
3.10 References and Suggested further readings
Bell, S., Mcgillivray and Pederson, OW. 2013. Environmental Law, 8th
edition, Oxford press,
UK.
Rao, RS. 2014. Lectures on Environmental Law Paperback. Asia Law House.
Rosencranz, A. and Divan, S. 2002. Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials,
and Statutes. 2nd edition, Oxford India paperbacks, 876 p.
Page 66
Viñuales, JE. and Dupuy, PM. 2018. International Environmental Law. 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press, 578 p.
Key to Self Assessment Questions
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended 1988
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 1992, 2003 The
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978
Write details.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
It is enacted under Article 253 of the Indian constitution for environmental protection and
to address major environmental hazards. The central government has the power for taking
necessary measures for protecting the environment. It also gives standards for emissions
and discharges; regulation of the location of industries; hazardous wastes management
and for protection of human health.
Write the salient features of the Act.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Pollution abatement activities were undertaken. This comprised of the management and
operation of national air and water quality network, controlling pollution at sources, river
basin studies, hazardous waste management; development of criteria for eco-labeling of
consumer products, remedial measures for vehicular pollution; training of personnel
engaged in controlling pollution and organizing nationwide awareness programme for
prevention and control of pollution, promoting adoption of Clean Technologies in small
scale industries.
Improving methodology and techniques of EIA.
Biodiversity Conservation initiated in 1991-92.
Page 67
Environmental research programmes, climate change research, Man and Biosphere
Programme were undertaken.
For environmental education for children more than 5000 clubs were started.
The National River Conservation Plan was approved in 1995.
Several steps for afforestation and eco-development were also undertaken.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995
The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997
Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992
Write the salient features.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
Stockholm Conference
Rio conference
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Convention on Biological Diversity
Johannesburg treaty
CITES
Vienna Convention
Montreal Protocol
Stockholm Convention on POP
Basel convention
Cartegena protocol on biosafety
Page 68
Subject: Course: Environment Management
Course Code: CP-103 Author: Professor S.R. Gupta
Lesson No.: 5 Vetter:
Principles of Ecology: Concepts, Applications and Recycling
Structure 5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What is Ecology?
5.3 Concepts of Ecology
5.4 Applications of Ecology
5.5Ecological and Environmental Challenges for India
5.6 Recycling
5.7 Summary
5.8 Key words
5.9 Self-assessment questions
5.10 References/Suggested readings
5.0 Objectives After going through this lesson, you will be able to:
Definition of Ecology, and the concept of levels of organization.
Basic concepts related to population and biological community
Concept of energy flow and nutrient cycling in an Ecosystem
Ecological and environmental challenges for India
Applications of ecology and the concept of recycling
Page 69
5.1 Introduction
In nature, relationships between organisms and non-living components are clearly
visible. Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms,
including humans, and their physical environment. It seeks to understand the key
connections between plants, and animals, and the abiotic environment. Ecology has
developed over the last century from descriptive science to a multidisciplinary and
holistic science. As a holistic science, ecology has its roots in biological, physical and
social sciences. The multidisciplinary approaches in ecology are useful when
addressing problems at ecosystem, landscape and global levels. The disciplines
within ecology, such as oceanography, vegetation analysis, and freshwater ecology,
provide information to better understand the functioning of natural systems. This
information also can help to improve our environment, manage our natural
resources, and protect human health. The emerging disciplines of study in ecology
include biogeography, natural history, conservation biology, evolutionary ecology
and global change ecology. Ecology is taking a prominent role in modern life so as
to provide linkages between physical and social sciences. Humans are the dominant
species on the earth today, and ecology is concerned with how humans interact with
all other kind of organisms and the environment. The emergence of the discipline of
sustainability science addresses the fundamental character of interactions between
nature and society (Kates et al. 2001). Integration of humans and their socio-
economic needs into ecosystem framework is essential for ecological sustainability.
The social-ecological systems approach emphasizes that people, communities,
economies, societies, and cultures are an integral part of the biosphere and shape it,
from local to global scales (Steffen et al., 2004).
5.2 What is Ecology?
Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of interactions between
organisms and their environment. The term Oekologie, was introduced by a
Page 70
German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 which meant the study of the
relationship of the animal to its organic as well as its inorganic environment.
The word comes from the Greek word „oikos', meaning “household,” “home,” or
“place to live.” and 'logos' meaning the study of. Thus, ecology deals with the
organism and its environment. Odum (1971) cites one of the elaborate definitions
for ecology which states, "The totality of patterns of relations between organisms
and their environment". Ecology deals with numerous and varied components of
nature, which can be categorized variously (climate, soil, litter lying over soil,
plants, animals, production, decomposition, diversity, dominance, etc.) and the
linkages existing between them (e.g., how diversity is related to production or litter
lying over soil to production). In ecology we study the distribution and abundance of
organisms and their interactions with the physical environment comprising the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and the atmosphere as well as the influences of one
organism on the other. Ecology has been appropriately defined as the study of the
structure and function of nature (Odum 1971). Structure includes the distribution,
and abundance of organisms, whereas functions include all aspects of population
growth, species interactions, and flow of energy and nutrient cycling. The ecological
concepts highlight that changing one component in an ecological system generally
results in changes the other components.
5.3 Concepts of Ecology
The developments in the field of ecology have been gradual from natural history to
population ecology, biogeography to ecosystem ecology and more recently global
ecology with an emphasis on global climate change, biodiversity conservation,
restoration ecology and ecological sustainability (Singh et al. 2015). Ecological
concepts are general understandings about the levels of ecological organization,
individual organisms, populations, communities and ecosystem functioning.
5.3.1The levels of Ecological organization
Page 71
The concept of levels of organization provides a framework for dealing with complex
biological systems. In the ascending level of complexity, these levels include the
genes, cells, organs, individual organism, population, biological community,
ecosystem, landscape, biome and the biosphere. Each level of organization has
abiotic and biotic components, forming a functional biological system characterized
by the exchange of matter and energy. One level of organization integrates with the
other levels. In ecology, there is focus on organisms, populations, community,
ecosystem and the biosphere (Figure1).
Organism is an individual living entity. It forms a basic unit of study in ecology to
understand the form, physiology and behavior, distribution and adaptations in
relation to the environment.
Population is a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a given area.
Community is an assemblage of populations of different species that
live in a particular area and potentially interact with each other.
Ecosystem refers to a community of different species interacting with one another
and with their nonliving environment.
Biosphere refers to parts of Earth‟s air, water, and soil occupied by living
organisms. Atmosphere is gaseous envelope surrounding earth, hydrosphere
represents the earth‟s supply of water, and lithosphere refers to soil and rock of the
earth‟s crust.
Page 72
Figure 1. Levels of organization in ecology ranging from organisms to
biosphere
5.3.2 Ecology of individual organisms
The organism approach in ecology is used for studying the adaptations of
organisms to their environment. The special characteristics of plants and animals
that enable them to be successful under prevailing set of environmental conditions
are called adaptations. These adaptations can be morphological, physiological, and
behavioral. Organisms are adapted to their environments; species differ in their
specific ecological requirements. The distribution and abundance of a species is
Organism
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biosphere
An individual living entity
A group of individuals of the same species
Populations of different species
A community interacting with their nonliving environment
Parts of Earth’s air, water, and soil where life is found
Page 73
determined by the physical habitat, dispersal patterns, and interactions with other
organisms.
5.3.3 Ecology of Populations
Population ecology is the study of factors that affect population and population
changes over time. Population ecology has its deep historic roots, and its rich
development, in the study of population growth, regulation, and dynamics, or
demography. Changes in population size reflect the sum of births, deaths,
immigration, and emigration. A population has group characteristics like density,
natality (birth rate), mortality (death rate) and age structure. Population density
refers to number of individuals per unit of area or volume. Natality in population
ecology is the term for used for birth rate; natality rate is used to calculate the
dynamics of a population. Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number
of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to
the size of that population, per unit of time. Age structure defines the relative
proportions of individuals of each age: pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-
reproductive
Population ecology tries to apply models and theories for the study of populations.
The population has two basic patterns of population growth designated as
exponential growth (J-shaped) and sigmoid growth (S-shaped), Figure 2.
Exponential growth can occur only in an unlimited environment with respect to
space and food. Sigmoid population growth occurs in an environment that limits its
growth at some point. Populations are limited by their resources in their capacity to
grow; the maximum population abundance an environment can sustain is called the
carrying capacity. Human population growth serves as an important model for
Page 74
population ecologists, and is one of the most important environmental issues of the
twenty-first century.
Figure 2 (a) Exponential population growth form and (b) Sigmoid
population growth curve for a population. (https://www.khanacademy.org/)
5.3.4 Ecology of Communities
A biological community consists of the different species within an area. Community
ecology deals with the study of the interactions within and among these species.
Community concepts are concerned with understanding the diversity and relative
abundances of different kinds of organisms living together in an area. Community
ecology is an expanding and rich subfield of ecology that deals with the factors that
influence biodiversity, community structure, and the distribution and abundance of
species. Some important community concepts relating to Ecological niche, species
interaction, keystone species and succession are described as follows.
Habitat and Ecological Niche: Habitat is the physical place where an organism
lives, e.g. a pine forest or a fresh water lake. The functional role of an organism in a
Exponential growth Sigmoid growth
(a)
(b)
Page 75
community refers to Niche. Among the first to use the term niche was Grinnell
(1917). Elton (1927) defined ecological niche as the place of species in the biological
environment, its relationship to food and predators. Niche segregation refers to the
process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that
helps them to coexist
.
Species interactions in a community: Competition, predation, parasitism,
commensalism and mutualism are the five major types of interspecific interactions
that structure communities (Table 1). These interactions can have regulating effects
on population sizes and can impact ecological and evolutionary processes affecting
diversity.
Table 1 : Types of species interactions in a community
Mutualism An interaction that is beneficial to both species, e.g. plants
and their pollinators, plants and animals that disperse their
seeds.
Amensalism The interaction in which one of the two species populations
is inhibited and the other remains unaffected.
Commensalism Beneficial to one species but neutral to another.
Parasitism An interaction that benefits one species and is detrimental to
another
Predation An interaction beneficial to one species and detrimental to
another by direct attack. In this case the prey is killed;
predators are those that kill the prey.
Keystone species: The role of keystone species in communities is an important
tenet, and one of the best-known ideas in community ecology. Keystone species are
those whose presence or absence markedly affects other species in the community,
Page 76
disproportionately to its abundance. Robert T. Paine performed a predator removal
study to determine the effect that the predator has on the abundance and diversity
of species in the rock intertidal community in the North Pacific (Paine 1966). Since
Paine‟s study, many other similar studies have been carried out to determine the
effect of top predators on the species diversity of the community. Sea otters are a
keystone species because of their ability to transform sea urchin-dominated
communities into kelp-dominated communities by preying on sea urchins and thus
reducing the intensity of herbivory. Sea otters in the North Pacific feed
preferentially on sea urchins that feed on productive and diverse kelp beds. The
otters indirectly but greatly benefit the kelps and a highly diverse group of species
that depend on the kelps for food and refuge. Islands with sea otters had
healthy kelp forests while islands without otters were comprised of sea urchins and
no kelp forest. The keystone top predators such as panthers, lions, tigers and
leopards in terrestrial ecosystems have strongly influenced the communities by
reducing competition among prey species (Singh et al. 2015).
Succession : Communities are not static, they gradually change over time because
the environment changes and species themselves tend to change their habitats.
Succession is the change in species composition over time and results from both
abiotic and biotic factors, and disturbance regimes. Succession is a natural part of
the dynamics of the community. Understanding the process, rates and pattern of
ecological succession is important for the management of ecosystems and for
understanding dynamic changes in the landscapes.
5.3.5 Ecosystem Ecology
The ecosystem has been a key organizational concept in ecology. It is an important
theoretical and applied concept for studying global change, and human
environmental impacts. A.G. Tansley, a British ecologist, defined an ecosystem as a
basic unit of nature, composed of the set of organisms and physical factors forming
Page 77
the environment (Tansley 1935). Ecosystem concept has proved to be of practical
value to understand the complexity of natural systems and ecosystem properties.
Species diversity at the levels of autotrophs, macroconsumers, and decomposers is
an important structural characteristic of the ecosystems. Trophic structure refers
to the food relationships between the biotic components of the ecosystem, i.e.,
producers, consumers, and decomposers. Ecosystem functioning refers to the
biological, geochemical and physical processes that take place within an ecosystem.
Ecosystems exhibit the exchange of matter and energy with their environment. The
key functional aspects of ecosystems are energy flow, food chains and food webs,
biogeochemical cycling, and ecosystem regulation and stability.
.
Energy flow, Food chains and Food webs: The sun is the ultimate source of
energy for most ecosystems; primary production by autotrophs provides the energy
for all ecosystems. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional (Figure 3)
and governed by the two basic laws of thermodynamics. A linear arrangement of
trophic levels is called food-chain along which the energy flows. An ecosystem
contains several food-chains; often these food chains are inter-linked forming a food
web. Food webs represent interlocking food chains that connect all organisms in an
ecosystem. Food webs provide useful way to describe the flow of energy through
ecosystems. Food webs are useful in studies at the ecosystem level.
Biogeochemical cycling: Six nutrient elements, i.e., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, make up 95 percent of the biospheric mass on the
Earth (Schlesinger 1997). The cycling of these elements through the Earth system
in their biological, geological, and chemical forms constitutes the biogeochemical
cycles ( Figure 4) The biogeochemical cycles are of two basic types, viz., gaseous and
sedimentary types. In the gaseous cycles (such as nitrogen and carbon) the reservoir
is in the atmosphere or hydrosphere (ocean). In sedimentary types (for example,
phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is in the lithosphere. Human activities have
Page 78
greatly increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and nitrogen levels in the
biosphere (Galloway et al. 2014).
Figure 3. Life on the earth depends on the one-way flow of energy indicated with
dashed lines from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrient elements
with solid lines around circles ( adapted from Miller Jr 2005).
Heat Heat Hea
Nitrogen Cycle Water Cycle
Heat in the Environment
Carbon
Page 79
Ecosystem Regulation and Stability: The ecosystem is an open system as well
as a cybernetic system. The ecosystem is an open system because of the
requirement of an outside input in the form of solar radiation and an output to the
environment (e.g., heat of respiration) for continued operation (Figure 5).
Cybernetic system responds to inputs and has outputs, and a specialized kind of
system response is called feedback (Figure 5). This feedback is of two types: positive
feedback and negative feedback. In the positive feedback, increased output results
in increased input and therefore in further increased output and so on.
Reproduction is an example of positive feedback: births increase population size,
which in turn increases the rate of reproduction, which leads to yet more births.
Negative feedback is one of the principal mechanisms of homeostasis- the
maintenance of dynamic equilibrium by internal regulation. Predator–prey systems
are examples of negative feedback.
Page 80
Figure 4. An ecosystem is: (a) an open system receiving input of energy
and having the output ;(a cybernetic system showing negative feedback
control. (based on Odum 1983).
5.4 Applications of Ecology
The ever increasing human population and human activities such as food
production, industrial development, and international commerce, excessive use of
water resources, energy production, and urbanization are the main cause of
environmental degradation. Currently, humans are using about 40% of the Earth‟s
terrestrial primary production every year (Foley et al. 2007), and over harvesting
freshwater resources largely for irrigation in agriculture (Steffen et al. 2015). There
are increasingly environmental health risks due to poverty, unsafe drinking water,
Input Output
SYSTEM
Input Output
SYSTEM
Negative Feedback Loop
Page 81
sanitation in rural and urban areas, environmental pollution, unsafe solid waste
management, and intensive agriculture. Ecology has become an important science
due to societal concerns about the increasing human population and environmental
degradation from local to regional and global scale. The field of applied ecology
addresses issues in conservation biology, the use of natural resources,
environmental pollution, the effects of global climate change, and the management
of natural resources. There are many practical applications of ecology to managing
environmental pollution, control of biological invasions and improving the
environment, conservation biology, natural resource management including
agriculture, forestry and wildlife, restoration of degraded ecosystems, and
sustainable development ( Figure5) .
Figure 5. Applications of Ecology in different fields .
Page 82
5.4.1 Managing Environmental Pollution
Heavy use of coal, high-sulphur fuels and nitrogen fertilizers and growth in
vehicular traffic have increased the problem of air pollution. The contamination of
air, water and soil is accelerating the accumulation of toxic metals in the human
food chain. Pollution pauses a major threat to planetary health, destroys
ecosystems, and is closely linked to global climate change. Pollution is the largest
environmental cause of disease and premature death in the world today. Diseases
caused by pollution were responsible for an estimated nine million premature
deaths in 2015, 16% of all deaths worldwide (Landrigan et al. 2016). Pollution
mitigation, prevention and control can yield large net gains both for human health
and the economy. Pollution control can also help in fulfilling many of the
sustainable development goals, the 17 goals established by the United Nations to
guide global development in the 21st century (Landrigan et al. 2016).
5.4.2 Control of Biological Invasions
The Invasive alien species (IAS) are a significant and growing problem worldwide.
Invasive species are those that occur outside their natural range, spread rapidly
and cause harm to other species, communities, or entire ecosystems and to human
well being. The introductions of non-native species can have a major impact on the
structure and functioning of terrestrial, freshwater and marine systems as well as
islands and urban areas. Lantana (Lantana camara) is an example of one of the
most troublesome weeds in the world; it has invaded most of the tropical and
subtropical regions of India (Babu et al. 2009). The restoration program for
Lantana camara and other invasive species can be devised on the basis of
understanding of the biology of the invader, the local soil and micro climatic
conditions, the status of the ecosystem, and understanding the larger landscape
matrix.
Page 83
5.4.3 Biodiversity Conservation
Conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their
habitats. Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of
Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and
ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.
Biodiversity at all levels,i.e., gene pool, species and ecosystems is important and
needs to be conserved for sustainable development. Conservation biology has a
focus on the protection and management of biodiversity based on principles of both
basic and applied ecology.
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) has recognized four broad categories of ecosystem
services, i.e., provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services (MA, 2005).
The provisioning services describe the processes that yield foods, fibers, fuels,
freshwater, biochemicals (medicinal plants, pharmaceuticals), and genetic
resources. The cultural services comprise a set of largely non-material benefits of
the ecosystems including recreation and tourism. The regulating services are the
benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes. The supporting services
are those that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. The
MEA‟s vision of ecosystem-service science is holistic, integrative, and cross-
disciplinary. The ecosystem services concept can be used for natural resource
management and biodiversity conservation. . For example, recent studies
demonstrate the links between crop pollination and wild bee pollinators and
thereby highlight the economic value of natural habitats.
5.4.4 Natural Resource management
Natural resource management focuses on the need of sustainable management of
the Earth's depleting natural resources such as freshwater, energy, and biological
resources including agriculture, forests and wildlife, in relation to the growth of the
human population.
Page 84
Agricultural Management encompasses many diverse interests and emerging
problems, including the need to address growing pest and weed control problems,
reduce pressure on supporting natural resources, ameliorate environmental impacts
of agricultural operations and promote sustainable agricultural production. Areas of
application range from the physiological, population, and community ecology of
organisms present in agricultural systems, and the impact of agricultural systems
from regional to global scale. Conservation agriculture is system of agronomic
practices through the application of minimal soil disturbance that includes no-
tillage, zero-tillage, direct seeding, reduced tillage, ridge tillage and cover crops, so
as to improve livelihoods of farmers.
Forest management: Forest ecology is the study of all aspects of the ecology of
forested areas, including rainforest, deciduous and evergreen, temperate and
boreal forest. It includes the community ecology of the trees and other plant and
non-plant species, as well as ecosystem processes and conservation. The world‟s
forests are one of our greatest natural assets, providing numerous ecological, social
and economic services. It is therefore vital that we adopt suitable management
practices to help ensure their ecological integrity and long-term sustainability in a
changing world.
Wildlife management: Wildlife is a renewable resource that generates many
environmental services. It plays a key role in regulating natural processes at all
levels of the food chain and delivers “provisioning” services (such as those that
produce food and income) to a substantial proportion of the world‟s people. Wildlife
typically provides cultural services, too, forming the basis of many traditions. The
aim of sustainable wildlife management is to maintain wildlife numbers at
economically, socially and environmentally desirable levels.
Ecological carrying capacity is the maximum population size that can be sustained
by a habitat indefinitely, given the resources available in the environment (which
may fluctuate seasonally or over periods of several years due to cyclical changes in
Page 85
environmental conditions). Human-wildlife conflict may occur when humans and
wildlife coexist and have overlapping habitats; they involve situations in which
human activities put pressure on wildlife populations
5.4.5 Restoring Degraded Ecosystems
Restoration ecology is the application of ecological theory to restoration of highly
disturbed habitats, ecosystems and landscapes. The field of applied ecology
assumes significance as greater attention is paid to the recovery of disturbed
landscapes. Ecological Restoration has a focus on restoring terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems based on ecological principles so as to restore the ecological processes
and assist the ecosystems to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The
restoration studies have shown that restoration actions in a wide range of
ecosystem types are effective in improving ecosystem services, particularly in the
tropical regions (Rey Benayas et al., 2009).
5.4.6 Ecological Sustainability
As defined in the Brundtland Commission Report (WCED 1987), “sustainable
development is meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainability science is a field of
research which deals with the interactions between natural and social systems, and
with how those interactions affect the challenges of sustainability (Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the USA(PNAS), http://www.
pnas.org/site/misc/sustainability.shtml). Sustainability science has emerged in the
21st century as a new academic discipline, and the core of this discipline is the
concept of sustainability which means meeting the needs of present and future
generations while reducing poverty and conserving the planet's life support systems
(Kates et al. 2001). Thus, Sustainability science seeks real world solutions and
practical applications of ecological concepts in decision making.
Page 86
5.4.7 Climate Change Ecology
Human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 40% over pre-
industrial levels. The CO2 levels in the atmosphere currently (407 ppm in
September 2017) are higher than at any time, at least the last 800,000 years (170 to
300 ppm), indicating a pronounced human impact (IPCC 2014). Climate-change
ecology is the study of the effects of anthropogenic climate change on different
levels of biological organization from genes to ecosystems. It includes the effects
of altered temperature and precipitation on the distribution, abundance,
behaviour and physiology of populations and communities.
Climate change has been caused by increasing atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases. Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide are primarily responsible for the changing climate.
Burning fossil fuels and clearing natural habitats for human use produce the
majority of these emissions. The world is currently experiencing considerable losses
of natural resources, reductions in biodiversity, increased frequency of extreme
events, and collapse in natural systems due to climate change (IPCC 2014). Climate
change continues to cause changes across ecosystems from terrestrial and marine
environments, rising sea levels, increases in global mean surface temperatures,
increases in extreme weather events, and changes in the abundance, distribution,
and composition of species.
5.5 Ecological and Environmental Challenges for India
India has about 17.85% of the world‟s population on just 2.4% of the worlds land
area. This creates enormous pressure on natural resources and human development
as reflected by poverty and inequality, unsafe drinking water and health risks due
to environmental pollution. The main environmental issues in India are: poverty
and socio-economic inequality, under nourishment and disease, deforestation and
land degradation, loss of Biodiversity, Environmental pollution , and the over
Page 87
exploitation of natural resources. Area covered by land degradation is 45% of total
land area due to water erosion, wind erosion, soil acidity, alkalinity and salinity.
The Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is a method of quantifying and
numerically marking the environmental performance of a state's policies. The
Environmental Performance Index 2018 for 180 countries has been released by
Universities Yale and Columbia in association with the World Economic Forum
(https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/2018-epi-report/executive-summary). This report
shows that India is at 177 ranks in the overall category of EPI, because of poor
performance in the environmental health policy and deaths due to air pollution.
Singh (2011) has given a detailed account of progress of ecology in India dealing
with early history, the contributions of different schools of ecology, significant
contributions of different workers in the field, and future perspectives of ecological
research. For ecological and environmental challenges facing India, there is a need
for a total system perspective and integrative approach, long-term data and
experiments on ecosystem properties, understanding of sustainability parameters,
ecology education, and integration of social and ecological sciences (Singh 2011,
Singh and Bagchi 2013).
5.6 Recycling
Recycling of water and nutrients is a key process in ecosystems and an important
concern for human well-being. According to Odum and Barrette (2005), there are
five major recycling pathways in an ecosystem: (i) though the process of microbial
decomposition, (ii) by animal excretion, (iii) by direct recycling of nutrients from
plant to plant through symbiosis, (iv) by physical means through the action of
sunlight, and (v) by the use of fuel energy such as industrial fixation of nitrogen. All
organisms are interconnected by global recycling systems made up of
biogeochemical cycles. The recycling concepts have been explained by taking the
Page 88
example of organic matter decomposition, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical
cycles.
Decomposition is the process of the breakdown of complex organic matter by
decomposers to inorganic materials like carbon dioxide, water and various mineral
nutrients. The surface layer of soil is the main site for decomposition processes in
the ecosystem. Decomposition is a complex and multi step process of breaking down
of complex organic matter by soil organisms to release free the nutrients for
renewed uptake by the plants. During the process of litter decomposition, a large
proportion of carbon is lost as respiration of decomposer organisms and nutrients
are recycled.
Carbon is the basic building block of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, DNA, and
other organic compounds necessary for life. It is circulated through the biosphere by
the carbon cycle. This cycle is based on carbon dioxide gas, which constitutes about
0.040% of the volume of the atmosphere and also remains dissolved in water. The
basic movement of CO2 is from the atmospheric reservoir to plants and animals and
from them to decomposers and then back to atmosphere. The carbon fixed by the
plants is used for their own growth and then enters the food chains as animals eat
the plants. Respiratory activity of plants and animals, and, that of the decomposers
organisms results in the return of biologically fixed carbon as CO2 to the
atmosphere. Oceans play important roles in the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle has
its significance to understand global climate change.
Different types of bacteria help recycle nitrogen through the earth‟s air, water, soil,
and living organisms. Nitrogen is the atmosphere‟s most abundant element,
constituting about 78% of the volume of the air. The nitrogen cycle describes the
routes that nitrogen takes through the ecosystem. The nitrogen cycle relies on
bacteria that make nitrogen useful to organisms and bacteria that can return it to
the atmosphere. The atmosphere (nitrogen gas) goes through the fixation of
Page 89
lightning and the fixation by micro-organisms. Nitrogen fixed by Azotobacter and
Clostridium, and Rhizobium . More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is
carried out by these organisms, which thus play an important role in the nitrogen
cycle. Symbiotic fixation by leguminous and other naturally occurring plants may be
significant in some ecosystems. Nitrogen fixation by soil algae and bacteria
probably provides a major input of nitrogen in most desert ecosystems.
Plants and animals return nitrogen-rich organic compounds to the environment as
wastes, cast-off particles, and dead organic matter. Nitrogen return occurs through
litter and dead plants. In the soil, the organic matter is converted by soil
microorganisms to ammonium then to nitrate through the process of
ammonification and nitrification. The denitrifying bacteria (which are anaerobic),
living in soil and water, release the fixed nitrogen as gaseous form of nitrogen back
into atmosphere through the process called denitrification. The use of nitrogen
fertilizers has altered the nitrogen cycle. Human production of nitrogen as
fertilizer nitrogen exceeds total nitrogen fixation from Natural Systems.
5.7 Summary
i. Ecology is the study of interactions between living organisms including
humans, and their environment.
ii. Ecological concepts are general understandings about the levels of ecological
organization, individual organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystem
structure and functioning.
iii. Levels of organization in ecology include the organisms, population,
community, ecosystem, and biosphere. The organism approach in ecology
deals with the adaptations of organisms to their environment. A population
has group characteristics like density, natality (birth rate), mortality (death
rate) and age structure.
iv. Community ecology deals with the concepts of habitat and ecological niche,
species interactions, and keystone species. The key functional aspects of
Page 90
ecosystem are energy flow, food chains and food webs, biogeochemical cycling,
and ecosystem regulation and stability.
v. Biosphere refers to parts of Earth‟s air, water, and soil where life exists.
vi. There are many practical applications of ecology principles in managing
environmental pollution, control of biological invasions, conservation biology,
natural resource management including agriculture, forestry and wildlife,
restoration of degraded ecosystems, and sustainable development.
vii. The main environmental issues in India are: population, under nourishment
and disease, deforestation and land degradation, loss of biodiversity,
environmental pollution, and the degradation of natural resources.
viii. The recycling concepts can be explained on the basis of organic matter
decomposition, recycling of nutrients.
5.8 Key words
Ecology, Abiotic and biotic components, levels of organization, ecosystem
Structure, Ecosystem functions, Energy flow, Food chains and Foodwebs ,
Biogeochemical cycles, Ecosystem regulation and stability, biodiversity, natural
resource management, pollution, conservation biology, sustainable development,
recycling..
2.9 Self-assessment questions
1. Define of Ecology and explain the concept of levels of organization.
2. Enumerate the group characteristics of the population. Explain two basic
growth form of population.
3. Explain the concept of habitat and ecological niche.
4. What are major species interactions in a community?
5. Why keystone species are important in regulating a community.
6. Define energy flow, food chains and Foodwebs.
Page 91
7. What are biogeochemical cycles?
8. Explain the concept of ecosystem regulation and stability.
9. Write an essay on practical applications of ecology.
10. How ecological principles apply to natural resource management?
11. Explain the concept of recycling.
5.10 References/Suggested Readings
Babu, S., Love, A. and Babu, C.R., (2009). Ecological restoration of Lantana-
invaded landscapes in Corbett Tiger Reserve, India. Restoration Ecology 27,
467–477.
Foley JA, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Zaks D. (2007). Our share of the planetary
pie. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 12585-6.
Galloway, J. N., W. H. Schlesinger, C. M. Clark, et al. (2014) Ch. 15:
Biogeochemical Cycles. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The
Third National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond,
and G. W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 350-368.
doi:10.7930/J0X63JT0.
Grinnell , J. (1917). The Niche-Relationships of the California Thrasher. The Auk
34 : 427-433
IPCC, (2014).Summary for Policymakers. In: Field CB (ed) Climate change 2014:
Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK/New York, pp. 1–32pp.
Kates, R., Clark, W., Corell, R., Hall, J., et al. (2001). Sustainability science. Science
292: 641-642.
Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, et al. (2017) The Lancet Commission on
pollution and health. Lancet 2017; published online Oct 19
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0.
MA (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis Report. Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment. World Resources Institute. Island Press,
Washington, DC. www.wri.org
Page 92
Miller, Jr.G. T. (2005). Essentials of Ecology. 3rd edition.. : Brooks/Cole-Thomson
Learning. Australia ; Pacific Grove, California.
Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Third Edition. Saunders College
Publishing, Philadelphia.
Odum, E.P. (1983). Basic Ecology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia.
Odum, E.P. and Barrett, G.W.(2005). Fundamentals of Ecology. Fifth Edition.
Cengage Learning, New Delhi.
Paine, R.T. (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist
100: 65-75.
Rey Benayas, J. M., Newton, A. C., Diaz, A. and Bullock, J. M.
(1979). Enhancement of biodiversity and ecosystem services by ecological
restoration: a meta-analysis . Science 325 : 1121-1124.
Schlesinger W.H.(1997). Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. Gulf
Professional Publishing. 588 pages
Singh JS, Singh SP, Gupta SR (2015). Ecology, Environmental Science and
Conservation. S. Chand, New Delhi, India.
Singh, J.S. (2011). Ecology in India: Retrospect and Prospects. Third Prof. R. Misra
Birth Centenary Lecture. Bulletin of the National Institute of Ecology
22: 1-13.
Singh, N.J. and Bagchi, S. (2013). Applied ecology in India: scope of science and
policy to meet contemporary environmental and socio-ecological
challenges. Journal of Applied Ecology 50: 4–14.
Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O. and Ludwig, C (2015). The
trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great acceleration. Anthropocene
Review 2, 81–98.
Steffen W, Sanderson A, Tyson PD et al. (2004). Global change and the Earth
system: a Planet under Pressure. Springer-Verlag, New York, USA.
Tansley AG(1935). The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms.
Ecology 16: 284-307.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) 1987. Our Common
Future. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development,
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Page 93
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Meenakshi Suhag
Lesson No.: 6 Vetter: Dr. Sanjay Tiwari
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: EMS STANDARDS AND
AUDITING
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Environmental Management System (EMS)
6.3 Environmental Management System Standards
6.4 ISO 14001
6.5 Benefits of ISO 14001 found in the literature
6.6 Implementation of ISO 14001
6.7 Environmental Auditing
6.8 Self-Assessment Questions
6.9 References/Suggested Readings
Page 94
6.0 Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to understand:
The concept of Environment Management System (EMS)
Significance of EMS
Different EMS standards
Role of ISO 14001 for the Implementation of EMS
The concept of environmental auditing
6.1 Introduction
Environment provides resources as well as essential services to supports life of human
beings. Now a days, resource conservation and management have become significant for
the commercial establishment of an enterprise or company and decision-making
procedures both in organisations in industrial and service sectors. Not all resources are of
renewable nature as well as after their consumption by different industries for making
good and other desired products; they are also generating lots of waste and pollutants in
air, water and land. Therefore, degradation of the environment has been threatening the
sustainability of human beings and its green planet earth. In order to achieve sustainable
development goal, enterprises, companies and industries must adopt resource
conservation and environmental protection as an integral part of overall management and
business strategy. The capability of corporations to manage their environmental
performance is emerging as a strategic issue for many companies worldwide. There is an
urgent requirement of more effective standards or tools that a company must follow to
assess their management practices and level of their effectiveness in meeting their
environmental responsibilities.
In other word, the structure of an organization must be changed for better relationship
with nature and its resources at each level. The growing public concern about
environmental quality has led to the development and implementation of various
voluntary schemes and standards for environmental management and pollution control.
Implementation of an Environmental Management System by an organization or
enterprise is a systemic approach to minimize environmental risk. With the rapid
development of industrial economy in recent decades, global warming caused by carbon
Page 95
emission has raised wider concern around the world. With the keen awareness of
corporate social responsibility, an increasing number of firms are actively pursuing
various certifications on environmental management and ISO 14001 is the most popular
one.
6.2 Environmental Management System (EMS)
EMS is a continuous improvement practice program may have following defined
sequence steps drawn from established project management practices applied in business
management.
Why to have EMS is important for any firm?
Business typically argues that the traditional government regulations are costly;
In addition to it, the traditional regulations have been criticized for establishing a
threshold of acceptable pollution and accordingly facilities strive to meet these thresholds
but fail to reduce their emissions any further.
An EMS is regarded as an important management tool that aids a business. In general, the the
process of setting up an EMS can be outlined as follows:
1. Analyzing the environmental consequences of the operations;
2. Designing a set of policies and objectives for environmental performance;
3. Establishing an action plan to achieve the objectives;
4. Monitoring performances against these objectives;
5. Reporting the results appropriately;
6. Reviewing the system and strive for continuous improvement.
An EMS can be implemented in any organization/company or industry-big or small, private
or government in different ways depending upon the needs and objectives. Hence, its
implementation is flexible which make it useful at all relevant levels in achieving
environmental goals. ISO 14001 specifies the standard for establishment and maintenance of
an EMS in any organization. The Ford Motor Company was one of the first MNCs to
embrace ISO 14001 series guidelines for all of its manufacturing facilities. General Motors,
Page 96
Daimler-Chrysler, Toyota and other automobile manufactures around the World adopt EMS
and certify them through International standards.
An Environmental Management System of an organization helps to:
Develop and maintain a well-organized management structure that ensures compliance
with regulations and environmental legislations.
Provide a framework through which harmful impacts of organizational activities on
environment can be minimized.
Improve established project management practices.
Enhance employee awareness regarding environmental issues and responsibility.
Enhance consumers support, sound image in public and market.
Reduce the cost associated with environmental management practices due to increased
efficiency.
6.3 Environmental Management System Standards
It was after the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 that environmental
management matters too for achieving sustainable development. Later on, the EMS was
introduced to help the organizations coping with their environmental issues in a more
standardized and effective manner. The concept of external certification expanded with
the introduction of the British standard with the introduction of the British Standard 7750
in the early 1990s, followed by the development of EMAS in 1993, and the promulgation
of the ISO 14000 series in 1996 (Morrow and Rondinelli, 2002).
The two most frequently used guidelines for EMS design and certification are the
International Standards ISO 14001 and the European Standard, EMAS.
6.4 ISO 14001
The constituent standards of management systems are organized by the international
Organization for Standardization (ISO), an international organization based in Geneva. In
1996, at the request of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) four years earlier, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Page 97
introduced ISO 14001, the first of the 1SO 14000 family of environmental management
systems (EMS) standards (Ferron-Vilchez, 2016). ISO 14001 provides guidelines by
which corporations or other organizations design and implement an EMS. It presents the
elements of an EMS that organizations are required to conform with, if they seek third
party certification. The Plan-do-check-Act is the basic cycle behind all the ISO standards.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Figure Cycle representing elements of EMS
1. Plan: EMS implementation through ISO14001 guidelines.
2. Do: Life cycle assessment and management of environmental aspects.
3. Check: auditing and evaluation of environment performance.
4. Act: continuous improvement by maintain EMS.
Some of the important features of ISO 14001 are as follows:
Among all the ISO 14000 series, the ISO 14001 is the only one auditable, granting
environmental quality certification to organizations (Disterheft et al., 2012).
Since the official launch of ISO 14001 in 1996, more than 320,000 organizations
worldwide have certified their EMSs through this standard (ISO, 2014)
It is in accordance with environmental laws of the country that adopt it, because this type
of Environmental Management System (EMS) was written to be applicable to all types
and sizes of organizations.
Page 98
In addition, the standard must be adjusted to the different geographical, cultural and
social conditions (Cary and Roberts, 2013).
Its first version was released in 1996, published and based on the British Standards (BS)
7750. Seeking to improve the standard, updates were made in 2004 and 2015.
It is the most widely accepted as a standard tool for managing environmental welfare of
the organization.
As per qualitative analysis, China, Italy, Japan, the UK and Spain are the main countries
in numbers of ISO 14001 certificates issued.
The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS):
It is similar to ISO 14001 in its components and requirements but the only difference is
that EMAS applicable only at the site level, while ISO can be applicable at the facility,
company and organization levels.
The Goals of ISO 14001 were twofold (Bansal and Hunter, 2003):
1. At the corporate level, ISO 14001 was designed to help businesses reduce their
environmental impact while improving management control.
2. At a societal level, ISO 14001 was intended to facilitate sustainable development and
foster international trade by providing an internationally legitimized system of
standardization.
The ISO 14001 is an international based environmental management system (EMS) of
which the subscribed firms follow the standard of five main components which include
the environmental policy, planning, implementation and operation, checking and
corrective action, review and improvement (Hazudin et al., 2015). An EMS is a formal
set of procedures that defines how a facility will manage its impacts to the natural
environment. They are based on a continuous-improvement model that expects firms to
periodically revisit and update their environmental improvement goals to ensure that
negative environmental impacts are minimized (Darnall and Edwards, 2006). The
certification has seemed a feasible option particularly among firms operating in
Page 99
environmentally sensitive industries such as paper and pulp industry as well as chemical
based industry to help the firms minimize its environmental risk exposures.
Issued in September 1996, ISO 14001consists of five essential requirements (Boiral
and Sala, 1998):
1. Commitment and Policy
For the implementation of a successful EMS system it is essential for an organization to
have a written environmental policy appropriate to the nature, scale and environmental
impacts of its activities, products and services. An environmental policy is usually
published as a written statement and a corporate commitment for improving
environmental performance. It is the prime duty of the top management that the
environmental policy of the company must conform to all applicable national laws,
regulations and other requirements related to its environmental aspects. The policy
documented must include pollution prevention as one of its policies and principles of
actions to reduce such impacts. It should be a public document properly analyzed and
revised depending upon the objectives and targets of the organization. Last but not the
least it must have a commitment towards continuously improving environment
performance.
2. Planning
For appropriate planning first different environmental aspects should be identified and
recognized by well-specified processes. The identification of the environmental impacts
arising from the environmental aspects will form the foundation of the targets and
objectives for the corporate environmental plan. Moreover, the company must identify
and evaluate all legal (national & international) and other requirements related to the
environmental aspects of an organization in any ways. The plan of action of the
organization describes all the measures taken over by an organization in order to achieve
all the targets and objectives within the framework of applicable legislation. The action
plan required to express the environmental policies of the organization into objectives
Page 100
and targets and identifies the activities to achieve them, defines the responsibilities and
commits the necessary human and financial resources for implementation.
3. Implementation and operation
Successful implementation of EMS would need commitment of all the employees.
Environment awareness of the staff in general and training for those involved in EMS
brings benefits to the organization. Proper communication channels are essential to
inspire the employees and to influence external interested parties. All the documents
related to EMS such as environmental policy, objectives, targets, important elements and
other required records shall be controlled by making proper procedure. It is the
responsibility of each organization to make emergency preparedness operations and
periodically testing them in order to avoid accidents or other hazards.
4. Checking and corrective action
According to this every organization shall establish and implement a set of procedures to
monitor or check their environmental impacts on regular basis. The equipment should be
calibrated and maintained time to time for better environmental performance. The
corrective and preventive actions must be taken up and recorded as per the standards. In
addition to this the organizations are required to conduct audits to at planned intervals
verify the EMS implementation. Senior management shall implements such programmes
by selecting auditors, giving employees proper training and providing appropriate time
for conducting audits. The outcomes of audits must be documented and properly
implemented.
5. Management review and continual improvement
Top management must periodically review the EMS to evaluate its sustainability and
effectiveness. The review should be conducted by means of preplanned meetings. After
reviewing appropriate changes in the policy, targets and corrective actions shall be done
by the management with the obligation of continuous improvement in organizational
environmental performance.
Page 101
Environmental Policy
Planning
Implementation and
operationChecking
Management Review
Continual
improvement
Figure: ISO 14001 EMS Model
6.5 Benefits of ISO 14001 found in the literature:
1. Portraying a good environmental image of the company ;
2. Improving the need for the company to comply with laws and regulations;
3. Improving environmental associations of the company and
4. Inducing the company‟s internal problems with encouraged supports from their
employees.
5. ISO certification leads to increased competitive advantage and increased financial
performance in addition to improved reputation and reduced business cost (Hwee Nga,
2009).
6. Studies suggested that adoption of ISO14001-certified EMS leads to a significant
improvement in environment quality and decrease in BOD discharge (Barla, 2007), solid
waste generation (Arimura et al., 2008) and reduces pollutant emissions (Sam et al.,
2009).
6.6 Implementation of ISO 14001
Page 102
It has become essential that resource conservation and environmental protection must
now become a part of overall management as Environmental Management System to be
adopted as a strategy by the enterprise for meeting the expectations of the society as well
as sustainable development. Pollution prevention, continuous improvement and voluntary
participation are the three principles that guide the standard as well as contribute to its
flexibility. ISO 14001 is not a performance standard but it is a process based standard. Is
however not a one-time job and easy. Study conducted by Babakri et al. (2003) found
that normally most firms take 8 to 19 month to be officially certified and they face the
greatest problem in funding the cost of certification as documentation, training and hiring
activities can be very costly and time consuming. Furthermore, it will be more difficult
for those companies with limited resources to carry out the installation process and usage.
6.7 Environmental Auditing
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines an environmental audit as “a
systematic, periodic, documented and objective review by regulated entities of facility
operations and practices related to meeting environmental requirements.
Objectives of Environmental Audit
Environmental audit is a tool used to evaluate the effectiveness of environmental efforts
performed by an organization and focusing on the following objectives:
1. To assess the establishment and implementation of environmental management system in
an organization.
2. To review management system, environmental policies and other provisions.
3. To authenticate standards, legal and others environmental regulations.
4. To identify the new approaches/methods and areas for enhancing environment problems.
5. To verify the information, data and records
6. To identify weaknesses and problems associated with operations at the same time point
out more effective methods to ensure better performance.
7. To check the emergency strategy, safety systems and actions in an effective manner.
8. Confirm the design specification, resource utilization, treatment and disposable facilities.
Page 103
Preparing for the audit
The types of audit may vary according to the need and type of the concern organization.
The elementary areas under consideration of audit programmes air and water quality;
Energy, water and waste management; EMS performance etc. The environmental audit
can be conducted by the individuals of the organization called internal audits and if by
the external party or consultants called external audits. ISO 14010, ISO 14011 and ISO
14012 are the three important Environmental standards where ISO 14010 defines the
common principles to all audits; ISO 14011 explains the process for the audit; ISO 14012
explains the qualification criteria for an auditor.
The environmental manager should maintain an EMS audit schedule showing:
1. The frequency and timing of audits;
2. Specific areas and activities to be audited;
3. Identity and qualification of auditor (s);
4. Auditing and reporting criteria.
Hence, Environmental audits are the regular evaluation tool that helps an organization to
examine and comparing operating methods and processes against standard procedures
ensuring compliance with the laws and standards. Therefore, enhance the awareness
regarding environmental problems as well as planning for efficient responses. It makes
the management more efficient regarding use of resources and more financial savings.
6.8 Summary
Multinational companies, organizations and corporations- large or small, adopt
Environmental Management Systems and certifying them by international standards such
as ISO 14001. It provides framework for managing their environmental impacts and
promote continuous improvement. The process of successful implementation of the EMS
depends on commitment from all levels especially from senior management. An EMS
involves multiple components such as developing an environmental policy, monitoring
programs, training programs and environmental audit protocols. Environmental audits are
regular, systematic and policy relevant for improving compliance with environment
regulations. Moreover they promote stronger overall environmental management and
reflect management decisions.
6.9 Keywords
Page 104
1. EMS: EMS is a continuous improvement practice program may have following defined
sequence steps drawn from established project management practices applied in business
management.
2. ISO: International Standard Organization: The constituent standards of management systems
are organized by the international Organization for Standardization (ISO), an international
organization based in Geneva.
3. ISI 14001: It is an international based environmental management system (EMS) of which the
subscribed firms follow the standard of five main components which include the environmental
policy, planning, implementation and operation, checking and corrective action, review and
improvement.
4. Environmental Auditing: A systematic, periodic, documented and objective review by
regulated entities of facility operations and practices related to meeting environmental
requirements.
6.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain how an industry benefits from an Environmental Management System?
2. State the responsibilities of top management for an efficient EMS in their organization.
3. What is ISO 14001? Describe its salient features and its importance in protecting
environment.
4. Discuss the core elements required for the implementation of EMS in an organization?
5. How ISO standards are different from other standards.
6. Explain different types of Environmental Management System standards.
7. What is the significance of environmental audits?
8. What do you mean by “Environmental Auditing”? Explain the basic objectives of
environmental auditing.
9. Discuss the general characteristics of environmental audits.
6. 11 References/suggested readings
Page 105
1. Arimura, T., Hibiki, A., Katayama, H. (2008). Is a voluntary approach an effective
environmental policy instrument? A case for environmental management systems. J.
Environ. Econ. Manag. 55, 281–295.
2. Bansal, P and Hunter, T. (2003). Strategic Explanations for the Early Adoption of ISO
14001. Journal of Business Ethics, 46: 289-299.
3. Barla, P. (2007). ISO14001certification and environmental performance in Quebec‟s
pulp and paper industry. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 53, 291–306.
4. Boiral, O. and Sala, J.M. (1998), “Environmental management: should industry adopt
ISO14001?”,Business Horizons, January/February, pp. 57-64.
5. Cary, J.W., Roberts, A.M. (2013). The limitations of environmental management
systems in Australian agriculture. J. Env. Manag. 92, 878-885.
6. Cary, J.W., Roberts, A.M. (2013). The limitations of environmental management
systems in Australian agriculture. J. Env. Manag. 92, 878-885.
7. Darnall, N., Edwards Jr., D. (2006). Predicting the cost of environmental management
system adoption: The role of capabilities, resources, and ownership structure. Strategic
Manag. J. 27, 301-320.
8. Disterheft, A., Caeiro, S.S.F.S., Ramos, M.R., Azeiteiro, U.M.M., 2012.
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) implementation processes and practices in
European higher education institutions - top-down versus participatory approaches. J.
Clean. Prod. 31, 80-90.
9. Ferron-Vilchez, V. (). Does symbolism benefit environmental business performance in
the adoption of ISI 14001?. Journal of Environmental Management. 183; 882-894.
10. Hazudin, S.F., Mohamad, S.A., Azer, I., Daud, R., Paino, H. (2015). ISO 14001 and
Financial Performance: is the Accreditation Financially worth It for Malaysian Firms.
Procedia Economics and Finance 31; 56-61.
11. Hwee Nga, J.K. (2009). The influence of ISO 14000 on firm performance. Soc. Resp. J.
5, 408-422.
12. International Organization for Standardization. (2014). The ISO survey of management
systems standards. Geneva: ISO.
Page 106
13. Morrow, D and Rondinelli, D. (2002). Adopting Corporate Environmental Management
Systems: Motivations and Results of ISO 14001 and EMAS Certification. European
Management Journal, 20(2), 159-171.
14. Sam, A., Khanna, M., Innes, R. (2009). Voluntary pollution reduction programs,
environmental management, and environmental performance: an empirical study. Land
Econ. 85(4), 692–711.
15. Tinsley, S and Pillai, I. Environmental management System, Understanding
Organizational Drivers and Barriers, Printed by Brijbasi Aet Press Ltd., I-72 Sector-9,
Noida, India, 2007.
16. Kulkarni, V., Ramachandra, T.V. Environmental Management. Centre for Ecological
Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. TERI Press, New Delhi, 2014 (3rd
reprint).
Page 107
Subject: Environmental Management
Course Code: Author: Dr. Meenakshi Suhag
Lesson No.: 7 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Environmental Accounting
7.3 Levels of Environmental Accounting
7.4 Environmental Accounting as a Business management Tool
7.5 Environmental Cost Accounting
7.6 Environmental Management Accounting (EMA)
7.7 Corporate Environmental Accounting
7.8 Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting (ENRA)
7.9 Summary
7.10 Keywords
7.11 Self-assessment questions
7.12 References/Suggested readings
7.0 Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to understand:
1. Concept of Environmental Accounting
2. Objectives of Environmental Accounting
3. Levels of Environmental Accounting
4. Benefits of Environmental Accounting
5. Nature of Environmental Cost accounting
6. Role of Natural Resource Accounting
Page 108
7. 1 Introduction
The global reports on environmental issues such as global warming, depletion of non-
renewable resources and loss of natural habitats have risen considerably during the past two
decades. Companies for the maximum profit, development of more advancing technologies,
endless use of natural resources for product operations cause a lot of environmental problems.
Industrialization has brought factory pollutants and greater land use, which have harmed the
natural environment resulting in habitat loss and danger to natural biodiversity. Degradation of
natural resources such as air, fresh water, oceans and land are threatened by pollutants. In order
to achieve sustainable development organizations must need to work more socially and
environmentally responsible while conducting their business.
As discussed in the previous lesson, for the better relationship with nature and its resources at
each level business is becoming progressively more aware of the environmental and social
liabilities pertaining to their operations and products. Implementation of various voluntary
schemes such as an Environmental Management System by an organization or enterprise is a
systematic approach to minimize environmental risk and pollution control.
In an utmost world, poor environmental conduct may have a real adverse impact on the
business and its finances. Environmental risks (both physical and financial) cannot be ignored,
they are now as much a part of running a successful business as product design, marketing, and
sound financial management. Environmental accounting is an important tool for understanding
the role played by the natural environment in the economy. Organizations would reflect
environmental factors in their accounting processes via the identification of the environmental
costs attached to products, processes, and services. Norway was the first country followed by
Netherland and France to develop environmental accounts to track use of their forests, fisheries,
energy, and land. Environmental accounting will also serve as a solid foundation for an
Environmental Management System (EMS) by bringing the traditional functions of accounting
to the environmental management process. It deals with recognizing and disclosing a company‟s
environmental costs and liabilities in financial reports.
Page 109
7.2 Environmental Accounting
Accounting is the word of finance meaning systematic recording, reporting and analysis of
financial transactions of a business. The traditional approaches of cost accounting have become
insufficient as they have neglected key environmental costs and activities and their impact on the
environment. On the other hand a conspicuous disparity is left due to financial incompleteness
and absence of fair view of financial statement information reporting to environmental regulatory
agencies and the general public. Therefore, the development and implementation of identified
environmental related accounting measures may suggest the significance of the specific issues to
the individual organization. EA is the practice of using traditional accounting and finance
principles to calculate the costs of a company‟s national economic impact on the environment.
According to Institute of Management Accountants (USA), environmental accounting is "the
identification, measurement, and allocation of environmental costs, the integration of these
environmental costs into business decisions, and the subsequent communication of the
information to a company's stakeholders." The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
defines environmental accounting as "management accounting practices that enable the
incorporation of environmental cost and benefit information into business decisions."
Environmental accounting sometimes referred to as "green accounting", "resource accounting" or
"integrated economic and environmental accounting". The scope of Environmental Accounting
(EA) is extensive and includes corporate, national & international level. One of the most
important features of the environmental accounts is their capacity to organise and present
coherent information in both physical (often for the environment) and monetary terms (often for
the economy). The range of applications of environmental accounts includes resource efficiency
and productivity, decomposition analysis, analysis of net wealth and depletion, sustainable
production and consumption. The accounts also provide an information base for the development
of models e.g. input-output analysis and general equilibrium modelling.
Environmental accounting addresses the following issues
1. Compliance with regulatory requirement;
2. Eco-friendly operations that do not harm the environment;
Page 110
3. Encourage a culture and attitude of environmentally safe working amongst its employees;
4. Disclosure to shareholders and other users about the amount and nature of the preventive
measures taken by the management;
5. To ensure safe handling and disposal of hazardous waste and other chemicals.
Organizations adopt EA to achieve following objectives:
a. To help managers in decisions making that will reduce their environmental costs;
b. To better track environmental costs that may have been previously covered in overhead
accounts or otherwise overlooked;
c. To better understand the environmental costs and performance of processes and products for
more accurate costing and pricing of products;
d. To extend and improve the investment analysis and assessment process to include potential
environmental impacts; and
e. To support the development and operation of an overall environmental management system.
Benefits for a company that adopt an environmental accounting:
1. Obtaining clear information about environmental costs for control and strategic decision
making regarding continuing or abandoning a particular product or process.
2. Meeting the ongoing requirements of various stakeholders including the government,
investors, lenders, banks, non-governmental institutions, among others,
3. Detecting potential areas for savings and environmental improvements, and
4. Proper management of resources through energy and resource conservation that will lead to
direct returns including cost savings and
5 Competitive benefits by minimizing environmental impacts through improved design of
products, packages, and processes.
Page 111
6. Reductions, and/or indirect returns like superior organization goodwill and reputation.
7.3 Levels of Environmental Accounting
1. National income accounting:
In the perspective of national income accounting environmental accounting refers to natural
resource accounting including physical or monetary units to evaluate the consumption of the
nation‟s natural resources ( both renewable and nonrenewable). Governments around the world
develop economic data systems known as national income accounts (NIA) to calculate
macroeconomic indicators such as gross domestic product. The Central Statistical Organisation
(CSO) in India is working on a methodology to systematically incorporate natural resources into
national accounts in different states for land, water, air, and sub-soil assets. For example the
forest products in the national accounts are classified into two major groups: (1) major products
comprising industrial wood (timber, round wood, matchwood and pulpwood) and fuelwood
(firewood and charcoal wood) and (2) minor products such as bamboo, fodder, sandalwood,
honey, resin, gum etc.
2. Financial Accounting
Environmental accounting in the context of financial accounting usually enables companies for
the preparation of financial reports to external users using Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP). This is financial reporting to external users through quarterly and annual
reports conveying the environmental liabilities and financially material environmental costs.
3. Business Management Accounting
Environmental accounting as a feature of management accounting serves business managers in
making capital investment decisions. Environmental management accounting (EMA) is defined
as the generation, analysis and use of financial and related non-financial information, to support
management within a company or business. EMA integrates corporate environmental and
business policies, and thereby provides guidance on building a sustainable business (Yakhou and
Dorweiler, 2004). Management accounting practices and systems differ according to the needs
of the businesses they serve. For example, if a firm wants to encourage pollution prevention in
capital budgeting, it might consider distinguishing (1) environmental costs that can be avoided
Page 112
by pollution prevention investments, from (2) environmental costs related to treatment of the
contamination that has already occurred.
7.4 Environmental Accounting as a Business management Tool
Environmental accounting is an inclusive aspect of accounting, generates reports for both
internal use, providing environmental information to help make management decisions on
controlling overhead, capital budgeting and pricing, and external use, disclosing environmental
information of interest to the government, public and to the financial community (Eze et al.,
2016).
Environmental accounting provides a „family‟ of tools for assessing resource use,
pollution and sustainability in a number of areas ranging from industrial production,
green consumerism to areas such as nature conservation, biodiversity and ecosystem
services (Patterson et al., 2011).
Environmental accounts may provide data which highlight both the contribution of
natural resources to economic wellbeing and the costs imposed by pollution or resource
degradation (Protogeros et al., 2011).
Environmental accounting defines as the practice of environment-based categorization of
business activities, collecting, analyzing and then monitoring these environment-related
activities, then put all these information into business balance sheet to help an
organization‟s decision making (Vasile and Man, 2012).
Environmental Accounting tools have been developed
To conceptualize and enumerate the direct and indirect effects of human activity
on the environment,
To enable decision-makers to track and measure progress towards sustainability
outcomes and goals.
These environmental accounting methods range from ecological footprinting
(quantitative measurement of total amount of land required to support a community,
business or individual person or it measure the biocapacity of the average hectare of land
Page 113
on the globe in hectare), carbon footprinting, energy analysis, ecological pricing and life
cycle assessment to environmental input-output analysis (Patterson et al., 2017).
The environmental accounting (EA) at the corporate level helps the management to know
whether the corporate has been discharging its responsibilities towards sustainable development
while meeting the business objective. Company that introduces EA in their management
accounting system results in lower energy bills and greater efficiency in their operation.
Environmental accounting involves any costs and benefits that arise from changes to a firm‟s
products or processes, where the change also involves a change in environmental impacts
(James, 1998).
Following aspects are included in environmental accounting.
1. Firstly, the direct investments made by a corporate for minimization of losses to environment.
It includes investment made into the equipment/devices that help in reducing potential losses to
the environment. This can be easily monetized.
2. Secondly, indirect losses happen due to business operation. It mainly includes degradation
and destruction such as loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution, hazardous waste including
bio medical waste, coastal marine pollution etc. Furthermore, depletion happens because of non-
renewable natural resources. Beside that deforestation and land uses (measuring and monetizing
them can be complex).
7.5 Environmental Cost Accounting
According to USA Environmental Protection Agency the definition of environmental cost
depends on utilization of information in a company and the environmental costs can include
conventional costs (raw materials and energy costs with the environmental relevance),
potentially hidden costs (costs which are captured by accounting system but then lose their
identity in overheads), contingent costs (costs in a future time – contingent liabilities), and image
and relationship costs. Environmental cost accounting is a term used to refer to the addition of
environmental cost information into existing cost accounting procedures and/or recognizing
embedded environmental costs and allocating them to appropriate products or processes.
Identification of environmental costs associated with a product, process, system, or facility is
Page 114
important for good management decisions. Costs of environmental remediation, pollution control
equipment, and noncompliance penalties are all unquestionably environmental costs. Other costs
incurred for environmental protection are likewise clearly environmental costs, even if they are
not explicitly required by regulations or go beyond regulatory compliance levels. Environmental
costs can refer to a subset of external costs or can be used as a synonym for environmental
externalities, societal costs, private costs, or both private and societal costs. In addition costs
associated with the creation, detection, remediation and prevention of environmental
degradation.
1. Full Cost Accounting - Full Costing means the allocation of all direct and indirect costs to a
product or process for the purposes of inventory valuation, profitability analysis, and pricing
decisions. Full cost accounting is a term often used to describe desirable environmental
accounting practices. In the accounting profession, “full cost accounting” is a concept and term
used in various contexts. In management accounting, “full costing” means the allocation of all
direct and indirect costs to a product or product line for the purposes of inventory valuation,
profitability analysis, and pricing decisions
2. Total Cost Assessment (TCA) Total cost accounting, an often used synonym for full cost
environmental accounting, is a term that seems to have origins with environmental professionals.
It has no particular meaning to accountants.
3. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Environmental Accounting in terms of its focus on „products‟
or services and motivates to certify or audit the environmental impact of products, taking account
of the entire Life Cycle of the product. Life Cycle Assessment has the most systematic and
widely accepted methodology, as laid down in international standards such as ISO. It also
involves data collection and modelling of the product system, as well as description and
verification of data. For example, categories of input and output quantities include inputs of
materials, energy, chemicals and „other‟ − and outputs of air emissions (CO2), water emissions
and solid waste. The life cycle of a product, process, system, or facility can refer to the suite of
activities starting with acquisition (and upfront pre-acquisition activities) and concluding with
back-end disposal/decommissioning that a specific firm performs or is responsible for.
Page 115
7.6 Environmental Management Accounting (EMA)
Environmental management accounting (EMA) is defined as the generation, analysis and use of
financial and related non-financial information, to support management within a company or
business. EMA integrates corporate environmental and business policies, and thereby provides
guidance on building a sustainable business (Yakhou and Dorweiler, 2004).
Environmental accounting assists in expressing environmental and social liabilities as
environmental costs. While environmental accounting systems now form part of industrial
decision making in first world countries (Beer and Friend, 2006).
Advantages of EMA are as follows (Vasile and Man, 2012):
i. Pollution prevention;
ii. Planning in the field of improving the environment;
iii. The planning/cost/estimation of the environment life cycle;
iv. Administration of products circulation from the point of view of the environment;
v. Supply process from the point of view of the environment;
vi. Responsibility of the product or producer
vii. Management systems focusing upon environment;
viii. Evaluation and testing of the performances of environment activities;
ix. Reporting such performances.
7.7 Corporate Environmental Accounting: Corporate environmental accounting involves
"provision of environmental performance related information to stakeholders both within, and
outside, the organization." Thus, disclosing information relating to environmental aspects is
considered as one of significant issues in relations to environmental accounting.
7.8 Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting (ENRA)
Accounting for the environment or the acronym “Green accounting” is receiving increased
attention in the recent years. It provides information on stocks of a resource available at a
particular point in time and what activities the resource is being used for. Such accounts typically
cover agricultural land, fisheries, forests, minerals and petroleum, and water. The conventional
System of National Income Accounts (SNA) normally does not capture the cost of depletion,
Page 116
degradation or pollution of natural resources. This encourages unsustainable use of natural
resources since the costs are not reflected when assessing the country‟s economic performance or
development progress. NRA is thus an attempt to integrate environmental issues into the
conventional national accounts. The water sector is one sector that could greatly benefit from this
natural resource management tool. Botswana has adopted NRA as a natural resource
management tool and has so far developed accounts for minerals, livestock and water. The cost
of natural resources includes all costs necessary to acquire the resource and prepare it for
extraction. If the property must be restored after the natural resources are removed, the
restoration costs are also considered to be part of the cost. The accounts are based on a
countryside survey included a land cover census, remote sensing data and field survey. In
practice, the basic framework includes physical and monetary supply and use tables (which
report what flows go in and what come out), functional accounts and asset accounts for natural
resources (which report how the opening stock plus changes give the closing stock). The
measurement of physical flows is structured around the flows of natural inputs from the
environment to the economy, flows of products within the economy and flows from the economy
to the environment i.e., residuals.
Gundimeda et al., 2007 discussed the physical accounts for area under forests has the following
structure:
Opening stock
+ Changes in forest land
+ Natural expansion and afforestation
Net transfer of forest land to non-forest uses (through deforestation or degradation)
Loss of forest land due to shifting cultivation
+ Net reclassification and other changes
= Closing stocks
Benefits of NRA
• It aims to keep track of change in human and natural capital and sustainable
development.
• It helps to know the actual amount of natural resources remained in a particular country.
• Traditional accounts do not consider services provided by natural resources.
Page 117
7.9 Summary
Businesses have become increasingly aware of the environmental implications of their
operations, products and services. Management accounting techniques can distort and
misrepresent environmental issues, leading to managers making decisions that are bad for
businesses and bad for the environment. Environmental Accounting is an important function that
provides firms with a means to incorporate information with business decision making and
business operations. In addition, having an environmental accounting system in place allows
firms to (i) Better manage environmental costs, (ii) Better formulate business strategies, (iii)
More accurately cost products and processes and (iv) Discover new opportunities to offset or
minimize environmental costs through environmental thinking.
7.10 Keywords
Environmental accounts provide data which highlight both the contribution of natural resources
to economic well-being and the costs imposed by pollution or resource degradation.
Environmental costs cover all costs incurred concerning environmental protection such as
emissions treatment as well as wasted material, capital and labour which so called „non product
output‟ as a result of inefficiency production activities.
Natural Resource Accounts include data on stocks of natural resources and changes in them
caused by either natural processes or human use.
Green accounting “the identification, tracking, analysis, and re-porting of the materials and cost
information associated with the environmental aspects of an organization” (UN, 2000).
7.11 Self assessment questions
1. What do you understand by Environmental Accounting? Explain how it is different from
conventional accounting system.
2. Discuss the various issues considered under Environmental accounting.
3. What are the objectives of Environmental accounting?
Page 118
4. What is Environmental Cost? Describe the various forms of environmental costs
accounting.
5. What are the benefits to an organization for adopting Environmental accounting?
6. Discuss different levels of environmental accounting.
7. Write a short note on Environmental Management Accounting.
8. How environmental accounting is help full for the policy or decision makers?
9. Explain Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting in detail along with its benefits.
10. Discuss the role of Environmental accounting as a Business management tool.
7.12 References/suggested readings
Yakhou M., Dorweiler V.P. (2004). Environmental Accounting: An Essential Component of
Business Strategy, Business Strategy and the Environment (13), 65-77.
Eze, Chukwudi, J., Nweze, Uchechukwu, A., Enekwe, Innocent, C. 2016. The effects of
Environmental Accounting on a developing Nation: Nigerian experience. European Journal of
Accounting, Auditing and Finance Research, 4(1), pp.17-27.
Patterson, M.G., McDonald, G., Smith, N., 2011. Ecosystem service appropriation into the
auckland economy: an input output analysis. J. Reg. Stud. Assoc. (45), 333–350.
Pattersona, M., McDonaldb, G., Hardy, D. 2017. Is there more in common than we think?
Convergence of ecological footprinting, energy analysis, life cycle assessment and other methods
of environmental accounting. Ecological Modelling (362), 19–36.
Protogeros, N., Vontas, A., Chatzikostas, G., Koumpis, A. 2011. A software shell for
environmental accounting. Environmental Modelling & Software. (26), 235-237.
Chopra, K. and Dayal, V. Handbook of Environmental Economics in India, published in India
by Oxford University Press (2009), New Delhi.
Page 119
Beer, P.D, Friend, F. 2006. Environmental accounting: A management tool for enhancing
corporate environmental and economic performance. - Ecological Economics, 58(3): 548-560.
Gundimeda, H.P., Sukhdev, P., Sinha, R. and Sanyal, S. 2007. Natural Resources Accounting
for Indian States-illustrating the Case of forest Resource‟s, Ecological Economics, 61: 635-49.
Kadekodi, G. „Approaches to Natural Resource Accounting in the Indian Context‟ in G.
Kadekodi (ed.), Environmental Economics in Practice, pp. 332-72. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Vasile, E. and Man, M. 2012. Current dimension of environmental management accounting.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 62: 566-570.
United Nations, “The Handbook of National Accounting, Studies in Methods Series F, No. 78
Integrated Environ-mental and Economic Accounting: An Operational Manual,” United Nations,
New York, 2000.
James, B (1998). The Benefits of Improved Environmental Accounting: An Economic
Framework to Identify Priorities Resources for the future Washington, DC, 13 – 15.
Page 120
Subject:
Course Code: Author: Dr. Hardeep Rai Sharma
Lesson No.:12 Vetter: Prof. Rajesh Lohchab
Bio-Diversity: Issues and Trade
Structure:
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Types of biodiversity
12.1.2 Wildlife wealth of India
12.2 Biodiversity Issues
12.2.1 Importance of biodiversity
12.2.2 Threats to Biodiversity
12.2.3 Biodiversity Conservation
12.2.3.1 In-Situ Conservation
12.2.3.2 Ex-Situ Conservation
12.2.4 Laws governing biodiversity conservation in India
12.3 Biodiversity Trade
12.3.1 Wildlife trade- Indian Scenario
12.3.2 Policy framework for International biodiversity trade
12.3.3 Methods to control illegal trade
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key words
12.6 Self-assessment questions
12.7 References/Suggested readings
12.0 Objectives:
After going through this lesson, students will be able to:
Page 121
• Understand the concept of biodiversity.
• Describe types, importance, threats and conservation of biodiversity.
• Learn concept of biodiversity trade
• Explain
12.1 Introduction: Only our mother Earth is known to support life in this universe. This life which
has been supported on planet Earth comes in many shapes, forms and sizes ranging from whales and
redwoods to butterflies and even tiny microbes. This collection/range of life is known as biodiversity (Bio
means life and diversity means variety). Scientists have identified and counted about 1.4 million species,
which is only a small fraction of the number of species that they think, may exist on our Earth.
Definition of Biodiversity: The word “biodiversity” is a contracted form of the term „biological
diversity‟. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as "the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and
of ecosystems."
12.1.1 Types of biodiversity: Biodiversity can be of following types:
i) Genetic diversity: It refers to the variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a
species. Variation at the level of individual genes and provides a mechanism for populations to
adapt to their ever-changing environment. The more is the difference, the better is the chance that
at least some members of the group (animal and plants) will have an allelic variant that is suited
for the new environment. Those members will produce offspring with the variant that will in turn
reproduce and continue the population into subsequent generations. If there are changes in genetic
diversity, particularly loss of diversity through the loss of species, it results in a loss of biological
diversity. Large number of people with different color of eyes and hair is an expression of genetic
diversity within human beings.
ii) Species diversity: The variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms found in
different habitats of the Earth. It includes both species richness (the number of species in a
community) and the evenness of species‟ abundance. Communities with more species are
considered to be more diverse e.g. a community containing ten species would be more diverse
than a community with five species. Different types of tress in a forest are example of species
diversity.
Page 122
iii) Ecosystem or ecological diversity: Ecological diversity or ecosystem diversity is the variety of
biological communities like forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes etc. that interact with one
another and with their physical and chemical (nonliving) environments. It relates to the different
forms of life which are present in any one particular area or site.
iv) Functional diversity: Refers to the biological and chemical processes of functions such as energy
flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities. It comprises
many ecological interactions among species e.g. competition, parasitism, predation, mutualism, etc.
as well as ecological processes such as nutrient retention and recycling.
Some scholars also include human cultural diversity as part of the earth‟s biodiversity. The variety of
human cultures represents numerous social and technological solutions to changing environmental
conditions.
12.1.2 Wildlife wealth of India
India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests, oceans and in wetlands and ranks 6th
among the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. The geographical area of country represents about
2.4% of the world‟s total landmass, it harbours a total of 47,513 plant species (Singh & Dash, 2014) out
of about 0.4 million till now known in the world, representing about 11.4% of world flora. The country
has 6.7% of the world animal species which is nearly 96,373 known species, including 63,423 insect
species, 423 species of mammals, 526 species of reptiles, 342 species of amphibians, 1233 species of
birds, 3022 species of fishes (ZSI, 2014).
12.2 Biodiversity Issues: To understand the concept of biodiversity one must know the issues
related to it. In the following section we will learn biodiversity issues i.e. importance, threats and
conservation of biodiversity with special reference to India.
12.2.1 Importance of biodiversity
The natural environment is the source of all resources necessary for our survival and environmental
processes provide us with air to breathe, water to drink and food to eat, medicines and industrial
chemicals as well as materials to use in our daily lives and natural beauty to enjoy. The biodiversity
service/benefits contribute hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy each year. Living
organisms play important role in biogeochemical cycles e.g. carbon, nitrogen etc. and water. Loss of
biodiversity not only reduces the availability of ecosystem services but also decreases the ability of
species, communities, and ecosystems to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity
provides numerous benefits and services some include:
i) Generation of soils
ii) Maintenance of air quality
iii) Maintenance of soil quality
iv) Maintenance of water quality
Page 123
v) Pest control
vi) Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
vii) Crop production thereby providing food security
viii) Pollination
ix) Stabilization of climate and ecosystems
x) Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
xi) Provision of health care – medicines
xii) Income generation
xiii) Spiritual, cultural and aesthic value
12.2.2 Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction is a part of nature. In fact, an estimated nine per cent of species become extinct every million
years or so, a rate that works out to between one to five species per year. However, the extinction rate is
between 1000 and 10,000 times higher than the “background” or expected natural extinction rate (IUCN,
2007). But unlike extinction happened earlier, the current one is not due to environmental changes but due
to actions of human beings. The main threats to biodiversity are:
a) Overpopulation – the world‟s population is estimated to be over 7 billion and has direct impact on
resource consumption.
b) Overexploitation of natural resources, such as the world‟s oceans and forests. It includes
overharvesting of trees for timber and oceans for food.
c) Habitat Loss ‒ draining wetlands, clearing grasslands and forests for agricultural and residential
purposes. Ruining habitats by fragmentation, due to road construction and development.
d) The introduction of harmful species into foreign ecosystems, e.g. the introduction to black rats to
Antigua and Barbuda island nation, which has left the Antiguan Racer snake as critically
endangered.
e) Environmental pollution i.e. releasing toxic pollutants into air, aquatic bodies and lands.
f) Climate change – continued rise of global temperatures.
Page 124
g) Poaching as well as the unsustainable hunting and illegal trade of wildlife.
h) Dams and water withdrawals alter river systems and thus threat freshwater fish species.
i) Knock-on effects where one of the co-evolved species become extinct. Decrease in elephant‟s
population in some countries like Benin, Ghana and Ivory Coast had a significant impact on tree
distribution.
j) Parasites/Predators/Pathogens/Diseases also creates threat to biodiversity.
12.2.3 Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity conservation means active management of the biosphere to make sure the survival of the
maximum variety of species and the maintenance of genetic variability within species. It includes the
maintenance of biosphere functioning i.e. ecosystem function and nutrient cycling and the concept of
sustainable resource use. There are two methods of biodiversity conservation in-situ and ex-situ. In-situ
means conservation of species at its original place i.e. within species natural habitat. Ex-situ conservation
involves the conservation of biological diversity away from natural habitats. It includes the conservation
of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated species.
12.2.3.1 In-situ conservation is through establishments of National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries,
Biosphere Reserves and by declaring Biodiversity Hotspots. As per Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change Govt. of India (MoEF&CC, 2018), India has a network of 700 protected areas designated
into National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.
National parks: First introduced in 1969, by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
as a mean of a protected area. A national park has a defined boundary, through which no person can enter
into the park without an approval, either via paying a visitor ticket or an approved letter from the
governing body (mostly the government). The visitors can only observe the park inside a vehicle that
routes through defined tracks and they cannot get out the vehicle for any reason unless there is an
approved place for visitors. Photographs are allowed but research and educational work can only be done
with a prior permission. The park cannot be used for any reason viz. firewood, timber, fruits…etc. With
all these regulations, the national parks are established to conserve the natural habitats of the wild fauna
and flora with a minimum human interference. There are 104 National parks in India covering an area of
40,501 km2, which is 1.23% of the geographical area of the country (ENVIS, 2018). Some national parks
in India are Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh),
Bandipur National Park (Karnataka), Silent Valley National Park (Kerala), Kanha National Park (Madhya
Pradesh), Sariska and Ranthambore National Parks (Rajasthan), Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand),
Sultanpur and Kalesar National Park (Haryana).
Wildlife sanctuary: Is a declared protected area, where very limited human activity is permitted, owned
either by a government or by private organization or person, provided the rules are governed by the
concerned government. Inside a wildlife sanctuary (WLS), the hunting of animals is completely
prohibited. Additionally, the trees cannot be cut down for any purpose; especially the clearing of the
forest for agriculture is completely banned. However, it is not physically fenced to restrict the public from
Page 125
entering and roaming inside a wildlife sanctuary for research, educational, inspirational, and recreational
purposes. People can collect firewood, fruits, medicinal plants etc. in small scale from a wildlife
sanctuary. There are 543 wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 118,918 km2, which is 3.62 %
of the geographical area of the country (ENVIS, 2018). Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin WLS (Bihar),
Sukhna Lake WLS (Chandigarh), Gir and Wild Ass WLS‟s (Gujarat), Chhilchhila and Nahar WLS‟s
(Haryana), Renuka and Shikari Devi WLS‟s (Himachal Pradesh), Trikuta WLS (J & K) are some name of
WLS‟s in India.
Conservation reserves and community reserves: They act as a buffer zones to or connectors and migration
corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of
India. These areas are designated as conservation areas if uninhabited and completely owned by the
Government of India but used for subsistence by communities and community areas if owned privately.
Shri Naina Devi (Himachal Pradesh), Ranjit Sagar (Punjab), Asan Wetland (Uttarakhand) are some
conservation reserves and Lalwan (Punjab) is an example of Community Reserve in India (ENVIS, 2018).
Marine protected area: These are a space in the ocean where human activities are more strictly regulated
than the surrounding waters. These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine
resources by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities. They can be sanctuaries (e.g.
Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh), national parks (e.g. Sundarbans in West Bengal) or Community
Reserve (e.g. Kadalundi Vallikkunnu in Kerala) (ENVIS, 2018).
In addition to above there are Biodiversity hotspots and Biosphere reserves meant for biodiversity
conservation at its place of origin.
Biodiversity Hotspots: Biodiversity is not spread equally around the globe. Some areas possess a richer
variety of species than others. Biodiversity hotspots are the Earth‟s biologically richest and most
endangered ecosystems. The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" in
1988 as areas that are characterised both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and also by serious
levels of habitat loss. These areas support natural ecosystems that are largely intact and the native species
and communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented. These are the areas with a high
diversity of locally endemic species which usually are not found or are rarely found outside the hotspot.
Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Japan, Mountains of Southwest China, New Caledonia, New Zealand,
Philippines, Polynesia – Micronesia, Southwest Australia, Sundaland, and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
are the examples of Hotspots in Asia – Pacific region.
Biosphere Reserves (BRs): The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) have introduced the designation „Biosphere Reserve‟ for natural areas to minimize conflict
between development and conservation. BRs are nominated by national government which meet a
minimal set of criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world network of
Biosphere reserves under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of UNESCO. Biosphere reserves
are divided into 3 inter-related zones i.e. Core, Buffer and Transition. Core zone conserve the wild
relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific
interest. A core zone being National Park or Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 and kept free from human pressures external to the system. The buffer zone
surrounds the core zone, uses and activities are managed in this area in the ways that help in protection of
core zone in its natural condition. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for
Page 126
enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, including research
and educational activities etc; which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. The transition zone,
the outermost part of a biosphere reserve is usually not delimited. This is a zone of cooperation where
conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the
purpose of the biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for
intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.
Globally there are about 621 BRs representing from 117 countries including 16 transboundary
sites. There are eighteen BRs in India as on 06.10.2016 namely Nilgiri (the first declared in 1986), Nanda
Devi, Nokrek, Manas, Sunderban, Gulf of Mannar, Similipal, Dibru-Saikhova (Smallest in area of 765
km2 in India), Dehang-Dibang, Pachmarhi, Khangchendzonga, Agasthyamalai, Achanakmar-
Amarkantak, Kachchh (Largest area of 12,454 km2 in India); Cold Desert, Seshachalam, and Panna
(Recent one in August 2011) (MOEF, 2018).
12.2.3.2 Ex-situ conservation: Conserving the organism in an artificial habitat by shifting it from its
natural habitat, in the form of seed, whole plants, pollen, vegetative propagules, tissue or cell cultures.
Zoological gardens/Zoos, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed and gene banks, long term
captive breeding, animal‟s translocation, are examples of ex-situ conservation. It can be done as
following:
i). Botanical Garden: According to the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation (BGCI,
2012), botanic garden can be defined as the institutions holding documented collections of living plants
for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education. During 2012 there were about
2951 botanical gardens and arboreta (a botanical garden devoted to trees) in 148 countries worldwide
maintaining > 5 million living plant collections. There are about 122 Botanic gardens in India and some
important are Indian Botanic Garden (largest and oldest) at Sibpur, Kolkata; National Botanic Garden,
Lucknow; Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling, and Mysore State Botanical Garden, Bengaluru.
ii). Zoological Garden: Also known as zoological parks, animal park, or zoo is a place where wild animals
are maintained live in captivity where people can visit and watch them. They are of many types like
Urban/sub-urban zoos, Petting zoos, Safari Parks, and Game reserves. The oldest Schonbrumm zoo was
established in Vienna in 1759. In India, the 1st zoo came into existence at Barrackpore (West Bengal) in
1800. In world there are about 1491 zoos having about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos have
undertaken captive breeding programmes. Lucknow Zoo (Uttar Pradesh), Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan
(also known Patna Zoo in Bihar), Rajiv Gandhi Zoo (Pune), National Zoological Park (Delhi), Sri
Chamarajendra Zoological Garden (Mysore Zoo in Karnataka), Nandankanan Zoological Park
(Bhubaneswar, Orissa) are some of the famous Zoo‟s in India.
iii). Seed Gene banks: These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled humidity and
temperature for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low temperature.
Seeds are dried and placed in sealed containers at 5°C for short-term storage, at -20°C for long-term
preservation including the use of cryopreservation (using liquid nitrogen at -180°C) for extremely long-
term storage. Botanic gardens in many countries have established seed banks for the storage of seeds,
mostly of wild species. As per Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) there were around 400
botanic gardens in 2015 having long term and medium-term storage of seeds.
Page 127
iv). Gene bank or Germplasm bank: Germplasm of asexually propagated species can be conserved in the
form of meristem (embryonic tissue in plants; undifferentiated, growing, actively dividing cells). In vitro
method can be used in two ways, first, for storage of tissue under slow growth conditions. Second, long
term conservation of germplasm is through cryopreservation. Up to 2017, the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in India has conserved over 64,829 traditional varieties in Gene Banks
located in different states.
v). Long term captive breeding: The process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well
defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos or other conservation facilities. The method is especially
for the endangered species that have lost their habitat permanently or certain highly unfavorable
conditions are present in their habitat. India has many successful breeding programs as Arignar Anna
Zoological Park (Chennai, Tamil Nadu) for lion tailed macaques and Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin
Sanctury (Bhagalpur, Bihar) for Gangetic dolphins. The Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre, Pinjore in
Bir Shikargah Wildlife Sanctuary is for the breeding and conservation of Indian vultures in Haryana. In
June 2016, Haryana government has launched Asia's First Gyps Vulture Reintroduction Programme in
this breeding centre.
12.2.4 Laws governing biodiversity conservation in India: Major Indian Acts relevant to biodiversity
are the Indian Forest Act, 1927; the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 (with the (Amendment) Act, 2006); the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; and the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. To meet the commitments under the Convention on Biological
Diversity, India enacted The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 under which The National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 at Chennai, under the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India. In addition to national rules our country is a party to five major international
conventions related to wild life conservation. These are United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization-World Heritage Committee (UNESCO-WHC), Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN), International Whaling Commission (IWC), and the Convention on
Migratory Species (CMS).
12.3 Biodiversity Trade
Biodiversity trade (biotrade) means selling or exchanging wild animals and plants. It refers to activities of
collection, production, transformation, and commercialisation of goods and services obtained from native
biodiversity under criteria of social economic and environmental sustainability. International commercial
products traded are miscellaneous, varying from plants (including algae), animals and fungi – and the
products derived from them such as leaves, fruits, seeds, oils, bones, feathers, and skins. Several
industries like cosmetics, healthcare, luxury goods, food, fibre, construction, pets and ornaments demand
for these products (Broad et al., 2003). Excluding invasive species, 30% of global species are under threat
due to international trade (Lenzen et al. 2012).
For every species, biotrade has positive and negative effects for conservation and the long-term survival
of species and biodiversity. Trade can generate incentives for sustainable use and management of species,
but can resulted into overharvest and broader negative impacts on the ecosystem. Similarly, trade may
have positive or negative consequences for the local livelihoods of the poor, specifically in terms of
Page 128
income generation, assets and wellbeing. The illegal trade of timber and wildlife is a serious economic
and environmental problem that can disturb ecosystems, economies, undermine environmentally
sustainable activities, and reduce future options for the use of resources. Illegal trade is also associated
with armed conflict – both in terms of armed gangs participating in trade and posing a security threat to
local people.
Wildlife trade is not always illegal, but when species are caught or harvested in an unsustainable manner
or when endangered species are targeted, it causes direct threats to the survival of species and
biodiversity. Illegal trade, overharvesting and overhunting of species not only threatens the survival of
species, but also implies other risks such as introducing exotic and alien species into a new country. The
overexploitation of wildlife for trade has affected countless species, such as the Javan rhinoceros, which
is now extinct in Viet Nam.
Commercial interest is one of the major motivations for such a biodiversity-destroying
activity. Enthusiastic people looking for particular plant or animal species are taking part in such ruinous
practices. This people like to complete their collection of species and are frequently acting without any
commercial motivation. Finally, travellers and tourists collecting souvenirs made from animals and plants
contribute significantly to the loss of biodiversity. In addition to above, manufactured products such as
Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) and products made of skins also play a major role in illicit trade.
Because of their importance as a source of resources for human use, the exploitation of many wild species
has stimulated the trade in animal products. The regulation of trade in wild animals and their by-products
is governed primarily by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) - of which India has been a signatory since March 1973. The illegal and unsustainable
wildlife trade is a major and growing threat to biodiversity, estimated to be worth $8-10 billion (excluding
fish and timber), making it one of the highest valued illicit trade sectors in the world. This is recognised
by many governments as a major threat to biodiversity. For example, Tanzanian government statistics
show a 60% decline in elephant numbers between 2009 and 2014, attributed to poaching for ivory. The
western black rhino was officially declared extinct due to poaching in 2011. China‟s pangolin population
has declined by an estimated 94% since the 1960s due to trade for consumption, while international trade
in its bile and paws has contributed to a global decline of 49% in Asiatic black bear populations (Milner-
Gulland and Wright, 2017). The demand of animal parts and products has multiplied manifolds over the
years for example:
■ Tigers and leopards are killed illegally for claws, bones, skins, whiskers, and virtually
every part of their body which are used in TCM.
■ Rhino are killed for horns and skin and elephants for their ivory.
■ The Otter skin is used as trimming for coats and other garments.
■ Musk deer hunted for musk pod.
■ Chiru hunted for wool for Shahtoosh shawls.
■ Bear bile used in TCM.
Page 129
■ Mongoose for hair for fine paint brushes.
■ Snakes skins for belts and leather purses.
■ Sea turtles shells, butterflies as curios are some examples.
■ Shark fins are traded for fin soup, Sea horses for food and medicine, corals for their use in jewellery
and shells as curios.
Another area of concern is the medicinal plant sector. Over 8,000 species of medicinal plants in use,
nearly 90% of the species in trade are exploited from the wild. Such exploitation is usually done in an
unscientific and unsustainable manner, often secretly. Movement of these products is mostly from India to
Nepal and China and some trade with Pakistan but mostly hidden.
Around 5,337 green pythons are illegally wild-caught for export from Indonesia each year (Lyons and
Natusch, 2011) as these green tree pythons are popular among reptile enthusiasts and breeders for their
colours. In Burkina Faso country, wild-sourced shea butter (from the shea tree Vitellaria paradoxa) is the
fourth-largest export product after gold, cotton and livestock (Konaté, 2012).
12.3.1 Wildlife trade- Indian Scenario: In 1976 CITES bans trade of Asian ivory and ten years later in
1986, Indian Government banned Indian ivory trade. In Kerala state of India, two species of freshwater
turtles, the Indian black turtle or Indian pond terrapin, and the Indian Flap-shelled turtle are exploited
from Vembanad lake and associated wetlands in Punnamada to meet the demand from local restaurants
and toddy shops (Krishnakumar et al., 2009). According to a recent book titled “State of India‟s
Environment 2017: In Figures by Centre for Science and Environment” reported 52% increase in
poaching and wildlife crimes between 2014 and 2016. Till December 31, 2016 over 30,382 wildlife
crimes and mortality have been recorded and the number of species that are poached or illegally traded in
the country increased from 400 in 2014 to 465 in 2016 (Down to Earth, 2017). As per International Union
of Forest Research Organisations, India is the third largest importer of the illegally logged timber in the
world. With an annual import of over Rs 40 billion, the country accounts for nearly 10% of the global
illegal wood trade (Shrivastava, 2016).
12.3.2 Policy framework for International biodiversity trade: At the international level, trade in
wildlife species is regulated under CITES. CITES subject‟s trade in species listed in three appendices to
mandatory licensing, through permits and certificates, to ensure that trade does not threaten their survival.
Around 35,000 species are listed in these appendices, of which about 30,000 are plants. The trade of
medicinal plants is regulated under the CITES, World League for Protection of Animals (WLPA),
Customs Act and by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) rules. The Trade Records Analysis
of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) organization which was established by the Species Survival
Commission of IUCN in 1976, monitor‟s wildlife trade and the implementation of the treaty. TRAFFIC
has grown to become the world's largest wildlife trade monitoring programme. It actively monitors and
investigates wildlife trade, and provides the information to a diverse audience world-wide, as a basis for
effective conservation policies and programmes. Its headquarters are in United Kingdom with a spread
across 5 continents and with 7 regional programmes and existence in 30 countries. TRAFFIC came to
India in 1991 and is hosted by WWF-India, closely works with IUCN, WWF and CITES secretariat along
with various national and regional and state agencies, on wildlife trade issues.
Page 130
12.3.3 Methods to control illegal trade:
Various methods to control illegal biodiversity trade between source, transit and consumer countries are:
1. Implementing various laws and regulations to stop illegal trade in wildlife and to enforce laws
prohibiting and penalizing wildlife trafficking.
2. Reducing demand for illegally traded wildlife and products made from them.
3. Build international cooperation, commitment, and public‐private partnerships to control illegal
trade especially at borders.
4. Increase public awareness through different mass media about the harms done by wildlife
trafficking.
5. Use of high-tech equipments like acoustic traps, mobile technology, camera traps, radio collars,
metal scanners, mikrokopters, radio frequency identification tags, encrypted data digital
networks, DNA testing, satellite imageries, drones, etc. to counter-poaching efforts without
requiring much manpower and risking lives (UNEP-GEAS, 2014).
6. Remote sensing technologies, like satellite imagery, thermal infrared sensors, aerial surveys,
seismic ground sensors, and heartbeat monitors are also used in many countries to control illegal
wildlife trade (Duporge 2016).
7. Detector dogs are now being enrolled to detect rhino horn, ivory and other commodities in
different places like air cargo warehouses, ocean containers, and international mail facilities.
8. As mentioned in point 5, DNA analysis of ivory, permits investigators to pinpoint illicit ivory
origin and focus enforcement on high-risk areas.
9. Using real-time satellite imagery and tracking, Virtual Watch Room system (developed by Pew
Charitable Trusts and Satellite Applications Catapultcan) identify the boats/vessels acting
suspiciously so that authorities can take action to stop illegal fishing (Raxter, 2015).
12.4 Summary
Biodiversity conservation is must for smooth functioning and balance of our ecosystem. Different means
of in-situ and ex-situ techniques must be adopted to control and protect the extinction of wildlife. On the
other hand illegal wildlife hunting and trade in different parts of world reflects the weaknesses of existing
Page 131
rules and problems in their implementation/enforcement. Licensing schemes can be an important tool in
helping to detect and regulate illegal flows of environmental goods. Awareness among users, strict actions
against hunters and middle man/agents must be enforced timely so as to control illegal wildlife trade.
12.5 Key words
Biodiversity: variability among living organisms
Importance: quality or aspect having great worth or significance
Threats: a danger that something unpleasant might happen.
Conservation: protection of plants, animals, and natural areas
Illegal wildlife trade: the trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones or
meat, or other products.
Legislation: set of laws suggested by a government and made official by a parliament.
12.6 Self-assessment questions
1. Define biodiversity and its types.
2. Describe the importance of biodiversity.
3. What are the different threats to biodiversity?
4. Explain various conservation strategies to preserve and protect wildlife.
5. What do you understand by in-situ conservation?
6. Discuss various ex-situ methods to conserve wildlife.
7. Explain how illegal trade of wildlife can be control?
8. Describe biodiversity trade.
9. Name some botanical and zoological gardens in India.
10. Name some wild life sanctuaries and national parks in India.
12.7 References/Suggested readings
BGCI. 2012. International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation: 2nd edition. Botanic Gardens
Conservation International, Richmond, UK.
Page 132
Broad, S., T. Mulliken and D. Roe (2003). The nature and extent of legal and illegal trade in wildlife. The
Trade in Wildlife: Regulation for Conservation. S. Oldfield, ed. London. Earthscan, pp. 3–22.
Down to Earth (2017). 30,382 wildlife crimes recorded in India. Down to Earth, Wednesday 26 July 2017
Duporge, I. 2016, How do Wildlife Crime Experts view Remote Sensing Technologies used to Combat
Illegal Wildlife Crime? Available at: https://www.wildlabs.net/resources/thought-pieces/how-do-
wildlife-crime-experts-viewremote-sensing-technologies-used-combat (Accessed on 16.08.2018)
ENVIS (2018). Protected Areas of India. ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas. Wildlife Institute
of India, Dehradun Available at: http://www.wiienvis.nic.in/Database/Protected_Area_854.aspx
(Accessed on 02.08.2018)
IUCN (2007) available at: Species Extinction – The Facts. IUCN Red List, available at:
https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/species_extinction_05_2007.pdf (accessed on 24.06.2018).
Konaté, L. (2012). Creating competitive market models. Burkina Faso: the case of nununa women‟s shea
butter federation, SNV Netherlands Development Organization.
Krishnakumar, K., Raghavan, R. and Pereira, B (2009). Protected on papers, hunted in wetlands:
exploitation and trade of freshwater turtles (Melanochelys trijuga coronata and Lissemys punctata
punctata) in Punnamada, Kerala, India. Tropical Conservation Science, 2 (3):363-373.
Lyons and Natusch (2011) Lyons, J.A. and D.J.D. Natusch (2011). Wildlife laundering through breeding
farms: Illegal harvest, population declines and a means of regulating the trade of green pythons
(Morelia viridis) from Indonesia. Biological Conservation 144(12), pp. 3,073–3,081.
Lenzen, M., Moran, D., Kanemoto, K., Foran, B., Lobefaro L. and Geschke, A. (2012). International trade
drives biodiversity threats in developing nations. Nature, 486: 109-112.
Milner-Gulland, E. J. and Wright, J. (2017). The global threat to biodiversity from wildlife trade - A
major 21st century challenge. Publisher Oxford Martin Programme on the Illegal Wildlife Trade,
pp:1-7.
MOEF (2018). List of Biosphere Reserves, their area, date of designation, and location available at:
http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/BR%20List.pdf (Accessed on: 15.08.2018)
Raxter, P (2015). 11 Ways Technology Stops Crime Against Endangered Animals. National Geographic,
July 6, 2015. Available at: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150706-wildlife-crime-
technology-poaching-endangered-animals/ (Accessed on: 16.08.2018)
Shrivastava, K, S. (2016). India third-largest importer of illegally logged wood. The Hindustan Times,
Dec 20, 2016 available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-third-largest-
importer-of-illegally-logged-wood-study/story-DGwXuqsd9dUqm 4TKP0FPFO.html (accessed on
18.04.2018).
Singh, P. and Dash, S.S. 2014. Plant Discoveries 2013 – New Genera, Species and New Records.
Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata.
Page 133
UNEP- Global Environmental Alert Service (GEAS). (2014). Emerging Technologies: Smarter ways to
fight wildlife crime. June 2014, pp: 1-8, available at: www.unep.org/geas
ZSI (2014) Official communication from Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India cited from India's
Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, 2014 available at: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/in/in-nr-05-en.pdf
(accessed on 21.06.2018)
Page 134
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP- 103 Author: 1. Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab
2. Mikhlesh Kumari
Lesson No.: 13 Vetter:
AIR CLIMATE POLLUTION
Structure
1 3 .0 O b jec t iv e s
1 3 .1 In t r o d u c t i on
1 3 .2 A tm os ph e r e Com pos i t i on
1 3 .3 A i r P o l lu t io n
1 3 .4 A i r po l lu t an t s
1 3 .4 .1 C l as s i f i c a t io n o f a i r p o l l u t an t s
1 3 .4 .2 Co mmo n Ai r Po l lu t an t s
1 3 .5 A i r Q ua l i t y S t an dar d s
1 3 .6 E f f ec t o f A i r P o l l u t io n
1 3 .7 A i r P o l lu t io n C on t ro l M easu r e s
1 3 .7 .1 Co n t ro l o f Pa r t i cu l a t es M a t t e r
1 3 .7 .2 Co n t ro l o f G as eo us Po l l u t an t s
1 3 .8 S umm ar y
1 3 .9 K e y w o r d s
1 3 .1 0 S e l f As s es s m en t Qu es t i on s
1 3 .1 1 S u gges t ed R ead in gs
13.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, student will be able to:
Understands the basics of atmospheric composition
Understand the sources and factor responsible of air pollution
Explain the major air pollutants and their health effects and environmental impacts
Page 135
Explain major global issues related to air pollution
Understand and explain control measures for various pollutants
13.1 Introduction
Air is an important natural source and it provides the basis of life on earth. It provides oxygen to
animals. During the past two centuries the atmosphere composition has undergone significant
changes because of our activities like combustion of fossil fuels, burning wood, deforestation,
industrial and agricultural activities. These activities disturb the environment and cause
pollution.
13.2 Atmosphere Composition
Atmosphere is a thin envelope of gases surroundings the earth. It is divided into several layers
(Figure 1). The lowest layer of atmosphere extending from 10 to 16 km is called troposphere.
About 99% of the volume of air consist nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) (Table 1). The
remaining volume has argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, ozone and neon.
Troposphere has a minimum temperature of about -560C varies in altitude. All weather
phenomenons occur in troposphere. The second layer of the atmosphere is stratosphere.
Stratosphere is extending from 17 to 50 km. In stratosphere maximum temperature rises to about
-20C. It contains ozone (O3) gas that filter out UV rays of incoming solar radiation. Ozone
concentration is maximum between 25 to 30 km. The next layer is mesosphere which extending
from 50 to 85 km. In mesosphere temperature is decrease to about -920C. Next layer is
thermosphere. It is extending from 85 to 500 km. In thermosphere highly rarified gas
temperature reaches as high as 12000C by the absorption of very energetic radiation of
wavelength less than 200nm.
Page 136
Figure 1: Earth Atmosphere
Table 1: Principal Chemical Constituents of Atmosphere
Gases In %
Nitrogen 78.084
Oxygen 20.946
Argon 0.934
Carbon Dioxide 0.036
13.3 Air Pollution
Air pollution may be described as contamination of the atmosphere by gaseous, liquid or solid
wastes or byproducts which are injurious, or tend to be injurious to human health or welfare and
animal or plant life.
13.4 Air pollutants
Page 137
When the concentration of pollutants added to the atmosphere to such levels that they become
injurious to humans, animals or environment then it is called air pollutant.
13.4.1 Classification of air pollutants
Based on origin the pollutants are classified as primary or secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutant: Primary pollutants are those pollutants which after emission directly enters
the air e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), radioactive
substances etc.
Secondary pollutant: Secondary pollutants are formed by chemical reaction of primary
pollutants e.g. peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), photochemical smog etc..
Sources of air pollutants
Based on generation pollutants can be classified as natural and man-made.
Natural sources: Natural sources of pollution are:
(a) Volcanic eruptions: results in production of solid particles and gases.
(b) Forest fires: results in emission of particulate matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
(c) Dust storms: dust storms caused by temperature and pressure difference in different regions.
It resulted in high concentration of dust/particulate matter in air.
(d) Pollen grains: produce in spring season and mainly responsible for allergy.
(e) Radioactivity: radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity
in the atmosphere.
Man-made sources: Man-made sources of pollution are:
(a) Domestic pollution: in homes burning of bio-fuels and fossil fuels for cooking, lightning
purpose etc. results in emission of particulate matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
(b) Industrial pollution: various industrial activities like steam generation, machinery
operations etc. are major sources of pollution. Different industries using different types of
raw material and fuels therefore nature of pollutants emitted are different in different
industry. Most common pollutants emitted by various industries are emission of particulate
Page 138
matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Other
pollutants emitted by industries are PAHs, Benzene, heavy metals like lead, pesticides etc.
(c) Vehicular pollution: it is line source of air pollution which is having its own disadvantage
of continuously polluting the whole environment through which it is running. Automobiles
release gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and suspended particulate matter.
Based on the entry air pollutants are categorized into point source, line source and area source.
(a) Point sources: are those sources which can be easily identified by their entry into
atmosphere through single point and thus their control is also easy. These sources are known
as point sources e.g. industrial stack emission, volcanic eruption etc.
(b) Line sources: are those sources whose entry in atmosphere is line shape through which it is
running e.g. pesticides spray, vehicular pollution etc.
(c) Area sources: are those sources whose entry in atmosphere is not identified and it cover
large area e.g. blasting of poisonous gas tank, forest fire etc.
13.4.2 Common Air Pollutants
Suspended particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter (SPM) includes a range of
different size and nature particulate matters that are suspended in atmosphere. Burning of coal in
power and industrial units, burning diesel, agriculture, construction activities etc. are responsible
for generation of particulate matter. Respiratory system is unable to filter out particles of smaller
than 10 microns size. These particles can reach deep into lung resulting in respiratory diseases,
possible premature death and cancer. Smaller the particle deeper it penetrates in lungs and more
adversely it affects the body. Environmental effects include poor visibility and damage to trees,
soil and aquatic life.
Sulphur dioxides: it is a primary precursor of acidic precipitation. Sulphur dioxide forms when
substances containing Sulphur such as coal, diesel and oil are burned. Industrial processes like
pulp and paper making, steam generation, electricity production and smelting of metals also
produces sulphur dioxide. It can harm human and animal lungs. It is a major contributor to smog
and acid rain. Sulphur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen to form sulphuric acid. Acid rain
kills plant and animals and deteriorates materials and metals. Historical monuments made of
stone like marble e.g. Taj Mahal are very badly deteriorated by acid rain.
Page 139
Nitrogen oxides: nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown irritating gas produced by burning of fossil
fuels like petrol, diesel and coal. It can cause respiratory illness and increase breathing difficulty.
It is also responsible and primary factor of photochemical smog formation. Nitrogen oxides
combine with water and make acid rain which can harm humans, animals, vegetation and erode
buildings. NO2 can also damage fabrics.
Carbon monoxide: it is a colourless, odourless gas produced by the incomplete combustion
fossil fuels e.g. petrol, diesel and wood and biomass. Vehicular exhaust contributes roughly 60%
of all CO emission and up to 95% in cities. It combines with hemoglobin and lowers oxygen
carrying capacity of our blood. This can cause slower reflexes, confusion and drowsiness. At
higher levels it result in death of human and animals. Carbon monoxide levels are generally
highest in areas with traffic congestion and poor air circulation.
Carbon dioxide: it is emitted as a result of burning of biomass and fossil fuel like coal, oil and
natural gases. It finds uses as a refrigerant, in fire extinguishers and in beverage carbonation. It is
the main greenhouse gas which results in global warming.
Lead: it is present in petrol, diesel, leaded gasoline, lead batteries, paints and hair dye products.
If human or animals are exposed to lead over a long period, it bio-accumulates and biomagnified
and damages nervous system.
Ozone: it is an essential in stratosphere and protects us from harmful UV rays but in troposphere
near ground levels it is a pollutant. Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground level
ozone emission. It is also generated during formation of photochemical smog. Ozone irritates the
mucus membrane of the respiratory system, eyes and other tissues. Ozone makes our eyes itch,
burn and water. It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia.
13.5 Air Quality Standards
The Parliament of India having powers under Article 253, enacted the Air Act, 1981 to control
and prohibit air pollution. The main objectives of the act are eradication, control and reduction of
air pollution; establishment of Central and State Pollution Control Board ; and provide powers
and functions to such Boards. The Central Pollution Control Board notify the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards in the year 1982 which are appropriately reconsidered in 1994 based on
health criteria and land uses.
Page 140
Sr.
NO.
Pollutant Time
Weighted
Average
Concentration in Ambient Air
Industrial, Residential,
Rural and Other Area
Ecologically Sensitive
Area (notified by central
government)
1 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
ug/m3
Annual
24 hours
50
80
20
80
2 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
ug/m3
Annual
24 hours
40
80
30
80
3 Particulate Matter (Size
less than 10 um) or
PM10ug/m3
Annual
24 hours
60
100
60
100
4 Particulate Matter ( Size
less than 2.5 um) or
PM2.5 ug/m3
Annual
24 hours
40
60
40
60
5 Ozone (O3) ug/m3 8 hours
1 hour
100
180
100
180
6 Lead (Pb) ug/m3 Annual
24 hours
0.50
1.0
0.50
1.0
7 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
mg/m3
8 hours
1 hour
02
04
02
04
8 Ammonia (NH3) ug/m3 Annual
24 hours
100
400
100
400
9 Benzene (C6H6) ug/m3 Annual
05 05
10 Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)-
particulate phase only
ng/m3
Annual
01 01
11 Arsenic (As) ng/m3 Annual
06 06
12 Nickel (Ni) ng/m3 Annual
20 20
13.6 Effect of Air Pollution
1. Effect on Human beings
Page 141
Clean air is necessary for human health. Air pollution affects the respiratory system, nervous
system and lungs. Polluted air causes many harmful effects on human beings. The table 2 shows
various health effects due to different air pollutants:
Table 2: Sources and health effects of various air pollutants
Pollutants Sources Effects
Suspended
Particulate Matter
Burning of fossil fuels, vehicular
emission and industrial emissions
Pulmonary malfunctioning,
asthma and affect photosynthesis
Sulphur Dioxides Thermal power plants and
industries
Eye and throat irritation, allergies,
reduce exchange of gases from
lung surface and acid rain
Nitrogen Dioxide Vehicles, thermal power plants
and industries
Breathlessness, bronchitis,
asthma, cancer and acid rain
Carbon Monoxide Incomplete burning of fossil
fuels, vehicular and industrial
emissions
Difficulty in breathing, severe
headaches, unconsciousness and
death
Carbon Dioxide Burning of fossil fuels Heart strain, impairs reflexes,
global warming
Ozone Automobile and industrial
emissions
Breathlessness, asthma, wheezing
and emphysema
Lead Petrol and industrial emissions Damage brain and central nervous
system, impaired intelligence and
cancer
Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil fuels Carcinogenic effect, irritation of
eyes, hypertension and kidney
damage
Hydrogen
Sulphides
Soft coal, vehicular emission Nausea, irritate eyes and throat
Mercury Industries Memory loss, nervous disorder
and minimata disease
Cadmium Industries Affects the kidney and itai-itai
disease
Silica Dust Silicon quarries Silicosis
Coal Dust Coal mines Black lung disease and cancer
Tobacco Smoke Cigarettes Lung cancer, chronic bronchitis
and asthma
Radioactive
Pollutants
Radon, radium, x-rays, beta rays Leukemia, destroy living tissue
and permanent genetic changes
Ammonia Dye making industries, fertilizers Bring tears in eyes, damage lungs
2. Effects on Plants
Page 142
Air pollution affects the plants directly or indirectly. The potential for damage to crops by air
pollution is depends on nature and concentration of pollutants. Direct damage to plants includes
necrosis and chlorosis, indirect damage results soil acidification from acid rain. The table 3
shows various effects of air pollution on plants:
Table 3: Effects of air pollutants on plants
Pollutants
Effects
Sulphur Dioxide Chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage,
growth suppression and lichen desert
Ozone Bleaching, growth suppression and damage
chlorenchyma
Ethylene Flower dropping, premature leaf fall,
curling of petals and discoloration of sepals
Hydrogen Fluoride Chlorosis and dwarfing leaf abscission
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) Bronzing on the lower surface of leaves
3. Effects on Aquatic Animals
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
and nitric acid. These compounds come back onto the ground as acid rain. Acid rains are very
harmful to the aquatic animals. Acid rain due to low pH results in high aluminium level in soils
and water bodies. Acid rain falls on streams and lakes and acidifies them. At lower pH level fish
eggs cannot hatch which destroy fish population.
4. Effects on Materials
Presence of sulphur dioxide and moisture in the atmosphere make sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid
damage metal parts of buildings, vehicles, bridges, railway tracks and statues made up of marble
and limestone. Prolonged exposure of ozone in atmosphere results in deterioration of rubber.
Oxides of nitrogen cause deterioration of dolomite buildings and also cause fading of cotton and
rayon fibres.
5. Green House Effect
Green house means a building made of glass. In a similar way earth atmosphere act like a green
house. When sunlight reaches earth surface some is absorbed and warms the earth surface. Solar
radiation coming to earth are absorbed by surface of green house gases like CO2, CFC and
Page 143
methane and reradiated as infrared (IR) radiations which are entrapped on earth and increases its
temperature. This process is called greenhouse effects.
Greenhouse gases reflect back the IR radiations as heat energy to the earth surface. This transfer
of heat energy back to earth surface by the atmospheric gases is called the greenhouse effect.
The four major greenhouse gases are CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and CFC. Their contribution
to greenhouse effect is CO2 (55%), methane (20%) and CFC (14.5%). Burning of fossil fuels by
industries and vehicles are mainly responsible for higher CO2 emissions into the environment.
Control of Greenhouse Effect
Reducing the consumption of fossil fuel by use of non-conventional renewable source of
energy such as solar, wind, biogas and nuclear energy.
Enhancing forestation will reduce the CO2 level thereby decreasing the greenhouse effect.
6. Global Warming
Global warming means increase in earth surface temperature. It results in change in earth climate
and sea level rise. The increased concentration of carbon dioxide, methane and chloro floro
carbon (CFC) by burning of fossil fuels to be the primary sources of the global warming. Impacts
of global warming are sea levels rising, melting of the polar ice caps and glaciers, change in
rainfall pattern and shifting of food production belts.
Effects of global warming
1. Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean.
2. Patterns of precipitation are changing.
3. Increase in floods, droughts and tornadoes.
7. Acid Rain
Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified. It is formed when oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur
react with the moisture in the atmosphere. It is rain with pH of less than 5.6. Acid rain is
particularly damaging plants and animals that live in lakes, streams, rivers, forests ecosystem etc.
Types of Acid Deposition: Acid rain is a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the
atmosphere.
Page 144
Wet Deposition: Wet deposition takes place in the form of rain, snow and fog. It decreases
the pH of soil and water bodies thereby affecting plants and animals.
Dry Deposition: In dry weather, the chemicals get deposited on dust and smoke. These
comes down to earth surface by the rain.
Effects of Acid Rain
Acid rain causes excessive damage to buildings and structural materials such as marble, lime
stone and slate. Lime stone is attacked rapidly e.g. Taj Mahal in Agra has suffered a lot due
to SO2 and sulphuric acid from Mathura Refinery.
Acid rain is contaminating portable ground water with toxic compounds present in it. These
toxic compounds enter in the human body and affect the respiratory, nervous and digestive
system of human being.
Acid rain produces acidity in lakes and rivers which kill fishes, algae and bacteria.
The adverse impact on agriculture leads to the deterioration of life quality indices.
Control Measures:
Reduce vehicular emission containing nitrogen oxide.
Reduce emission from power station containing Sulphur dioxide by using alternate source of
energy like tidal, wind, hydropower etc.
Buffering: adding a neutralizing agent to increases the pH of soil and water body.
Using low Sulphur fuel.
8. Ozone Depletion
Ozone layer is present in stratosphere. Maximum concentration of ozone (O3) is at a height of 20
to 30 kilometers because at this height there is maximum concentration of Oxygen (O2) and UV
rays. With increase in height there is decrease in concentration of O2 and increase in UV rays and
reverse in case of decrease in height. In presence of UV rays, Oxygen is broken into nascent
oxygen (O). This single atom of oxygen (O) combines with oxygen molecule (O2) and forms the
ozone (O3)
UV formation takes place as below:
O2 + UV rays O + O ------------- 1
Page 145
O2 + O O3 ------------- 2
It protects life on earth by absorbing harmful UV rays. Harmful effects of UV rays are sunburn,
cataract and blindness, skin ageing and weakening of immune system.
Ozone layer depletion is a serious environmental problem. Ozone layer depletion initial captured
the world attention in 1970 in Antarctica. The term “Ozone hole” is applied when level of ozone
is below 200 Dobson Unit (D.U). Main cause ozone depletion is release of CFCs in environment
which finds its way into Antarctic through air circulation.
UV rays librates the chlorine atom from the CFC molecule. This librated free chlorine reacts
with an O3 to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and oxygen (O2). The chlorine atom from ClO is
again librated by reaction of oxygen atom (O) with CIO. UV depletion takes place as below:
Cl + O3 O2 + ClO -------------- 3
O + ClO Cl + O2 -------------- 4
Control Measures:
Stop using CFCs as refrigerant.
Stop using CFCs in Foams.
Stop using CFCs cleaning solvents.
13.7 Air Pollution Control Measures
Air pollution control devices remove particulates and gaseous pollutants.
13.7.1 Control of Particulates Matter
Particulate matters are removed from a polluted air stream by various processes. Most common
types of equipments used are settling chambers, cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators
and bagfilters.
Settling Chambers
In settling chambers particulate matters are removed by force of gravity. In these systems
velocity of gas is so reduced that large particles will move slow enough and gets collected in the
settling chamber by gravity. They are mainly used as a precleaner.
Cyclones
Page 146
Air is allowed to enter the cyclone chamber where it forms a vortex. Due to centrifugal force
larger particles have greater inertia and move to the wall of cyclone. Thus particulate matter slide
down into hopper at the bottom of the cyclone and cleaned air come out from the top. They have
efficiencies of about 90 percent.
Scrubbers
In wet scrubbers spray of water or liquid capture the suspended particles. Spray-tower scrubbers
and Venture scrubbers are most commonly used methods to scrub particulate matter from air.
Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) work on principle of potential difference. They have collection
efficiency of more than 99 %. The dust particles suspended in flue gas get charged when they
pass through the ESP and opposite charge ions migrate towards the collection electrode.
Bagfilters
Filtering fabric made of nylon or wool used to remove particles air is known as bagfilter. When
gas is passed through filter, the particulates matter is retained on the fabric. Forces of impaction,
interception and diffusion are responsible for particle removal in bag filter.
13.7.2 Control of Gaseous Pollutants
Gaseous pollutants are controlled by three techniques which are absorption, adsorption and
incineration.
Absorption:
Gaseous pollutants are removed from air when they pass through the liquid. Spray tower, packed
columns, spray chambers and venture scrubbers are used for absorption of gaseous pollutants.
Adsorption:
It is a surface phenomenon. When a gas is passed through a solid, it is adsorbed on the surface of
the solid by van der waals forces. Adsorbent have high surface area. Commonly used adsorbents
are activated carbon, silica gel and alumina.
Incineration:
Page 147
In this technique substances are burnt at very high temperature in oxygen saturation condition so
that they are completely oxidized. During incineration, organic substances and fuels are
completely oxidized into CO2 and water.
13.8 Summary
Air pollution may be defined as addition of pollutants, which may be natural gas or man made
synthetic chemical, in air to such a level that it become injurious to humans, animals or other
materials. The major air pollutants are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter (PM10 and
PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), poly aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), etc. These pollutants lead to adverse impacts on
human health, animal, plants and materials, if present above standard permissible limits. The
pollutants like SO2, and NOx are responsible for acid rain. Whereas CO2, CH4, and CFCs are
major green house gases which lead to global warming. CFCs are also responsible for ozone
depletion. Particulates matter from air can be removed techniques of settling chambers, cyclones,
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and bagfilters, whereas gaseous pollutants are controlled by
absorption, adsorption and incineration.
13.9 Key words
Atmosphere: Thin envelope of gases surroundings the earth.
Air Pollution: Presence of air pollutant in air which are injurious to human health, animal and
plant.
Air pollutants: major air pollutants are Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), Ozone (O3),
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) , Nitrogen Dioxide
(NO2), Lead (Pb) and Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) etc.
Green House Effect: Reflecting back of heat energy by the atmospheric gases is called the
greenhouse effect
Global Warming: Increase in the temperature of the atmosphere and oceans
Acid Rain: Rain with pH of less than 5.6
13.10 Self Assessment Questions
1. What do you mean by Atmosphere? Discuss its composition and change in temperature with
height.
Page 148
2. Define Air pollution. Which are the factors responsible for air pollution?
3. What do you mean by air pollutants? Discuss their sources.
4. Write in brief the various health effects on human, animals and plants of air pollution. Also
discuss their effects on materials.
5. Discuss global environmental issues of air pollution.
6. Why maximum concentration of Ozone is in between 20 to 30 kilometers. Discuss
mechanism of Ozone depletion.
7. What is a green house effect? Discuss mechanism of green house effect and also discuss its
effects on environment.
8. What do you mean by global warming? Discuss its adverse effects on environment.
9. Discuss in short the methods of air pollution control. Also discuss in brief the air quality
standards.
13.11 Suggested Readings
Daniel Vallero (2014). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Academic Press.
Jeremy Colls (2002).Air Pollution, Spon Press, London.
Kaushik, A. and Kaushik, C.P. (2008). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New Age
International Publishers.
Rao, C. S. (2006). Environmental Pollution Control Engineering. New Age International
Publishers.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981). Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change. Government of India.
Zanneti, P., Al-Azmi, D. and Al- Rashied, S., Editors (2007). An introduction to air
pollution- Definition, Classification and History, Published by The Arab Scholl for Science
and Technology (ASST) (http://www.arabschool.org.sy) and The Enviro Comp Institute
(http://www.envirocomp.org/).
Page 149
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP- 103 Author: Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab
Lesson No.: 14 Vetter:
WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Water Resources
14.2.1 Surface Water
14.2.2 Water Reservoirs
14.2.3 Ground Water
14.2.4 Hydrological cycle
14.2.4.1 Components of Hydrological Cycle
14.3 Water Pollution
14.3.1 Nutrients Pollution
14.3.2 Organic Matter
14.3.3 Microbiological Disease Causing Agents
14.3.4 Chemical Water Pollution
14.3.5 Turbidity
14.3.6 Oil Spillage
14.3.8 Thermal Pollution
14.3.7 Radioactive Waste
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key words
14.6 Self Assessment Questions
14.7 References/Suggested readings
14.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, student will be able to:
Page 150
Understands the water resources and basics of movement of water on earth
Understand the sources and factor responsible of water pollution
Explain the major water pollutants and their health effects
14.1 Introduction
Before man start agriculture, he was a hunter and gather with few requirements and small
population, thus he has negligible impacts on the environment. After start of agriculture and
industrialization our requirement has increased many folds. With growth of human population
industrialization and technological development, man attitude towards nature has been
changed and we have over exploited natural resources to raise our living standard thereby
causing very adverse impacts on the environment. At present our civilization has reached to its
zenith leading to environmental degradation to such a level that it is getting difficult to make it
safer for human being and other living plants and animals.
Industrialization during 19th century changed mankind’s lifestyle and gave a new pace at which
knowledge was gathered and new substances or technology came. Thus, new knowledge and
technological development make our life easy and comfortable but our environment is getting
polluted day by day by release of harmful industrial effluents in the form of air and water
pollutants and hazardous substances. Environmental pollution is now become a serious
problem at world level and environmental issue never happened in human history are being
raised now a day’s creating serious environment conflicts in the form of pollution, with release
of persistent toxic chemicals leading to serious ecological and environmental problem.
The term environment has been derived from French word “Environia” means to surround.
Surrounding in which man sustains its life process which effects the growth and development of
living beings. Environmental pollution means the presence of harmful substances or products
into the the environment.
As per EPA, 1986 water pollution is caused by release of toxic and hazardous pollutants into
surface water bodies i.e. river lakes, stream etc. and ground water bodies i.e. non- confined and
confined aquifers. Polluted water is inappropriate for use in industry and unfit for drinking
purpose and can adversely affect recreation and agriculture uses. It reduces the aesthetic
Page 151
beauty of lakes and rivers. It is impossible to escape from the affects of water pollution.
Consumption of this contaminated water and cultivation of crops on polluted soil adversely
affects the health of plants and animals including human beings. Disposal of solid waste on land
surface is anaesthetic and it spread harmful diseases as well.
Industrial revolution without control is non-sustainable in long run as new synthetic persistent
chemicals having long lasting effects on the environment are being introduced into the
environment. Industrial waste is process waste produced during manufacturing of products,
thus nature of waste produced vary from industry to industry and product to product.
The 70% of the earth surface water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that
exits on earth. Global water pollution scenario suggests that a large section of people lack safe
drinking water resulting in millions of deaths by waterborne diseases such as cholera and
hepatitis every year.
In India, situation of water resources is very critical because India has 16% of world’s population
and about 2.45% of worlds land area but available world’s water resources are about 4%. India
has already facing the grave drinking water crisis and today water is one of the largest problems
India facing. The main industries contributing to water pollution are pulp and paper industries,
textile industry and various food processing industries.
Environmental pollution is necessary evil of all development because organic and inorganic
chemicals are disposed off into the air and water in the form of solids, liquid and slurry. Huge
amount of different chemicals are also being released into the environment in the form of
industrial effluent which are responsible for environmental pollution especially the pollution of
water bodies (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003, Sauza et al., 2004).
Physical, chemical and biological treatment methods are used to treat wastewater. Biological
methods are beneficial instead of chemical treatment due to less sludge production with high
COD removal in addition to economic benefits as no chemicals are required. Physical treatment
methods include sedimentation, floatation and adsorption. Chemical treatment of wastewater
by coagulants such as calcium hydroxide, aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride and iron
chloride results in about 94% removal of suspended matter and 89% removal of
Page 152
phosphorus and average elimination of COD and TKN. A physical-chemical treatment
method is not been a viable technology due to their high capital cost and environmental
consideration and low treatment efficiency in reducing the COD and BOD load.
A balance is must between environment and development. This can be done through
sustainable development by meeting the need of present population with taking care of future
generation. Any development which cannot provide clean air and safe water to its people
cannot be constructive and impractical for any country. There is nothing more important than
environment protection and it should be our top priority (National Green Tribunal).
14.2 Water Resources
14.2.1 Surface Water
Surface water sources are river, lake and reservoir used for swimming, drinking, industrial,
agricultural or other uses but due to water pollution sometimes these uses are limited. Water
release from reservoirs depends upon time of year, needs of irrigators and drinking water
demands. They can also be used for recreation or hydro-power generation.
Municipal and industrial sewage are major sources of pollution for streams, lake and reservoirs
but these days other sources of pollution are more difficult to identify and control. Water quality
must be monitored and the effects of water pollution on aquatic life, human health and
environment must study.
14.2.2 Water Reservoirs
A r es e r vo i r i s an a r t i f i c i a l l ak e cons t ru c t i n g b y m ak in g a d ams ac ro ss
r i ve r s t o s t o r e wa t e r . I t c an a l so b e f o rm ed on n a tu r a l l ak e b y
co ns t r u c t i n g a d am a t l ak e ou t l e t . T h ey a r e u s ed fo r p o wer gen e r a t i on ,
d o wn s t r eam w at e r s up p l y , i r r i ga t io n , f l oo d co n t ro l , c an a l s an d r ec r ea t io n .
R ese r vo i r s a r e h i gh l y m an aged s t r u c t u re us ed t o b a l an ce th e f l o w b y
t ak in g in w a t e r du r i n g h i gh f l o ws and r e l eas in g i t d u r in g lo w f lo w s in
co n t ro l l ed m an n er . R ec r ea t i on a l u s e s o f r e s e rv o i r a r e f i s h i n g , bo a t in g b i rd
w a t ch in g , l an ds cape p a i n t i n g , w a l k in g and h ik i n g .
Page 153
Lar ge r e s e r vo i r s r e t a i n w a t e r fo r m on th s o r ev en yea r s o f av e r age i n f lo ws
b a s i s and a l s o p ro v i d e f lo od p ro t ec t ion and i r r i ga t io n s e rv i ces . T he d es i gn
an d p r ov i s i on o f t h es e se r v i ces i n a h yd r p o w er p l an t d ep en d en t s on
en v i ro nm ent and s oc i a l n eeds .
14.2.3 Ground Water
Ground water is in more abundance than surface water sources. It is pumped from aquifer and
considered as cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, thus,
used for public water supplies.
Ground water pollution resulted by improper waste disposal. It is more dangerous and difficult
to treat in comparison to surface water.
Movement of water in various resources on earth is governed by hydrological/water cycle.
14.2.4 Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle discoverer, Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), declare that rainfall itself is
adequate for the maintenance of rivers. The hydrological cycle is called the water cycle. It
explains the nonstop movement of water on, above and below the earth surface. The water
travels from one source to another i.e. from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere
and back by evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff and subsurface
flow. During this it undergoes through liquid, solid (ice) and vapor (gas) phase. This cycle
extend from an average depth of about 1km in the lithosphere (the crust of the earth), to a height
of about 15 km in the atmosphere.
Water is evaporated from the oceans, lakes, rivers and earth's surface and transpirated by plants
to the atmosphere and there these vapours in the clouds are converted into water droplets by
condensation resulted in water precipitation back to the earth surface and oceans. Water fell on
earth surface in the form of rainfall or snowfall. Precipitation comes back to the oceans by
gravity as surface runoff through rivers. A part of it percolates through soil and reaches to
ground water aquifers. It may be detain for millions of years in polar ice caps.
The water cycle maintain of life and ecosystems on the earth and used for households, industries,
agriculture and production of power.
Page 154
14.2.4.1 Components of Hydrological Cycle
1. Evaporation
Evaporation is the conversion of water from liquid to gaseous phase by solar radiations. The
gaseous phase i.e. water vapours moves from the earth surface into the atmosphere.
2. Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration includes both the eavaporation and transpiration together. Transpiration
is the release of water vapor by plants.
3. Condensation
It is transformation of water vapor into liquid droplets in the air.
4. Precipitation
It is the falling of water in the form of rain, snow, hail, frost etc. on the earth‟s surface.
Rain: Water in the form of liquid droplets after condensation in clouds becomes heavy
enough to fall as precipitation on earth surface. It is a major component of
Page 155
the hydrological cycle and responsible for deposition of the majority of fresh water on the
Earth.
Snowfall: The fall of water in the form of snowflakes from the clouds is referred as
snowfall. It is the precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice on earth. It
occurs when the freezing level is less than 300 m from the ground surface.
Sleet: It is a mixture of snow and rain in the form of small pellets of transparent ice
having a diameter of 5 mm or less.
Hail: It consists of large pellets or balls of ice. It is a form of solid rainfall known as
hailstorms of diameter of 5 mm to 50 mm. They damage the crops and claim
human and animal lives.
Drizzle: It is the continuous and uniform fall water droplets of diameter less than 0.5
mm.
Frost: It is the overnight deposit of ice in humid air and cold conditions which made
fragile branched patterns of ice crystals as the result of fractal process. It damage
crops and vegetation.
5. Infiltration
It is the water percolation from the earth surface into the ground. After infiltration, the
water turns into groundwater. Percolation is the seepage of water from one soil zone to a
lower zone.
6. Runoff
Runoff is the drainage of water by streams and river at the outlet of a catchment. Runoff is
excess rainfall calculated by subtraction of initial losses and infiltration losses from the total
rainfall. During runoff, the water may percolate into the ground, evaporate into the air, get
stored in lakes and reservoirs, or utilize for agricultural or other human uses.
Runoff phase of hydrological cycle is represented by stream flow. Runoff/Stream flow
depends upon rainfall characteristics, catchment characteristics and climate factors.
7. Storage
Storage is the water deposition in natural depressions of a basin.
Page 156
8. Groundwater flow
The flow of water below the earth surface, in the aquifers is referred as groundwater flow.
Groundwater water may come back to the surface in the form of springs or by being pumped
or ultimately seep into the oceans. Groundwater has tendency to move slowly, thus it
replenished slowly and remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
14.3 Water Pollution
Pollutants find its way into water bodies and cause pollution of water. Presence of
contaminants in water bodies like river, lake, stream and ground water to such an extent that
became injurious to health of animals plant and human being is called water pollution. Major
categories of water pollutants are as below:
Nutrients Pollution like phosphate, nitrate etc.
Organic Matter
Microbiological i.e. disease causing agents
Chemicals like acid and bases, salts, heavy metals, pesticide etc.
Suspended Solids
Oil Spillage
Radioactive Waste
Thermal Pollution
14.3.1 Nutrients Pollution
Wastewater contains too much of nutrient like phosphate and nitrate leads to eutrophication
i.e. high growth of algae and aquatic plants like water hyacinth. High growth of algae and
aquatic plants create high organic matter content in water body when they die. Decomposition
of this creates anaerobic condition by depleting oxygen content of water body leading to death
of aquatic fauna like fishes by oxygen starvation.
14.3.2 Organic Matter
Biodegradation of organic matter in water bodies by micro organisms which include aerobes
and anaerobes consume dissolved oxygen causing its depletion in the water body. In presence
of high organic matter content in water body, the dissolve oxygen reach to such a level that
Page 157
aerobes may die leading to growth of anaerobic microorganism which resulted in production of
harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulphides.
Organic Matter + O2+ Aerobic microorganism– CO2 + H2O + New cells
Organic Matter + Anaerobic microorganism– CH4+ CO2 + H2S+ New cells
14.3.3 Microbiological Disease Causing Agents
It includes bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms. These infectious organisms cause
diseases in infected individuals. Developing and underdeveloped countries does not have
enough resources, so people living in these countries drink untreated water directly from river
or stream contaminated by disease causing microorganism. Diseases caused by consumption of
this contaminated water are known as water borne disease. The most common waterborne
diseases with their causative organism are as given below in table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Common waterborne diseases with their causative organism
Disease Causative Organism
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae
Chloera Vibrio Cholerae
Enteritis Clostridium perfringens, other bacteria
Amoebic Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica
Infectious Hepatitis Hepatitis Virus A
Anclystomiasis Anclyostoma sp.
Cryptospordiosis Cryptosporodium sp.
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus
Schistosomiasis Schistosoma sp.
Page 158
14.3.4 Chemical Water Pollution
Many industries uses different chemicals end up in water. These include chemicals like acids,
bases, cations, anion, heavy metals, pesticide etc. Out of these some are very toxic like heavy
metals and pesticides and responsible for many disease and death of human beings as well as
aquatic plant and animals. Chemical can be grouped into organic and inorganic.
Inorganic chemicals include acids, metals, salts etc. Contaminants that contain elements other
than carbon do not get degraded easily. Acid base and salt affects the pH of water bodies
thereby adversely affecting growth of many aquatic flora and fauna. Heavy metals are toxic in
nature and cause many types of problem. The sources and toxic effects of different heavy
metals are discussed below in table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Sources and toxic effects of heavy metals
Heavy
metals
Source Harmful Effect
Chromium Discharge from steel, textile
manufacturing, electro plating
and pulp mills; erosion of natural
deposits etc.
gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hemolysis,
acute renal failure, pulmonary fibrosis,
lung cancer (Soghoian and Sinert, 2008).
Copper
Metal cleaning, plating baths, pulp and
paper industry, fertilizer industry,
copper/ brass-plating, corrosion of
pipes and erosion of rocks etc.
gastrointestinal distress, liver or kidney
damage.
Cadmium
Electroplating, paint pigments, plastics,
alloy preparation mining and silver-
cadmium batteries; metal refineries
discharge; corrosion of pipes and
erosion of rocks etc.
Pneumonitis, proteinuria, lung cancer,
osteomalacia (Zhang et. al., 2008).
Page 159
Nickel Processing of minerals, paints,
electroplating, enamelling of porcelain
etc.
Allergic sensitization, lung and nervous
system damages and dermatitis (Malkoc,
2006)
Zinc Printed circuit board manufacturing,
metal electroplating, painting, dying,
photography etc.
Dermatitis, Pneumoitis, stomach pain,
nausea, lethargy, dizziness and muscle
incoordination (Bishnoi and Garima,
2005).
Lead Batteries, smelting and alloying,
paints, some types of solders etc.
nausea, vomiting, encephalopathy,
headache, anaxia, anemia, abdominal
pain, nephropathy, foot-drop/wrist-drop
(Soghoian and Sinert
2009).
Mercury
Old paint, industrial pollutants, leaded
gasoline.
Inflammation of gums and mouth, kidney
disorder, neurotic disorder,
Parageusia, metallic taste, pain and pink
discoloration of hands and feet
(Soghoian and Sinert, 2009).
Organic chemicals include man made (synthetic) and natural. Natural organic chemicals include
carbohydrate (sugar), fat (fatty acids) and protein (amino acid). They are non toxic in nature but
may create BOD by depleting oxygen of water bodies if present in high concentration. Synthetic
organic substances include pesticides, solvent, plastic etc. They may be toxic to human being,
animals and plants. Some of toxic effects of different chemical are discussed below in table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Toxic effects of different chemical
Compound Health Effect
Solvent
Page 160
Benzene Associated with blood disorder, leukemia.
Carbon Tetrachloride Possibly causes cancer, liver damage, may also
affect kidney.
Chloroform Possibly causes cancer.
Trichloroethylene Probably cause cancer.
Pesticide
Aldicarb Attack Nervous System
Ethylene dibromide
(fumigant)
Possibly causes cancer; attack liver and kidney.
DDT Carcinogenic
Organophosphate Attack nervous system
Chemicals
Polychlorinated Bibhenyl Attack liver and kidney; Possibly causes cancer.
Vinyl Chloride Causes cancer.
Dioxins Some cause cancer; may harm reproductive,
immune and nervous system.
Pesticides prevents, destroy or control the pest and vectors of diseases causing harm and
responsible for loss of food and food crops and also leads to death of plants and human being.
Pesticides can be classif ied into herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.
14.3.5 Turbidity
Some pollutants do not easily dissolve in water and remain in suspension. These materials are
called suspended particulate matter. They block the light penetration into water body thereby
affecting the photosynthetic rate. It means there is less oxygen content near to bottom of
water bodies.
Page 161
14.3.6 Oil Spillage
Oil spills effect the wildlife as it stuck into the feather of sea birds causing them to lose their
ability to fly. It also affects fishes and aquatic organism by making a barrier for transfer of
oxygen into water bodies.
14.3.7 Radioactive Waste
Radioactive waste contains radionuclides like strontium, iodine, radium, sodium, cesium,
thorium, uranium etc. These are unstable atoms or molecules which decay by emitting
radiations.
Biological effects of radiations are of two types i.e. somatic and genetic. Somatic effects are
immediate radiation sickness and acute radiation syndrome and delayed response in the form
of leukemia, carcinogenesis, foetal development abnormality and shortening of life.
Genetic effects may be chromosomal which leads to chromosomal mutation leading to sterility
and point mutation which affects the gene and its changes travel from one generation to
another.
Radiations are used to sterilization of food and drugs, killing of insects in seeds and activation of
chemical reactions in petroleum process.
Source of radiations includes nuclear reactor, ventilation air, uranium mining etc.
14.3.8 Thermal Pollution
Effluent discharge from industries like thermal power plant increases the temperature of
receiving water body to such a level that it affects the respiration and reproduction of aquatic
life. The increase in temperature of water body decreases its dissolve oxygen content thereby
affecting fishes or aquatic life.
Industry has a moral, legal and economic responsibility to consider waste treatment as one of
the variable costs of doing business. Industry must treat its waste to the level of below effluent
discharge standards limits. This can be done by adopting cheaper technology using locally
available resources.
Page 162
Primary benefit of industrial waste treatment is in the form of saving by reuse of treated
effluents by meeting compliance of regulatory bodies like CPCB, SPCB etc. Secondary benefits
are saving to downstream consumers from improved water quality, increase in employment in
construction and operation of wastewater treatment plant and increased recreation uses, such
as fishing, boating, swimming, as a result of increased purity of water. Intangible benefits of
wastewater treatment are good public relation and improved industrial image, improved
mental health of citizens and improved conservation practices (Nemrow, 2005). Main
objectives of wastewater treatment are:
Removal of inorganic and organic suspended and dissolves solids
Removal of toxic chemicals and disease causing micro-organism.
The methods of wastewater treatment are classified as physical unit operations and chemical
and biological unit processes. In unit operation pollutant are removed by using physical forces
without any changes in their properties. Predominant physical unit operations used in
treatment of wastewater are screening, flocculation, sedimentation, floatation and filtration.
In chemical and biological unit process pollutants are removed by converting them into non
harmful end products. Chemical process mainly changes the pollutant composition by chemical
reaction of pollutant with chemicals present in treatment system or added from outside
whereas biological agent like micro-organism convert the organic substances in presence or
absence of oxygen through enzymatic action. Predominant chemical processes are coagulation,
precipitation, adsorption, disinfection.
Purpose of different treatment techniques is waste minimization. Based on characteristics and
amount of toxic chemicals and presence of biodegradable and non biodegradable matter in an
industrial wastewater, the waste can be minimized by adopting techniques of volume
reduction, strength reduction, neutralization, and equalisation and proportioning.
14.4 Summary
Unauthorised release of sewage and industrial wastewater having toxic chemicals without
treatment into water bodies is mainly responsible for health hazards in living beings and such
pollutants are mainly responsible to pollute our holy rivers like Ganga, Yamuna etc. to an extent
Page 163
that water of these rivers becomes unfit for drinking, bathing and other purposes. These rivers
water is beyond the level of purification making it an impossible task to clean them even after
spending huge amount of money and use of technology. Thus, it is necessary to treat the
wastewater before their discharge into water bodies. Various environmental acts prohibit
discharging effluents into the environment without their treatment to a level of permissible
limits. Wastewater treatment can be done by using various unit operations like filtration,
sedimentation etc. and unit processes including chemical and biological treatments like
precipitation, oxidation/reduction and aerobic treatment like activated sludge processes,
tricking filter, rotating biological contactor, oxidation ponds etc. and anaerobic treatment like
UASB reactor.
14.5 Keywords
Water Resources: These are sources of water have potential for various uses like domestic,
agriculture and industrial
Water pollution: Introduction of pollutants in water
Pollutants: Substance/chemical present in such concentration that it is injurious to health of
organisms and environment
Water treatment: Removal of pollutants to below permissible limits by using various unit
operations and processes
14.6 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define water resources. Discuss its types and various uses.
2. What do you mean by hydrological cycle? What is its importance in maintaining various
water resources?
3. Define water pollution. Which are the factors responsible for water pollution?
4. What do you mean by water pollutants? Discuss their sources.
5. Write in brief the various health effects on human, animals and plants of water pollution.
Also discuss their effects on aquatic ecosystems.
Page 164
6. Discuss in short the methods of wastewater treatments. Also discuss in brief the legislative
measures of control of water pollution.
14.7 Reference
Bishnoi, N. R. and Garima (2005). Fungus: An-alternative for bioremediation of heavy
metal containing wastewater: A review. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 64: 93-100.
Malkoc E. (2006). Ni (II) removal from aqueous solutions using cone biomass of Thuja
orientalis. J. Hazar. Mater, 137: 899-908.
Metcalf L. and Eddy H.P. (2003). Waste Water Engineering. Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co.,
New Delhi.
Nemrow N.L. (2005). Industrial Collaborative Solutions. In: Agaedy, F.J. and Nemrow
N.L. (editors) Environmental Solutions: Elsevier Inc., Oxford, U.K.: 249-295 (ISBN: 978-
0-12-088441-4).
Soghoian S. and Sinert R. H. (2009). Heavy metals toxicity.
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/ 814960-overview.
Souza R.R., Bersolin I.T.L., Bioni T.L., Gimenes M.L. and Dias Filho B.P. (2004). The
performance of a three phase fluidizes bed reactor in treatment of wastewater with
organic load. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 21(2): 219-227.
Zhang W., Pang F., Huang Y., Yan P. and Lin W. (2008). Cadmium exerts toxic effects on
ovarian steroid hormone release in rats. Toxicol Lett., 182(1-3):18–23.
Page 165
Subject: Environment Management
Course Code: CP- 103 Author: Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab
Lesson No.: 15 Vetter:
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Solid Waste
15.3 Classification of solid waste
15.3.1 Classification on the basis of source
15.3.2 Classification on the basis of type
15.4 Municipal Solid Waste
15.4.1 Biodegradable waste
15.4.2 Non-biodegradable waste
15.4.3 MSW generation in India
15.5 Solid Waste Management
15.5.1 Indian guidelines for waste management
15.5.2 Regulatory framework for the municipal solid waste
15.5.3 Collection of municipal solid waste
15.5.4 Storage of MSW
15.5.5 Segregation of MSW
15.5.6 Transportation of MSW
15.5.7 Disposal of MSW
15.6 Hazardous Waste
15.6.1 Classification of Hazardous Waste
15.6.2 Hazardous Waste Management
15.7 Summary
15.8 Key words
15.9 Self Assessment Questions
15.10 References
Page 166
15.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, student will be able to:
Understands the basics of solid waste and its generation
Explain the Classification and Characteristics of solid waste
Explains the methods of solid waste management
Understand the basic of hazardous waste
Explain the types of hazardous waste and its management
15.1 Introduction
Solid waste attracted the attention of human civilization even before water and air pollution. The
municipal solid waste quantity is challengeable and has changed over the time due to
advancement of science and change in life style (Chandrappa and Brown, 2012). Littering of
waste and their piles in every nook and corner is a common site in our country (Singh et al.,
2014). The rural areas have also not been spared from the menace of huge mounting garbage and
the hazards associated. Inadequate civic services with higher population and resource utilization
are responsible for unhygienic conditions in all around our cities causing adverse affect on our
environment and human health. A trend of considerable increase in generation of solid waste by
population growth, urbanization and industrialization has been observed. There is a positive
correlation between economic development and municipal solid waste generation. Rise in MSW
in cities is in proportion to increase population growth with migration of people from rural area
(Kaushal et al., 2012). It can also lead to the adverse effects on the environment and economy of
many countries (Christensen et al., 2001 and Chofqi et al., 2004). To find land for MSW disposal
is a challengeable task (Idris et al., 2004 and Sharholy et al., 2007).
Municipal solid waste and hazardous waste can cause a serious environmental problem if it is
not managed in scientific manner. It can be a valuable resource if material and energy are
recovered.
15.2 Solid Waste
Conventionally waste can be defined any solid or liquid material that doesn‟t have any further
use. As per Environment Public Health Act (EPHA, 1988) of Singapore „waste‟ includes:
a) Scrap material or an effluent arising from the application of any process,
Page 167
b) Broken, worn out, contaminated or spoiled material have disposed off and
c) Discarded material shall be presumed to be waste unless the contrary is proved.
Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials resulting from industrial,
residential and commercial activities and other operations are defined as solid waste. It does not
include solids or dissolved material in domestic sewage or other pollutants like silt, dissolved or
suspended solids in industrial wastewater effluents, dissolved materials in irrigation return flows
or other common water pollutants (Leyes, 1993).
15.3 Classification of solid waste
15.3.1 Classification on the basis of source (Hosetti, 2006.)
Residential and Municipal: Waste originate from residential area like houses,
apartments etc. It consists of waste includes fruits and vegetables seed and peeled
material, leaf litter, wood pieces, clothes, plastics, ashes, dust, building debris and soil
etc. It also includes waste originated from demolition, construction, street cleaning, land
scraping etc.
Commercial and Institutional: It includes waste originate from shops, hotels, etc. like
grocery materials, leftover food, glasses, metals and ashes etc.
Waste material like paper, plastic, glasses etc originate from school, colleges and offices
is known as institutional waste.
Agricultural: Waste material like degraded grains, fruits and vegetables, grass, litter etc.
originated from agricultural activities is known as agricultural waste.
15.3.2 Classification on the basis of type (Hosetti, 2006.)
Refuse: it includes all types of rubbish and garbage.
Garbage: waste materials from kitchen waste, food, slaughter houses, canning and
freezing industries can decompose easily are known as garbage.
Rubbish: it includes wastes material like paper, rubber, leather, wood, garden wastes
metal, glass, ceramics, stones and soil.
Ashes: left over of heating and cooking or incineration of waste material is known as ash.
Page 168
Street wastes: wastes collected during cleaning of streets, walkways, parks, playgrounds
etc. It includes soil, paper, cardboard, plastics, leaves and vegetable matter in large
quantities.
Large wastes: waste like parts or whole of automobile, furniture, refrigerator and other
home appliances, trees, fires, demolition and construction wastes is considered as large
waste.
Industrial wastes: waste originated from industries like chemicals, paints, fertilizer,
pesticides, sand and explosives etc. It can be of hazards nature.
Sewage sludge: it includes sludge from primary and secondary settling tank and solids
from screens etc.
Mining wastes: waste originated from mines which include mine dump, slug ropes and
waste from coal mines like coal dust, fine coal and dirt.
Agricultural wastes: waste originated from animal farm like crop residue, cattle dung,
manure etc.
15.4 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
Waste originate from communities which include residential colonies/home is known as
municipal solid waste (MSW). It mainly includes waste originate from domestic and commercial
activities. It also includes waste originated from institutional and industrial activities.
Components of MSW is highly diverse in nature which includes packaging and containers, food
waste, news paper, paper, leather, textile, metals, glass, yard waste and home appliances etc
(Pichtel, 2005).
The MSW consist biodegradable organic waste like vegetable and fruit peels and seeds,
recyclables waste like metals, glass, paper, plastic, etc., toxic waste like pesticides, batteries etc.
and medical waste like expired medicines, disposable needles and syringes, stained cotton,
sanitary napkins, etc. ( Jha et al., 2008 and Gupta et al., 2015).
MSW can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable
15.4.1 Biodegradable waste
This type of waste can be decomposed easily by the microorganisms into simpler substances i.e.
CO2 and H2O under aerobic conditions and CH4, CO2 and H2S under anaerobic conditions.
Page 169
Mainly organic wastes such as kitchen waste and waste from agricultural activities constitute the
bulk of these wastes generated.
15.4.2 Non-biodegradable waste
The waste like polythene bags, plastic stuff, discarded vehicles, pesticide and fertilizer residues,
worn tires, industrial wastes including metal scrap and medical waste such as disposable needles
and syringes, plastic and glass bottles etc are non-biodegradable. They do not decompose with
time and persistent in nature.
15.4.3 MSW generation in India
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2012) estimates that waste generation is expected to
increase from 48 million tons (MT) per year to 300 MT per year by the year 2047 and estimated
requirement of land for disposal would be 169.6 km2 (Pappu et al., 2007). Urban local bodies are
investing around 35-50% of its available funds on waste management, but the problem of solid
waste is increasing day by day (Annepu, 2012). Therefore, it is the need of time to optimize the
service and delivery to increase the efficiency of municipal solid waste management.
15.5 Solid Waste Management
Management of solid waste in India becomes a difficult task due to urbanization with
inappropriate planning and poor financial condition (Kaushal et al., 2012). Municipal solid waste
is disposed off on road side and undefined areas without proper management. Management of
solid waste involves collection, segregation and secondary storage, transportation, treatment and
final disposal of waste.
15.5.1 Indian guidelines for waste management
Indian government initiated proper management of solid waste as early as 1960‟s by providing
loans for MSW composting plants. Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
were formulated in 2000 for municipal solid waste management. Municipal Solid Wastes
(Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 are applicable for collection, segregation, storage,
transportation, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste. Laws related to solid waste
management and handling are framed by Govt. of India (Table 3.1) which includes municipal
solid waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 having four schedules (Table 3.2).
Page 170
Table 3.1:- Laws related to solid waste
1962 Atomic Energy Act
1986 Environmental (Protection) Act
1989 Hazards Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
1996 Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules
1998 Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
1999 Recycled Plastic manufactured & usage Rules
1999 Solid Waste Management in Class 1 cities in India-Guided by Supreme Court Of
India
2000 Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
2001 Batteries (Management and Handling) Rule
Table 3.2: Guidelines for Scientific disposal of MSW suggested in various Schedules of
Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) rules, 2000
Schedule – I Related to implemented Schedule
Schedule – II Specification related to collection, segregation, storage, transportation,
processing and disposal of municipal solid waste
Schedule- III Specification for landfilling, measures of pollution prevention and
closure of landfill site and post care.
Schedule- IV Include standards for composting, treated leachates and incinerations
Source: Akolkar, 2000
15.5.2 Regulatory framework for the municipal solid waste
According to MSW (management and handling) rules 2000, it is the responsibility of
departments of urban development of the respective state governments to enforce the provisions
of this rule in metro cities. The DC of the concerned districts is responsible for implementation
of this rule. The MSW (management and handling) rules, 2000 deal with all aspects of MSW
Page 171
management i.e. from collection to disposal. State Pollution Control Boards should monitor the
compost quality and incineration standards as specified in the rules (Pamnani and Srinivasarao,
2013).
15.5.3 Collection of municipal solid waste
For proper collection of MSW, the MSW (management and handling) rules of 2000 prescribe
collection of MSW at household level by door-to-door collection or community bins to prohibit
littering. It is the responsibility of urban local bodies to collect the waste from door-to-door or
house-to-house. Waste collection is carried out by using handcarts, tricycles or any small
motorized vehicles (Annepu, 2012). Community bins should be used for collection of waste from
private colonies/sectors, commercial complexes, multistoried buildings etc.
15.5.4 Storage of MSW
It is common practice in India to collect wastes in plastic buckets and deposit it in community
bins located near the houses. Wastes collected during the cleaning of streets are also disposed
off in community bins (Kumar et al., 2009).
15.5.5 Segregation of MSW
Segregation means separation of waste into biodegradable (food waste, vegetable and fruit peels
etc.), non-biodegradable (polythene bags, plastic, metal scraps, needles, syringe, plastic and glass
bottles etc.) and recyclable (paper, cardboard, metals, glass, plastics etc.) (Parekh et al., 2013). It
protects human health and the environment by removing the harmful pollutants from the waste
stream and conserve natural resources (Hosetti, 2006).
15.5.6 Transportation of MSW
During transportation of waste, it should be covered to avoid exposure and spillage in
environment. There should be separate cabin for driver for the protection of his health.
15.5.7 Disposal of MSW
The waste collected from municipalities is finally transferred to disposal site which may be a
landfill site, incinerator or other disposal facilities like composting plant. Safe disposal of MSW
is very important for safety of environment, wildlife and public health. An efficient waste
management system is generally that which provide a landfill for ecologically sound disposal of
Page 172
waste that can‟t be reduced, recycled, composted, combusted or processed further (Ali et al.,
1999 and Hosetti, 2006).
Methods of solid waste disposal are listed below:
i) Open dumping and Burning
Solid wastes disposed off on roadside and in low lying areas are called an open dumpingThe
open dumps attract flies, insects, rodents, birds and also produce odors because they remain
uncovered (Hosetti, 2006). It causes pollution of ground water and soil as well as health
problems.
Burning of waste is a common practice at open dumping site. It is prohibited in law and causing
various types of pollution especially air pollution.
ii) Composting
During composting process bacteria, fungi and other microbes break down organic materials to
stable and usable organic substances called compost (Bernal et al., 2009 and Bundela et al.,
2010). Compost is a good fertilizer because it contains various essential elements for plant.
In India, composting is carried out on small fraction i.e. 10-12% of total waste because it needs
segregation and sorting which is not widely practiced (Sharholy et al., 2006).
iii) Incineration
It is burning of solid waste in a closed chamber at very high temperature with excess air. During
incineration various types of gaseous pollutants like CO2, CO, NOx, SOx etc. and fly ash in the
form of suspended particulate matter are emitted into the atmosphere. The ash produced during
incineration should be disposed off into sanitary landfill.
iv) Bio-gasification
Under anaerobic conditions, the organic matter is converted into methane gas through process of
hydrolysis, acitogensis, acidogensis and methongensis. Biogas consists of methane, carbon
dioxide, H2S and ammonia etc. which is a good source of renewable energy. It can be used for
heating and lightening. When large amount of biogas is produced, it can be used for generation
of electricity (Hosetti, 2006).
v) Refuse derived fuel (RDF)
Page 173
RDF involves the segregation of high calorific fraction of processed MSW to substitute coal in
industrial operations such as electricity generation, manufacturing of steel, cement kilns etc. The
organic fraction of waste is renewable source of energy considered as bio-fuel in RDF.
vi) Sanitary land filling
In sanitary landfill, wastes are disposed off on land and covered with soil on daily basis to
protect the environment and public health. Part of waste bring to landfill covered with soil and
compacted on daily basis is known as a cell. The cells are placed successively on other cell and
separated by a barrier of soil. During landfilling of waste a barrier of clay or plastic sheet is
places at the bottom to control leaching of leachate into ground water (Ramachandra, 2007).
Site selection for landfilling depends on quality and quantity of waste generated, soil
characteristics, ground water table, availability of land etc. The waste disposed off in landfill is
decomposed by microbes. During decomposition of waste, the physical and chemical properties
of waste are changed. Leachate and landfill gas is generated in landfill. The movement of
leachate should be controlled so that it does not affect surface and ground water quality as well
as adjacent soil because it is highly concentrated and hazardous nature. The gas generated in
landfill can be collected and used for common purpose like heating, lighting and generation of
electricity (Hosetti, 2006).
Leachate is a liquid which is formed by the leaching of rain water or surface run-off
through the municipal solid waste in landfill. It dissolves suspended or dissolved impurities and
other substances during percolation. Leachate quality and quantity depends on the types of solid
waste and the landfill geology and hydrology.
Leachate treatment is necessary before their discharge into water body as they contain
organic and inorganic contaminates like high organic matter, ammonia, pathogenic
microorganisms, heavy metals, strong color and bad odor.
vii) Bioreactor landfill
The landfill bioreactor can be defined as “a sanitary landfill that uses enhanced microbiological
processes to transform and stabilize the readily and moderately decomposable organic waste
constituents within 5 to 10 years of bioreactor process implementation. The landfill bioreactor
Page 174
significantly increases the extent of organic waste decomposition, conversion rates and process
effectiveness over what would otherwise occur within the landfill.”
The decomposition process is accelerated by leachate recirculation which increases the moisture
content of the MSW.
These are large conventional landfill with addition of water for addition of moisture by leachate
collection and their recirculation into landfill and collection of biogas.
Component of Bioreactor landfill
Liner
A barrier of clay or plastic placed at the base of a landfill to control leachate from leaching into
ground water and subsurface soil is called liner. Composite liners made up of clay or other
material can be used for the collection of leachate in landfill site.
Leachate collection system:
Provision of leachate collection is a must for proper management of a landfill site. Leachate may
be treated or recirculated back into the bioreactor landfill. To prevent clogging of leachate
collection pipe from fine solids, there should provision of filtration unit in the design of a landfill
(Thampan and Chandel, 2015).
Leachate recirculation and distribution system:
Leachate recirculation is a technique for leachate treatment and stabilization of waste. It
increases the moisture content in the landfill that enhances the degradation rate of solid waste.
Methods of leachate recirculation include distribution of collected leachate on the waste surface
directly by spraying of leachate and injected through vertical or horizontal wells (Chiemchaisri et
al., 2004). Leachate distributed at the surface of landfill percolate through the waste is collected
from the bottom of the landfill. It is distributed to the surface of the landfill again and again.
Gas collection system:
During anaerobic decomposition of waste, biogas is produced which constitute about 60-70% of
methane. It can be used for heating, lighting and generation of electricity, thus, a bioreactor
landfill design should have provision of proper collection and management of biogas.
viii) Ocean dumping
Page 175
Some coastal cities dump their solid waste in to the ocean. There are massive
environmental implications of this practice.
ix) Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a process which uses intense heat to cause chemical changes in solid waste but not
combustion. Trash rich in paper and other organic materials yields combustible gases when
pyrolyzed and the gases can be burned for fuel. Some wastes can be pyrolyzed to produce
various chemicals.
15.6 Hazardous Waste
Waste is a substance solid, semi-solid or liquid which have no further use and any waste which
exhibits the characteristics of reactivity, toxicity, flammability, explosivity and/or corrosivity and
cause danger or likely to cause danger to health and/or environment is known as hazardous
waste.
As per Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016
“hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of characteristics such as physical,
chemical, biological, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive, causes danger or is
likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or in contact with other wastes or
substances, and shall include - (i) waste specified under column (3) of Schedule I; (ii) waste
having equal to or more than the concentration limits specified for the constituents in class A and
class B of Schedule II or any of the characteristics as specified in class C of Schedule II; and (iii)
wastes specified in Part A of Schedule III in respect of import or export of such wastes or the
wastes not specified in Part A but exhibit hazardous characteristics specified in Part C of
Schedule III.
15.6.1 Classification of Hazardous Waste
Corrosive Waste
Wastes having a pH less than 2 or greater than 12 are called corrosive waste i.e. strong acids and
strong bases.
Reactive Waste
Page 176
Waste which are unstable and go through violent reaction readily without detonating are called
reactive waste i.e. reacts violently with water like elemental Sodium and cyanide or sulphide
bearing waste which generate toxic gases, vapours or fumes.
Ignitabile
Any liquid has flash point less than 60°C and substances capable get ignited or caught fire by
friction, absorption of moisture or spontaneous chemical changes at normal temperature and
pressure and burns vigorously are called ignitable waste.
Toxicity
Substances like heavy metals i.e. Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, Lead etc., Organic
Chemicals and pesticides like Benzene, Carbon tetrachloride, Chlorobenzene, Chloroform,
Cresol, Endrin, Lindane etc. in excess of the concentration limits prescribed are called toxic
substances.
Explosive
Solid waste which suddenly release of gas, heat, and pressure with loud noise when subjected to
shock, pressure, or temperature is called explosive.
Infectious waste
Wastes which contain micro-organisms or their toxins known or suspected to cause disease in
animal or humans are called infectious wastes.
As per Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016
Schedule II, hazardous waste characteristics as specified in class C waste are classified in 13
categories i.e. C1: Flammable substances, C2: Corrosive substances, C3: Reactive or explosive
substances, C4: Toxic substances, C5: Substances or Wastes liable to spontaneous combustion,
C6: Substances or Wastes which, in contact with water emit flammable gases, C7: Oxidizing
substances, C8: Organic Peroxides, C9: Poisons (acute) substances, C10: Infectious substances,
C11: Liberation of toxic gases in contact with air or water , C12: Eco-toxic substances and C13:
Capable, by any means, after disposal, of yielding another material, e.g., leachate, which
possesses any of the characteristics listed above.
15.6.2 Hazardous Waste Management
Page 177
Best option for management of hazardous waste is waste minimization. It can be done by:
1. Reduction of waste at source
2. Resource recovery and reuse
3. Recycling of waste
4. Treatment like incineration, oxidation/reduction, chemical precipitation, biological Treatment
like land farming and bioremediation, Phytoremediation etc.
5. Safe storage
6. Transportation through use of Manifest system
7. Deep Well Injection
8. Land filling.
15.7 Summary
Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials resulting from industrial, residential
and commercial activities and other operations are defined as solid waste. Municipal solid waste
includes biodegradable organic waste like food waste, vegetable and fruit peels, recyclables
waste like paper, plastic, metals, glass etc., toxic waste like paints, pesticides, used batteries etc.
and medical waste like blood stained cotton, sanitary napkins, disposable needles and syringes
etc. Municipal solid waste and hazardous waste can cause a serious environmental problem if it
is not managed in scientific manner. It can be a valuable resource if material and energy are
recovered. Management of municipal solid waste in India is a difficult task due to inappropriate
planning and poor financial condition. Management of municipal solid waste involves collection,
segregation and secondary storage, transportation, treatment and final disposal of waste.
Reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive waste is called hazardous waste. Their
disposal is a difficult task because they cause danger or likely to cause danger to health and/or
environment. Best approaches for their management are reduce, reuse and recycle. They can be
dispose off by incineration, deep well injection and incineration.
15.8 Key words
Waste: solid, semi-solid or liquid substance which have no further use
Solid waste: Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials
Page 178
Municipal Solid Waste: Waste originate from communities which include residential
colonies/homes
Solid Waste Management: Scientific collection, segregation and storage, transportation,
treatment and disposal of waste
Hazardous Waste: Reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive waste
15.9 Self Assessment Questions
1. What do you mean by waste? Define different types of wastes.
2. What do you mean by solid waste? Based on sources and nature classify solid waste.
3. What do you mean by solid waste management? Discuss steps of solid waste management
indetail.
5. What do you mean by waste minimization? Discuss in brief the techniques of waste
minimization.
6. In brief discuss the methods of solid waste disposals.
7. Define Hazardous waste. Based on characteristics, classify the hazardous waste.
8. Discuss methods of hazardous waste management in brief.
15.10 References
Akolkar, A.B., 2000. Status of Solid Waste Management in India. Implementation status of
municipal Solid Wastes, Management and handling Rules, pp.20-79.
Ali, M., Cotton, A. and Westlake, K., 1999. Down to earth: solid waste disposal for low-income
countries. WEDC, Loughborough University.
Annepu, R. K., 2012. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India. Columbia University, New
York, 2(01).
Bernal, M.P., Alburquerque, J.A. and Moral, R., 2009. Composting of animal manures and
chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment. A review. Bioresource
technology, 100(22), pp.5444-5453.
Bundela, P.S., Gautam, S.P., Pandey, A.K., Awasthi, M.K. and Sarsaiya, S., 2010. Municipal
solid waste management in Indian cities-A review. International journal of environmental
sciences, 1(4), pp.591-606.
Central Pollution Control Board (2016). Status of compliance by CPCB with municipal solid
wastes (Management and Handling Rule, 2000), Ministry of Environment and Forests, New
Delhi, India.
Page 179
Chandrappa, R. and Brown, J., 2012. Solid waste management: Principles and practices. Spinger
Science & Business Media.
Chiemchaisri, C., Chiemchaisri, W. Visvanathan, C., Tränkler, J. and Kurian, J., 2004.
Bioreactor landfill for sustainable solid waste landfill management. Faculty of Engineering,
Kesetsart University, Bangkok Thailand.
Chofqi, A., Younsi, A., Lhadi, E.K., Mania, J., Mudry, J. and Veron, A., 2004. Environmental
impact of an urban landfill on a coastal aquifer (El Jadida, Morocco). Journal of African
earth sciences, 39(3), pp.509-516.
Christensen, T.H., Kjeidsen, R., Bjerg, P.L., Jensen, D.L., Christensen, J.B., Bauna, A.
Albrechtsen, H.J. and Heron, G., 2001. Biogeochemistry of landfill leachate plumes. Applied
Geochemistry, 16(7), pp. 659-718.
Hosetti, B.B., 2006. Prospects and perspective of solid waste management. New age
International.
Idris, A., Inane, B., Hassan, M.N., 2004. Overview of waste disposal and landfills/dumps in
Asian countries. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 6(2), pp.104–110.
Jha, A.K., Sharma, C., Singh, N., Ramesh, R., Purvaja, R. and Gupta, P.K., 2008. Greenhouse
gas emissions from municipal solid waste management in Indian mega-cities: A case study of
Chennai landfill sites. Chemosphere, 71(4), pp.750-758.
Kaushal, R.K., Varghese, G.K. and Chabukdhara, M., 2012. Municipal Solid Waste Management
in India-Current State and Future Challenges: A Review. International Journal of
Engineering Science and Technology, 4(4), pp.1473-1489.
Kumar, S., Bhattacharyya, J.K., Vaidya, A.N., Chakrabarti, T., Devotta, S. and Akolkar, A.B.,
2009. Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state
capitals, class I cities, and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste management, 29(2),
pp.883-895.
Leyes, E.U.A., 1993. Part 241-Guidelines for the land disposal of solid wastes. In Code of
federal regulations, parts 190 to 259, revised as of July 1, 1993 (pp. 257-266). US
Goverment Printing Office.
Pamnani, A. and Srinivasarao, M., 2013. Municipal solid waste management in India: A review
and some new results. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET),
5(2), pp.01-08.
Page 180
Pappu, A., Saxena, M. and Asolekar, S.R., 2007. Solid wastes generation in India and their
recycling potential in building materials. Building and Environment, 42(6), pp.2311-2320.
Parekh, H., Yadav, K.D., Yadav S.M., shah N.C., 2013. Evaluation of collection and
transportation of Municipal Solid Waste Management System in jnNURM cities in Gujarat,
India: A Case Study of Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara and Rajkot. International Journal of
Scientific Research, 2(7), pp.185-188.
Pichtel, J., 2005. Waste management practices: municipal, hazardous, and industrial. CRC
press.
Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S., 2007. Environmental audit of municipal solid waste
management. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, 7(3-4),
pp.369-391.
Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G. and Trivedi, R.C., 2006. Development of prediction
models for municipal solid waste generation for Delhi city. In Proceedings of national
conference of advanced in mechanical engineering (AIME-2006), Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi, India (pp. 1176-1186).
Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Vaishya, R.C. and Gupta, R.D., 2007. Municipal solid waste
characteristics and management in Allahabad, India. Waste Management, 27(4), pp.490-496.
Singh, M., Singh, R.B. and Hassan M.I. eds., 2014. Climate Change and Biodiversity:
Proceeding of IGU Rohtak Conference (Vol. 1). Springer.
Thampan, A. and Chandel, M.K., 2015. Bioreactor Landfill Technology. International Journal
of Science and Research (IJSR), 4(6), pp.256-260.