STUDY MATERIAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UNIT-I …

DR M.KALIMULLAH ASSISTANT PROFESSOR DEPARTMENT OF LAW

STUDY MATERIAL

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

UNIT-I

PARARDIGMS OF RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE

MEANING OF RESEARCH

Searching it again and again means Re-search. Research is defined as human activity based on

intellectual application in the investigation of matter. The primary purpose for applied research is

discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of

human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research

can use the scientific method, but need not do so.

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as

a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research

is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays

down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search

for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”

1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the

unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness

for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain

full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all

knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the

unknown, can be termed as research.

3.Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.

According to Clifford Woody” Research comprises defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making

deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine

whether they fit the formulating hypothesis”. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the

Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or


symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that

knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

4. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its

advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and

experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding

solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the

formulation of a theory is also research,

Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. It

shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and objective and present

their result from the data obtained during the study period. This research design and methodology

chapter also shows how the research outcome at the end will be obtained in line with meeting the

objective of the study. This section hence discusses the research methods that were used during

the research process. It includes the research methodology of the study from the research strategy

to the result dissemination.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood

as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that

are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind

them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also

the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how

to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply

particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,

are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also

need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the

criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to

certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design

his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example,

an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he

has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors,

windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in

research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are

implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he

selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.


The research process involves the following steps. Though the step order may vary depending on

the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research,

both basic and applied:

1. Formation of the topic

2. Hypothesis

3. Conceptual definitions

4. Operational definitions

5. Gathering of data

6. Analysis of data

7. Test, revising of hypothesis

8. Conclusion, literation if necessary

Aims and Objective of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and

which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific

purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad

groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this

object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated

with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research

studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as

hypothesis-testing research studies).

Classification of Research

Dr. S.R Ranganathan has tried to classify research into six stages as given below:

1. Observation research: A solo research developed through minute observation and facts

taken there as results.

2. Empirical research: Here the empirical findings of observations at various places are

generalized and as the results are generalized facts.

3. Pragmatic research: The tested results of observation and empirical method are further

proven as applicable results.

4. Fundamental research: After all above three levels, we produce fundamental law by

verifying in of old theory, and established of a new one. It is of two types: (a) for


fundamental research where the researchers are whole and oriented fundamental research

where in a group of workers is engaged to carry out that work. A Pure research: The results

of the "fundamental research is applied to solve a specific problem. It is of two types. Pure-

It is not biased to any subject. Ex: Pure mathematics. (b) Applied- It is directed towards

solution of a problem. Ex: Animal husbandry.

5. Developmental Research: Every research at the last stage is a developmental research

which leads to extension of knowledge..

Types of Research

Research can be studies under two divisions, First, according to the methods and second,

according to the purpose.

1. Type of research by method The study of method is called methodology. A method is

a path of achieving or approaching to a problem. The path involves certain steps. These

steps are to occur in an order of occurrences, All sciences are methodological (or based

on methods).Every methodology is pointed towards solutions of human problems;

existing or to exist in future.

2. A research methodology involves the following kinds of research methods.

A. Historical Research

This explores the use of histories as method and the ways in which this research can

contribute to new understandings about the experiential relationships between libraries

and users. The critical examination of past event or happenings order to know truth and

later on, to generalization is known as historical research. History is key subject for

study of different subjects. It is worth to mention the famous English Dramatist

George Bernard Shaw view that "the past is not behind the group. It is within the

group". This means a proper study of past provide key to the present. Historical

research is carried out by an individual and may not always carry hypothesis. The

reasoning is inductive. By historical research, previous efforts on the topic convey the

depth of knowledge and filling up of effort to the present state of knowledge on the

subject Therefore, this method of research is important to methodology. It studies

people and their problems but not the period. The style of reporting the result is mostly

narrative. One can create a sense of continuity and a consciousness of unity among

people by doing research under this method. In this method data are drawn from 61

observations and experiences of others. For this the documents provide primary sources

of information.

B. Descriptive Research


It is one of the fundamental methods of research methodology. This research is often

referred to as questionnaire or opinion study. It may serve as a reconnaissance phase

of an investigation in a new area in which the purpose is to identify factors which are

most promising for experimental investigation. This method is

(1) used as a check on laboratory findings in real life and

(2) used as a tool in identifying norms of standards with which to present conditions

for planning future. It describes and interprets what it is with reference to conditions or

relationships that exists, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effect that

are evident, or trends that are developing, it is known as non-experimental research,

deals with relationship between variables. It is helpful in behavioural subjects and

sciences, humanities.

C. Ex-post-: facto Research

In this type of research, the researcher has no control over the independent variable:

more than this, randomization is not possible, which means he takes things as they are

and try to extricate them.

Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding

enquires of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of

the state of affairs as it exists at present.

In social science and business research quite often use the term Ex post-facto research

for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what was happened or

what is happening. Most ex post-facto research projects are used for descriptive studies

in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, the methods of research

utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative

and correlation methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has

to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical

evaluation of the material.

D.Experimental Research

Experimental research is considered to be the prototype of the scientific method. It

involves procedure for gaining knowledge by collecting new or fresh observations

under controlled conditions. Further it reveals the causal relation and interactions.

Hence, it calls for precision and accurate observation, careful observation and

immediate correct recording of the data and to be closely attended to. In experimental

research the independent variable as well as dependent variable are involved where the

former can be manipulated as an experimental variable in order to see the effect on the

latter. The experimental research is again divided


(a) Laboratory experiment and

(b) field experiment.

The field experiment aims at the dual purpose of bringing about social change and

combining to basis social research. This is possible when the experiment is practically-

oriented. The most common features of the field experiment research are practically-

oriented. This method of research suffers with two problems viz. (a) the investigator

though has power of manipulation, is faced in identifying and selecting independent

variables and

(b) the problem of randomization. The researcher is guided more by negativism than

optimism.

(c) Lack of precision in the sense. The dependent variables sometimes are lacking

sensitive to pick up the behaviour of independent variables. However the field

experiment has three excellent features. They are:

(a) the variables in the field experiment, usually have a strong effect compared to

laboratory experiment. In other words the more realistic the research situation.

(b) the interaction of groups have studied fruitfully in the field experiment mid

(c) In testing of theory as well as of solution to practical problems; the field experiment

is well fitted.

E.Field study

This method distinguishes the field experiment study with respect to the design of the

research. The field experiment has purposes:

(a) Discovers significant variables in the field,

(b) discovers variables relations, and

(c) lays a ground work for testing hypothesis. The field study is strong in realism,

theory-orientation, and heuristic quality.

Its most weakness is It ex-post-facto character. Another weaknesses arc

methodological issues like lack of precision in the measurement of variables.

Types of research by purpose

Research may be motivated by the desire to know or understand for the sake of

knowing called 'pure' or 'basic' research or by the desire to know In order to use this

knowledge for practical concerns called 'applied' research

1.Pure research

Developing scientific theories or basic principles are called 'pure' or 'basic' or

'fundamental' research. Pure scientist desires to see for increasing knowledge in the

field of enquiry. To him, the challenge of not knowing is paramount. Technology


advance is the corresponding forward in the development of theories as well as

principles from pure research. Pure research

(a) helps in developing general principles,

(b) helps in to find out the central factors in practical problems,

(c) becomes a standard procedure for researcher to find out an answer to the problem.

2.Applied research

In applied research, the problem is identified and the results are accepted to be

applicable in the improvement of the practice or solution to a problem producing

material gains. Like pure research, applied research also contributes to the development

in the following manner - It can contribute new fact - It can put theory to test - It may

aid in conceptual classification - It may integrate theory of previous study.

3.Action research

In this type of research, the researcher appears as a participant rather observer; and

therefore is actively and even emotionally involved in the results and their application.

It is a special type of research in the sense, testing of application in accordance with a

certain set of situation and modified according to the local prevailing conditions as

well. Another feature is that it adapts itself to the changes that have taken place in the

particular community. Thus, action research is similar to applied research but differs

from the action process. Action research is depended upon the feed-back of information

supplied.

3. Evaluation research

Evaluation research aims at evaluating programme that have been implemented or

actions that have taken in order to get an objective. Evaluation means some sort of

measurement of the end-product and impact of an effort in the light of the stated goals

for which the programmed undertaken. There are so many programmes in which

economic gains are not visible, the evaluation of which calls for special techniques.

There are three types of evaluations.

• Concurrent evaluation means continuous process and part takes the nature of

an inspection and social audit. This evaluation stimulates a sort of guidance

and counseling to the policy-maker with feed-back.

• Periodic evaluation means a distinctive phase or stage completion on which the

evaluation takes place.

• Terminal evaluation means evaluation is done after the completion of the

programme or project. One should be of very clear with the objectives of the

programme or project in evaluation of it.


4. Inter-disciplinary research Information has now become inter-disciplinary in nature.

The old division of knowledge into separate disciplines has virtually broken down.

Each discipline is now interacting with other disciplines and in the Process. New

interdisciplinary information is generated.

Structural Equation Modeling

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)is quantitative research technique that can also

incorporates qualitative methods. SEM is used to show the causal relationships

between variables. The relationships shown in SEM represent the hypotheses of the

researchers. Typically, these relationships can't be statistically tested for

directionality. SEM is mostly used for research that is designed to confirm a research

study design rather than to explore or explain a phenomenon. That is to say that a

researcher may be interested in the strength of the relationships between variables in a

hypothesis, and SEM is a way to examine those variables without committing to an

expensive research project. SEM produces data in a visual display -- and this is part of

its appeal. When using SEM, the researcher gets a tidy visual display that is easy to

interpret, even if the statistics behind the data are quite complex.

Research methods and approaches

a. Research terminology:

Data

Information gathered during the research process.

‘Raw’ data is information which has not yet been

analysed.

Empirical

Research

Research based on first-hand gathering of data

through interviews, questionnaires, ethnographies,

participant observation, action research and so on.

Ethnograp

hy

The direct observation, description and analysis of

the activities and behaviour of members of a social

group, for instance a youth gang.

https://www.thebalancesmb.com/market-research-101-problems-alternatives-and-questions-2296950

https://www.thebalancesmb.com/choosing-between-qualitative-and-quantitative-methods-2297137


Informant

Someone that participates in a research project,

generally through interview. Also referred to as a

research participant or interviewee.

Methods

The tools used to gather research data, for instance

a phone questionnaire, face-to-face interview,

gathering census data.

Different methods are used in quantitative

research and qualitative research.

Quantitati

ve

Research

Research discovering facts about social

experiences and trends where data is collected

through measuring things and is analysed through

numerical comparisons and statistical inferences.

Data is represented numerically as a percentage, a

mean, and average etc. Commonly, data appears as

a table, a graph, or a pie or line chart.

As data is presented as representative, the sample,

that is the source of the data, is extremely

important.

Qualitative

Research

Research that is not presented as representative

but as offering people’s reflections or perspectives

on an issue or experience. It is traditionally

conducted via interviews or observation.


Data is analysed by themes drawn from

informants’ descriptions.

Also referred to as ‘interpretive’ and ‘grounded’,

qualitative research is more interested in questions

of how and why than in how many.

Theory

A substantiated (evidence based) explanation for

the way something is as it is.

The body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques

that applies to a particular subject.

Transcript

The typed record of an interview obtained from

audio or video recordings.

Sample

A group of individuals selected by a researcher

because they possess particular attributes of

interest to the research project.

A representative sample is one which is

representative of a larger group. If the sample is

selected carefully, the resulting data can be applied

to the group as a whole.

Observation

Observation is the systematic noting and recording

of events, behaviours and objects in the social

setting chosen for the study. The observational

record is referred to as field notes, which are

detailed, non- judgmental, concrete descriptions of

what is being observed. A participant observer is

someone who is a part of the activity as well as

making the observations.


b. Quantitative methods: the survey or questionnaire

Questionnaires produce quantitative data which is processed and analysed

numerically.

Questionnaires can be conducted by mail, telephone, over the internet and face-

to-face.

The largest questionnaire in Australia is the Census of Population and Housing

conducted every 5 years by the

Australian Bureau of Statistics. An example of 2006 Census data for Airds can be

found at the back of this workbook.

Questionnaires are generally time efficient, cheap and can be distributed to a large

number of people fairly easily. It is also possible to select groups of people to

survey who are representative of the wider population which means that sample

data can be representative of the wider community.

c. Qualitative methods: the interview

Gaining access to people’s views and experiences is the key to qualitative research.

Although there are many different qualitative methods, the interview is the most

common.

Interviews are usually undertaken face-to-face, although telephone interviews are

sometimes used. The interview is recorded for later transcription (typing up raw

data) and analysis. Recording an interview prevents important things the

informant has said from being missed.

Interviews can be time consuming, and at times emotionally draining for both the

researcher and the informant.


Styles of interview:

1. Structured interview: most resembles the survey method discussed above except that the

interviewer completes the questionnaire in a face- to-face encounter with the participant.

2. Semi-structured interview: not as structured but includes a series of questions as well as

prompts which encourage the participant to expand on their answers. For instance ‘Can

you give me an example of that?’ or ‘Why do you think that?’

3. Unstructured interview: this is the most open type of interview. Open-ended questions

and prompts are used to explore an issue with the informant, but these are not necessarily

prepared before the interview. As the informant is more able to guide the interview it is

often used to enable people to tell their life story.

4. Group Interview / Focus Group: A focus group usually involves up to ten people who have

a similar interest or experience. This form of interview can be very lively as the

participants can redirect the discussion to their own interests. It tends to generate a large

amount of data as participants stimulate discussion amongst themselves. This method is

generally the hardest style of interview to arrange, conduct, record and transcribe.


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