Study Guide by Key Concepts - Baltimore Polytechnic Institute · 2019. 1. 12. · Mesopotamia and Babylonia—Sumerians, Akkadians and Babylonians—and Egypt and Nubia along the

Study Guide by Key Concepts

PERIOD 1: TECHNOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION Prehistory to c. 600 BCE

Ask yourself the question in the left column. Your answer should come close to what’s written in the middle column.

The right column is words you should look for in a MC question, or use in an essay.

Key Concept 1.1 Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth

Answer Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in Underline

“Factoids”

1.1 What is the evidence that explains the earliest history of humans and the planet? How is this evidence interpreted?

1.1.I Where did humans first appear on Earth, and what were their society, technology, and culture?

1.1.I.A-B Describe earliest

humans’ technology & tools

1.1.I.C How did the earliest humans’ society help them procure enough supplies to survive?

Humans used fire in new ways: to aid hunting and foraging, to protect against predators and to adapt to cold environments. Humans developed a wider range of tools specially adapted to different environments from tropics to tundra. Religion was most likely animistic. Economic structures focused on small kinship groups of hunting/ foraging bands that could make what they needed to survive. However, not all groups were self-sufficient; they exchanged people, ideas and goods. Economic structures focused on small kinship groups of hunting/foraging bands that could make what they needed to survive. However, not all groups were self-sufficient; they exchanged people, ideas and goods.

• animism • “Out of Africa” • kinship group



“Factoids”

1.2 What were the long-term demographic, social, political, and economic effects of the Neolithic Revolution? How did pastoral societies resemble or differ from early agricultural societies?

In response to warming climates at the end of the last Ice Age from about 10,000 years ago, some groups adapted to the environment in new ways while others remained hunter/foragers. Settled agriculture appeared in several different parts of the world. The switch to agriculture created a more reliable, but not necessarily more diversified, food supply. Agriculturalists also had a massive impact on the environment, through intensive cultivation of selected plants to the exclusion of others, through the construction of irrigation systems and through the use of domesticated animals for food and for labor. Populations increased; family groups gave way to village and later urban life with all its complexity. Patriarchy and forced labor systems developed giving elite men concentrated power over most of the other people in their societies. Pastoralism emerged in parts of Africa and Eurasia. Pastoral peoples domesticated animals and led their herds around grazing ranges. Like agriculturalists, pastoralists tended to be more socially stratified than were hunter-foragers. Because pastoralists were mobile, they rarely accumulated large amounts of material possessions, which would have been a hindrance when changing grazing areas. Pastoralists’ mobility allowed them to become an important conduit for technological change as they interacted with settled populations. Including--wait for it... The Mongols!

• Ice Age • Neolithic

(Agric) Revolution

• domesticated animals

• irrigation • patriarchy Religion to

gain power--some kings made themselves divine regents

• pastoralism

1.2.I How did the Neolithic Revolution affect human societies economically & socially?

1.2.I..A Why did the Neolithic

Revolution start (at all)? Where did the Neolithic Revolution first transform human populations?

1.2.I.B Where did pastoralism persist even after the Neolithic Revolution?

1.2.I.C What various crops &

animals were developed or domesticated during the Neolithic Revolution?

1.2.I.D What labor adjustments

did humans make in order to facilitate the Neolithic Revolution?

1.2.I.E What were the

environmental effects of the Neolithic Revolution?

Beginning about 10,000 years ago, the Neolithic Revolution led to the development of new and more complex economic and social systems. Possibly as a response to climatic change, permanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Agriculture emerged at different times in Mesopotamia, the Nile River valley and sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River valley, the Yellow River or Huang He valley, Papua-New Guinea, Mesoamerica and the Andes. Pastoralism developed at various sites in the grasslands of Afro-Eurasia. Different crops or animals were domesticated in the various core regions, depending on available local flora and fauna. Agricultural communities had to work cooperatively to clear land and to create the water control systems needed for crop production. (e.g. irrigation) These agricultural practices drastically impacted environmental diversity. Pastoralists also affected the environment by grazing large numbers of animals on fragile grasslands, leading to erosion when over-grazed.

• River Valley Civs (Nile, Tigris- Euphrates, Indus, Huang He / Yellow)

• wheat, maize (corn), barley, millet

• goats, sheep, water buffalo, llamas, camels

• Irrigation



“Factoids”

1.2.II What were the effects of pastoralism & agriculture on humans?

1.2.II.A What effects did

pastoralism & agriculture have on the food supply?

1.2.II.B What were the social

effects of the increased food supply caused by increase of agriculture?

1.2.II.C What technological

innovations are associated with the growth of agriculture?

Agriculture and pastoralism began to transform human societies. Pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies which increased population. Surpluses of food and other goods led to specialization of labor, including new classes of artisans and warriors, and the development of elites. Technological innovations led to improvements in agricultural production, trade, and transportation, including pottery, plows, woven textiles, metallurgy, wheels and wheeled vehicles.

Key Concept 1.3 The Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, and Urban Societies


“Factoids”

1.3 What is a ‘civilization,’ and what are the defining characteristics of a civilization? How did civilizations develop and grow more complex before 600 BCE? What were the effects of this increasing complexity?

From about 5,000 years ago, urban societies developed, laying the foundations for the first civilizations. The term civilization is normally used to designate large societies with cities and powerful states. While there were many differences between civilizations, they also shared important features. They all produced agricultural surpluses that permitted significant specialization of labor. All civilizations contained cities and generated complex institutions, such as political bureaucracies, including armies and religious hierarchies. They also featured clearly stratified social hierarchies and organized long-distance trading relationships. Economic exchanges intensified within and between civilizations, as well as with nomadic pastoralists. As populations grew, competition for surplus resources, especially food, led to greater social stratification, specialization of labor, increased trade, more complex systems of government and religion, and the development of record keeping. As civilizations expanded, they had to balance their need for more resources with environmental constraints such as the danger of undermining soil fertility. Finally, the accumulation of wealth in settled communities spurred warfare between communities and/or with pastoralists; this violence drove the development of new technologies of war and urban defense.

• civilization (complex society) 1. cities, urban 2. political

authority 3. relig authority 4. social

hierarchy 5. economic /

trade / currency

1.3.I Where did the earliest civilizations develop, and why did they develop in those locations?

Core and foundational civilizations developed in a variety of geographical and environmental settings where agriculture flourished. NOTE: Students should be able to identify the location of all of the following

• Mesopotamia in the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys • Egypt in the Nile River valley • Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus River valley • The Olmecs in Mesoamerica • The Shang in the Yellow River or Huang He valley • Chavín in Andean South America.



“Factoids”

1.3.II What is a “state?” Who ruled the early states, and which segments of society usually supported the ruler?

1.3.II.B Why were some early states able to expand and conquering neighboring states?

1.3.II.C Give four examples of

early empires in the Nile & Tigris/Euphrates River Valleys.

1.3.II.D What role did pastoral

civilizations play vis a vis empires?

The first states emerged within core civilizations. States were powerful new systems of rule that mobilized surplus labor and resources over large areas. Early states were often led by a ruler whose source of power was believed to be divine or had divine support, and who was supported by the religious hierarchy and professional warriors. As states grew and competed for land and resources, the more favorably situated had greater access to resources—including the Hittites’ access to iron, produced more surplus food and experienced growing populations. Early regions of state expansion or empire building were Mesopotamia and Babylonia—Sumerians, Akkadians and Babylonians—and Egypt and Nubia along the Nile Valley. Pastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of new weapons and modes of transportation that transformed warfare in agrarian civilizations.

• compound bows • chariots • iron weapons • horseback riding

Define (they’re NOT synonyms!)

• state--the government

• nation--group of people

• country • Hittites -iron • Sumeria • Akkadia • Babylonia • Egypt • Nubia • bows • chariots • iron weapons



“Factoids”

1.3.III How did culture play a role in unifying populations?

1.3.III.A What architectural

forms did early civilizations produce?

1.3.III.B Which social strata

encouraged the development of art in ancient civilizations?

1.3.III.C What forms of writing

developed in ancient civilizations?

1.3.III.D What was the

relationship between literature and culture?

1.3.III.E What pre-600 BCE

religions strongly influenced later eras?

1.3.III.F How “big” were the

pre-600 BCE trading regions?

1.3.III.G How did social and

gender identities develop pre-600 BCE?

Culture played a significant in role in unifying states through law, language, literature, religion, myths and monumental art. Early civilizations developed monumental architecture and urban planning

• ziggurat • temples • streets and roads • pyramids • defensive walls • sewage and water systems

Elites, both political and religious, promoted arts and artisanship.

• Sculpture • painting • wall decorations • elaborate weaving

Systems of record keeping arose independently in all early civilizations.

• cuneiform • Hieroglyphs • pictographs • alphabets • quipu

Literature was also a reflection of culture.

• the Epic of Gilgamesh • Rig Veda • Book of the Dead

New religious beliefs developed in this period continued to have strong influences in later periods, including the Vedic religion, Hebrew monotheism and Zoroastrianism. Trade expanded throughout this period, with civilizations exchanging goods, cultural ideas and technology. Trade expanded from local to regional and transregional, including between Egypt and Nubia, Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. Social and gender hierarchies intensified as states expanded and cities multiplied.

• pyramids • ziggurats • cuneiform • hieroglyphics • alphabet • quipu

PERIOD 2: ORGANIZATION AND REORGANIZATION OF HUMAN SOCIETIES c. 600 BCE to c. 600 CE

Key Concept 2.1 The Development & Codification of Religious & Cultural Traditions


“Factoids”

2.1 How did religions help strengthen political, economic, and cultural ties within societies?

2.1.I How did religions promote a sense of unity?

2.1.I.A What are the

characteristics and core teachings of Judaism? 2.1.I.B … Hinduism(s)?

As states and empires increased in size and contacts between regions multiplied, religious and cultural systems were transformed. Religions and belief systems provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by. These shared beliefs also influenced and reinforced political, economic and occupational stratification. Religious and political authority often merged as rulers, some considered divine, used religion, along with military and legal structures, to justify their rule and ensure its continuation. Religions and belief systems could also generate conflict, partly because beliefs and practices varied greatly within and among societies Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by. The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed with the codification of the Hebrew Scriptures which also showed Mesopotamian influences. Around 600 BCE and 70 CE, the Assyrian and Roman empires respectively created Jewish diaspora communities and destroyed the kingdom of Israel as a theocracy. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions—often known as Hinduisms—that show some influence of Indo-European traditions in the development of the social and political roles of a caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma to promote teachings about reincarnation.

• Judaism • Israel • monotheism • theocracy • diaspora • Hinduism • Vedas. Rig

Veda • caste

(brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, shudras, dalit)

• Bhagavad Gita

• Lawbook of Manu



“Factoids”

2.1.II What is a “universal religion?” Where did universal religions exist by 600 CE?

2.1.II.A … Buddhism? How

and where did Buddhism spread by 600 CE?

2.1.II.B … Confucianism? 2.1.II.C … Daoism? 2.1.II.D … Christianity? How

and where did Christianity spread by 600 CE?

2.1.II.E … Greco-Roman philosophy and science?

New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and recorded by his followers into sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism changed over time as it spread throughout Asia, first through the support of the Mauryan Emperor Asoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants and the establishment of educational institutions to promote its core teachings Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius and were elaborated by key disciples who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China including the rulers. In the major Daoist writings. (such as the Daodejing), the core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese culture. • medical theories and practices • poetry • metallurgy • architecture The core beliefs preached by Jesus of Nazareth drew on the basic monotheism of Judaism, and initially rejected Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through the efforts of missionaries and merchants through many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of the emperor Constantine. The core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasized logic, empirical observation and the nature of political power and hierarchy.

• “universal religion” = anyone can join

• Siddhartha

Gautama • nirvana • Asoka

(Ashoka) • Kong Fuzi

(Confucius) • ren, li, yi, shu,

xiao • ancestor

veneration • Laozi • Daodejing • yin/yang • Jesus • Peter • Paul • messiah/

savior • Zeus, Hera

2.1.III How did religions affect gender roles in their respective societies?

2.1.IV What other religious and cultural traditions were common by 600 CE?

2.1.IV.A How did humans’

reliance on the natural world influence religion?

2.1.IV.B How did humans

relate to their deceased ancestors?

Belief systems affected gender roles: • Buddhism’s encouragement of a monastic life • Confucianism’s emphasis on filial piety Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified, written belief systems in core civilizations. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations, because of their daily reliance on the natural world. Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions. • Africa • Mediterranean region • East Asia • Andean areas

• filial piety • ancestor

veneration



“Factoids”

2.1.V How did art and culture develop to 600 CE?

2.1.V.A What literary works influenced later eras?

2.1.V.B How did different societies’ architectural styles develop?

2.1.V.C What examples of

syncretism reflect the Classical Era to 600 CE?

Artistic expressions show distinctive cultural developments • literature and drama • architecture • sculpture Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms. (Greek tragedy, Indian epics) that influenced artistic developments in neighboring regions and in later time periods. (Athens, Persia, South Asia) Distinctive architectural styles can be seen in Indian, Greek, Mesoamerican, and Roman buildings. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected the development of unique sculptural developments, as seen in the Gandharan Buddhas, which exemplify a syncretism in which Hellenistic veneration for the body is combined with Buddhist symbols.

• recognize temples, sculpture as being Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, etc.

• Sophocles’

plays • Roman

arches • Greek/

Roman columns

• Gandharan

Buddha • syncretism • Hellenism

Key Concept 2.2 The Development of States and Empires


“Factoids”

2.2. What is an “empire,” and what were empires’ common characteristics during the Classical Era?

2.2.I How did the number & size of Classical empires compare to the Ancient Era?

2.2.I.A What were the most

influential of the Classical Era empires?

As the early states and empires grew in number, size and population, they frequently competed for resources and came into conflict with one another. In quest of land, wealth, and security, some empires expanded dramatically. In doing so, they built powerful military machines and administrative institutions that were capable of organizing human activities over long distances, and they created new groups of military and political elites to manage their affairs. As these empires expanded their boundaries, they also faced the need to develop policies and procedures to govern their relations with ethnically and culturally diverse populations: sometimes to integrate them within an imperial society and sometimes to exclude them. In some cases, these empires became victims of their own successes. By expanding boundaries too far, they created political, cultural and administrative difficulties that they could not manage. They also experienced environmental, social and economic problems when they over-exploited their lands and subjects and permitted excessive wealth to concentrate in the hands of privileged classes. The number and size of imperial societies grew dramatically by imposing political unity on areas where there had previously been competing states. NOTE: Students should know the location and names of the key states and empires below.

• SW Asia: Persian Empires. (Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid)

• East Asia: Qin and Han dynasties • South Asia: Maurya and Gupta Empires • Mediterranean region: Phoenician and Greek

colonization, Hellenistic and Roman Empires • Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya city states • • Andean South America: Moche



“Factoids”

2.2.II What techniques did Classical empires create to administer their territories?

2.2.II.A What new political methods were created in order to rule the larger empires in the Classical Era?

2.2.II.B How did imperial

governments let their population know that the government was “in charge?”

2.2.II.C What role did trade

play in creating and maintaining empires?

Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based, in part, on the success of earlier political forms. In order to organize their subjects the rulers created administrative institutions including centralized governments, elaborate legal systems, and bureaucracies. (China, Persia, Rome, South Asia) Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques including: diplomacy; developing supply lines; building fortifications, defensive walls, and roads; and drawing new groups of military officers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples. Much of the success of empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies. Imperial societies displayed unique social and economic dimensions. Much of the success of empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies.

• Classical Empires: Han, Rome, Greece / Alexander

2.2.III What unique social and economic characteristics existed in empires?

2.2.III.A What function did imperial cities perform?

2.2.III.B What social classes

& occupations were common in empires?

2.2.III.C What labor systems

provided the workers for Classical Empires?

2.2.III.D Describe the

gender and family structures of Classical Era empires.

The social structures of all empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers, slaves, artisans, merchants, elites and caste groups. Cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and political administration for states and empires. (Persepolis, Chang’an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, Teotihuacan) Imperial societies relied on a range of labor systems to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites including corvée, slavery, rents and tributes, peasant communities and family and household production. Imperial societies relied on a range of methods to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites including corvée, slavery, rents and tributes, peasant communities and family and household production. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period.



“Factoids”

2.2.IV What caused Classical Empires to decline, collapse, or transform into something else?

2.2.IV.A What were the

environmental and social weaknesses of Classical Empires?

2.2.IV.B What external

weaknesses contributed to the end of Classical Empires?

The Roman, Han, Mauryan, and Gupta empires created political, cultural, and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline, collapse and transformation into successor empires or states. Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage. (• deforestation • desertification • soil erosion or silted rivers) and generated social tensions and economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of elites. External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions

• between Northern China and Xiongnu • Gupta and the White Huns • among Romans, Parthians, Sasanids, Kushan

Frontier security issues, including the threat of invasions (• between Han China and Xiongnu • Gupta and the White Huns • between Romans and their northern and eastern neighbors) eventually led to the decline, collapse and transformation of Classical Empires into successor empires or states.

Key Concept 2.3 Emergence of Trans- regional Networks of Communication and Exchange


“Factoids”

2.3. How did Classical era trade networks compare to Ancient era networks? What forces contributed to the changes between the two eras? What was commonly traded along these trade networks?

2.3.I How did trade & communication networks develop by 600 CE?

2.3.II What technologies

enabled long-distance overland and maritime trade?

2.3.III Besides the physical goods, what intangibles also traveled along trade networks?

2.3.III.A What crops spread along Classical Era trade networks?

2.3.III.B What effects did

diseases have on Classical empires?

2.3.III.C How did religions

spread along trade networks, and how did the trade networks affect the religions?

Large-scale empires increased the volume of long-distance trade dramatically. Much of this trade resulted from the demand for raw materials and luxury goods. Many land and water routes linked most Eastern Hemisphere regions, while American networks developed later. NOTE: Students should know how the climate and location of the routes, the typical trade goods, and the ethnicity of people involved shaped the distinctive features of the following trade routes.

• Eurasian Silk Roads • Trans-Saharan caravan routes • Indian Ocean sea lanes • EITHER Mediterranean sea lanes OR American trade

routes The larger size of post-classical empires encouraged demand for “foreign” goods, as well as new technologies and the desire to spread universal religions. Examples of trade/exchange include:

• People • Technology • relig/cultural beliefs • food crops • domesticated animals • diseases • yokes, saddles, and stirrups, …all of which together

permitted the use of domesticated pack animals. (horses, oxen, llamas or camels)

• Maritime technologies: • lateen sail • dhow ships • advanced knowledge of monsoon winds • changes in farming/irrigation techniques. (e.g. the qanat

system) • religious/cultural beliefs • food crops • domesticated animals • diseases

Rice and cotton from S Asia ➔ Middle East

Sugar & citrus from SE Asia ➔ S Asia ➔ Middle East ➔ N Africa

PERIOD 3: REGIONAL AND INTERREGIONAL INTERACTIONS The Post-Classical Era: c. 600 CE to c. 1450 CE

Key Concept 3.1 Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange Networks

Answer Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in Underline “Factoids”

3.1 How did trade networks in the post-Classical Era compare to the Classical Era?

3.1.0.1 What new

technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments?

3.1.0.2 What role did

pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks?

Though Afro-Eurasia and the Americas remained separate from each other, this era witnessed a deepening and widening of old and new networks of human interaction within and across regions. The results were unprecedented concentrations of wealth and the intensification of cross-cultural exchanges. Innovations in transportation, state policies and mercantile practices contributed to the expansion and development of commercial networks, which in turn served as conduits for cultural, technological, and biological diffusion within and between various societies. Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, and expanded the geographical range of existing and newly-active trade networks. Pastoral or nomadic groups played a key role in creating and sustaining these networks.

• SILK ROADS (if in doubt, the answer to just about any question in Era #3 is “SILK ROADS”)



3.1.I How did the physical size of post-Classical trade networks compare to the previous era?

3.1.I.A What Classical era

trade networks continued during the post-classical era, and which new cities were added?

3.1.I.B What new trade

networks developed?

3.1.I.C What new technologies enabled the growth of inter-regional trade networks?

3.1.I.D What factors encouraged commercial growth?

3.1.8.E How did the expansion of empires & trade networks affect the relationship between peoples inside vs. outside those “zones?”

Expanding networks fostered greater inter-regional borrowing while at the same time sustaining regional diversity. The expansion of existing empires—including China, the Byzantine Empire, and the Caliphates—as well as new empires like the Mongols—facilitated trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks. Existing trade routes flourished including the Silk Roads, the Mediterranean Sea, trans-Saharan and the Indian Ocean basin, and promoted the growth of powerful new trading cities. (Novgorod, Timbuktu, Swahili city-states, Hangzhou, Calicut, Baghdad, Melaka, Venice, Tenochtitlan, Cahokia) • more sophisticated caravan organization. (caravanserai, camel

saddles) • use of the compass, astrolabe, and larger ship designs in sea

travel • and new forms of credit and monetization (bills of exchange,

credit, checks/banking houses) • New state practices (the minting of coins, use of paper money) • New trading organizations (the Hanseatic League) • New state-sponsored commercial infrastructures (Grand Canal

in China) The expansion of existing empires (China, Byzantine Empire, Caliphates) as well as new empires (Mongols) facilitated trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks.

• Umayyad Caliphate

• Abbasid Caliphate

• Silk Roads • Mediterranean • Indian Ocean

(Southernization - Lynda Shaffer)

• caravanserai • astrolabe • dhow • junk • checks • “flying cash”



3.1.II What were the effects of migration?

3.1.II.A What basic understandings of environment and technology did post- classical traders need to conduct their business?

3.1.II.B What were the

environmental effects of migration?

3.1.II.C … linguistic

effects of migration?

The expansion and intensification of long-distance trade routes often depended on people’s understanding of a particular regional environment and their subsequent technological adaptations to them. • the way Scandinavian Vikings used longboats to travel in coastal

& open water, rivers & estuaries • the Arabs and Berbers adapted camels to travel across and

around the Sahara • central Asian pastoral groups used horses to travel in the

steppes) Some migrations had significant environmental impact. • the migration of the agricultural Bantu-speaking peoples in

forested regions of Sub-Saharan Africa • the maritime migrations of the Polynesian peoples who

cultivated transplanted foods & domesticated animals as they moved to new islands

Some migrations and commercial contacts led to the diffusion of languages throughout a new region or the emergence of new languages • the spread of Bantu languages • the new language of Swahili which developed in E African coastal areas • the spread of Turkic and Arabic languages



3.1.III How did trade networks as a whole develop in the post-classical era?

3.1.III.A Why and where

did Muslim trade networks change?

3.1.III.B What institutions

did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion?

3.1.III.C How well did

post-classical societies know/understand each other?

3.1.III.D How did post-

classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions?

3.1.III.E How did post-

classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions?

Cross-cultural exchanges were fostered by the intensification of existing or the creation of new networks of trade & communication. Islam expanded from the Arabian Peninsula to many parts of Afro-Eurasia due to military expansion and the activities of merchants and missionaries. In key places along important trade routes, merchants set up diaspora communities where they introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous culture. • Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region • Chinese merchant communities in Southeast Asia • Sogdian merchant communities throughout Central Asia • Jewish communities in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean basin,

or along the Silk Roads The writings of certain inter-regional travelers illustrate both the extent and the limitations of inter-cultural knowledge and understanding. • Ibn Battuta • Marco Polo • Xuangzang Literary, artistic, and cultural traditions diffused. • the influence of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism in East Asia,

Hinduism and Buddhism in SE Asia • the influence of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia • the influence of Toltec/Mexica and Inca traditions in Meso- and

Andean America Increased cross-cultural interactions also resulted in the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions. • the influence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim

scholars • the return of Greek science and philosophy to western Europe

via Muslim al-Andalus in Iberia • the spread of printing and gunpowder technologies from East

Asia into the Islamic empires and into Western Europe

3.1.IV What were the biological effects of post-classical trade?

3.1.IV.A What new foods,

crops, and agricultural practices diffused?

3.1.IV.B What diseases

and pathogens also spread via post-classical trade networks?

There was continued diffusion of crops and pathogens throughout the Eastern Hemisphere along the trade routes. • Bananas in Africa • New rice varieties in East Asia • Muslim Agric Rev The spread of epidemic diseases, including the Black Death, followed the well-established paths of trade and military conquest.

Muslim Agric Rev spread “New” Crops: bananas, lemons, spinach, fast ripening rice, sugar, oranges, durum (hard wheat) Pathogens / Diseases Black Death / Bubonic Plague

Key Concept 3.2 Continuity & Innovation of State Forms and

their Interactions Answer

Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in Underline “Factoids”

3.2 How did state formations develop in the post-classical era?

State formation in this era demonstrated remarkable continuity, innovation and diversity in various regions. In Afro-Eurasia some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive imperial structures, while smaller, less-centralized states continued to develop. The expansion of Islam introduced a new concept—the caliphate—to Afro-Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated people and institutions from both the pastoral and agrarian worlds. In the Americas, powerful states developed in both Mesoamerica and the Andean region. Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.

3.2.I.A How did post-classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where classical empires collapsed?

3.2.I.B What new forms of

governance emerged? 3.2.I.C How & where did

governmental diffusion occur?

3.2.I.D How did states in the

Americas develop?

Most reconstituted governments following the collapse of empires, (• Byzantine Empire • Sui, Tang, & Song Chinese dynasties) combined traditional sources of power and legitimacy. (• patriarchy • religion • land-owning elites) with innovations better suited to the current circumstances. (• new methods of taxation • tributary systems • adaptation of religious institutions) In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states. • Abbasids • Muslim Iberia • Delhi sultanates • Mongol Khanates • city-states (in the Italian peninsula, E Africa, SE Asia) Some states synthesized local and borrowed traditions. (• Persian traditions influencing Islamic states • Chinese traditions influencing Japan) In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: networks of city-states flourished in the Maya region, and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica (“Aztecs”) and Inca.

3.2.II What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage?

Inter-regional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers. (between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empires, during the Crusades.

Key Concept 3.3 Increased Economic Productive Capacity and its Consequences


3.3 What were the overall worldwide economic trends?

3.3.I.A What new innovations affected agriculture in the post-classical era?

3.3.I.B How and why did

crops migrate? 3.3.I.C How did textile and

porcelain production develop?

Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes. Productivity rose in both agriculture and industry. Rising productivity supported population growth and urbanization but also strained environmental resources and at times caused dramatic demographic swings. Shifts in production and the increased volume of trade also stimulated new labor practices, including adaptation of existing patterns of free and coerced labor. Social and gender structures evolved in response to these changes. Agricultural production increased significantly due to technological innovations. • Champa rice varieties • chinampa field systems • waru waru raised field cultivation in Andean areas • improved terracing techniques • horse collar In response to increasing demand in Afro-Eurasia for foreign luxury goods, crops were transported from their indigenous homelands to equivalent climates in other regions. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants also expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China.

3.3.II Why did some post-classical urban areas decline, while others prospered & grew?

3.3.II.C What roles did cities play in their societies?

Factors that contributed to declines of urban areas in this period included invasions, disease, the decline of agricultural productivity, and the Little Ice Age Factors that contributed to urban revival included the end of invasions, the availability of safe and reliable transport, the rise of commerce and the warmer temperatures between 800 and 1300. Increased agricultural productivity and subsequent rising population and greater availability of labor also contributed to urban growth. While cities in general continued to play the roles they had played in the past as governmental, religious and commercial centers, many older cities declined at the same time that numerous new cities took on these established roles. NOTE: Students should be able to explain the cultural, religious, commercial and governmental function of at least TWO major cities.

Key Concept 3.3 Increased Economic Productive Capacity and its Consequences


3.3.III How did social and labor systems develop during the post-classical era?

3.3.III.A What pre-existing

labor systems continued?

3.3.III.B How did social and

gender hierarchies develop?

3.3.III.C What new labor

forms developed? 3.3.III.D Who did some

gender roles and family structures change?

• free peasant agriculture • nomadic pastoralism • craft production • guild organization • coerced/unfree labor • government-imposed labor taxes & military obligations As in the previous period, social structures were shaped largely by class and caste hierarchies. Patriarchy persisted; however, in some areas, women exercised more power and influence, most notably among the Mongols and in West Africa, Japan and Southeast Asia. New forms of coerced labor: • serfdom in Europe and Japan • elaboration of mit’a in Inca Empire Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts. (China & Byzantine Empire) The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased particularly in central Eurasia, parts of Africa and the eastern Mediterranean The diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Neo-Confucianism often led to significant changes in gender relations and family structure.

PERIOD 4: GLOBAL INTERACTIONS The Early-Modern Period c. 1450 CE to c. 1750 CE

Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange


“Factoids”

4.1 Describe the degree of global ‘interconnection’ after 1500 CE compared to before 1500. What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness?

The interconnection of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres made possible by transoceanic voyaging marked a key transformation of this period. Technological innovations helped to make transoceanic connections possible Changing patterns of long-distance trade included the global circulation of some commodities and the formation of new regional markets and financial centers. Increased transregional and global trade networks facilitated the spread of religion and other elements of culture as well as the migration of large numbers of people. Germs carried to the Americas ravaged the indigenous peoples, while the global exchange of crops and animals altered agriculture, diets and populations around the planet.

4.1.I How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade networks? (Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-Saharan, Silk Routes)

4.1.II.A What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible?

4.1.II.B Where did those

developments originate?

In the context of the new global circulation of goods, there was an intensification of all existing regional trade networks that brought prosperity and economic disruption to the merchants and governments in the trading regions of the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Sahara, and overland Eurasia. European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic and Asian worlds, and included the production of new tools. (such as astrolabe or revised maps), innovations in ship designs. (such as caravels) and an improved understanding of global wind and currents patterns, all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.

• caravels



“Factoids”

4.1.III What were the major notable transoceanic voyages between 1450-1750 CE?

4.1.III.A Where did Zheng He

and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel?

4.1.III.B Why did Portugal

begin longer maritime voyages ca. 1430 CE?

4.1.III.C What effect did

Columbus’ travels have on Europeans?

4.1.III.D What originally

motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic?

4.1.III.E How did the new

global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia?

• Zheng He: Official Chinese maritime activity expanded into

the Indian Ocean region with the naval voyages led by Ming Admiral Zheng He which enhanced Chinese prestige.

• Portugal: Portuguese development of a school for navigation

led to increased travel to and trade with West Africa and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire.

• Spain: Spanish sponsorship of the first Columbian and

subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

• European, general: Northern Atlantic crossings for fishing

and settlements continued and spurred European searches for multiple routes to Asia.

• Oceania: In Oceania and Polynesia, established exchange and

communication networks were not dramatically affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.

• Zheng He • Treasure Fleet • Prince Henry

the Navigator • Bartolomeo Dias • Vasco da Gama • Christopher

Columbus • “God, Gold, &

Glory” • England:

Hudson • NW Passage • France:

Champlain, Marquette

4.1.IV What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible? What previously established scale(s) of trade continued?

4.1.IV.A Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750.

4.1.IV.B What role did silver

play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade?

4.1.IV.C What new

mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade?

4.1.IV.D What were the

economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system?

The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal chartered European monopoly companies who took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets, but regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia using established commercial practices and new transoceanic shipping services developed by European merchants. European merchants’ role in Asian trade was characterized mostly by transporting goods from one Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region. Commercialization and the creation of a global economy were intimately connected to new global circulation of silver from the Americas. Influenced by mercantilism, joint-stock companies were new methods used by European rulers to control their domestic and colonial economies and by European merchants to compete against each other in global trade. The Atlantic system involved the movement of goods, wealth,

and free and unfree laborers, and the mixing of African, American and European cultures and peoples.

• Joint-stock Company

EIC VOC • Jamestown • mercantilism • “triangle trade” • Trans-Atlantic

slavery



“Factoids”

4.1.V What were effects of the Columbian Exchange?

4.1.V.A What were unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange?

4.1.V.B What foods were

transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what labor systems made this transfer possible?

4.1.V.C What plants/animals

were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange?

4.1.V.D What effects did

American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians?

4.1.V.E How did settlers’

action affect the Americas environmentally?

European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere. (such as smallpox, measles or influenza) among Amerindian populations and the unintentional transfer of pests. (such as mosquitoes or rats) Columbian Exchange graphic American foods (such as potatoes, maize or manioc) became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa while cash crops. (such as cacao or tobacco) were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East in this period. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals. (such as horses, pigs or cattle) were deliberately brought by Europeans to the Americas while other foods. (such as okra) were brought by African slaves. Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefitted nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops. European colonization and introduction of European agriculture and settlements practices in the Americas often affected the physical environment through deforestation and soil depletion.

• smallpox, measles,

• potatoes, maize,

tobacco, pumpkin,

• horses, cows, pigs, turkeys, guinea pigs,

4.1.VI How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions?

4.1.VI.A Where did the

“universal” religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread?

4.1.VI.B How did the

Columbian Exchange affect religion(s)?

The increase in interactions between newly connected hemispheres and intensification of connections within hemispheres expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and created syncretic belief systems and practices. • The practice of Islam continued to spread into diverse

cultural settings in Asia and Africa. • The practice of Christianity was increasingly diversified by

the Reformation. • Buddhism spread within Asia. • Syncretic forms of religion developed. (such as African

influences in Latin America, interactions between Amerindians and Catholic missionaries, or Sikhism between Muslims and Hindus in India and Southeast Asia)

• Christian missions, syncretism, Vodun,

• Protestant

Reformation • Vodun • Sikhism

4.1.VII How did the arts fare during this period?

4.1.VII.A How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period?

As merchants’ profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased. Innovations in visual and performing arts were seen all over the world. (such as Renaissance art in Europe, miniature paintings in the Middle East and South Asia, woodblock prints in Japan or post-Conquest codices in Mesoamerica) Literacy expanded accompanied by the proliferation of popular literary forms in Europe and Asia. (such as Shakespeare, Cervantes, Sundiata, Journey to the West or kabuki)

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B5f6DFDSIgeXNDNGLTBwbjAySE0/edit?usp=sharing

Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production


“Factoids”

4.2 How did agriculture’s role change between 1450-1750? What pre-requisite conditions made these changes possible?

While the world’s productive systems continued to be heavily centered on agricultural production throughout this period, major changes occurred in agricultural labor, the systems and location of manufacturing, gender and social structures, and environmental processes. A surge in agricultural productivity resulted from new methods in crop and field rotation and the introduction of new crops. Economic growth also depended on new forms of manufacturing and new commercial patterns, especially in long-distance trade. Political and economic centers within regions shifted, and merchants’ social status tended to rise in various states. Demographic growth—even in areas such as the Americas, where disease had ravaged the population—was restored by the eighteenth century and surged in many regions, especially with the introduction of American food crops throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. The Columbian Exchange led to new ways of humans interacting with their environments. New forms of coerced and semi-coerced labor emerged in Europe, Africa and the Americas and affected ethnic and racial classifications and gender roles.

4.2.I How did labor systems develop between 1450-1750?

4.2.I.A How was peasant labor affected between 1450-1750?

4.2.I.B How did slavery

within Africa compare to the pre-1450 era?

4.2.I.C How did the Atlantic

slave trade affect both African societies and the economy of the Americas?

4.2.I.D How did labor systems

develop in the colonial Americas?

Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and demand for labor increased. These changes both fed and responded to growing global demand for raw materials and finished products. Peasant labor intensified in many regions. (such as the development of frontier settlements in Russian Siberia, cotton textile production in India or silk textile production in China) Slavery in Africa continued both the traditional incorporation of slaves into households and the export of slaves to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas. Colonial economies in the Americas depended on a range of coerced labor (such as chattel slavery, indentured servitude, encomienda and hacienda systems, or the Spanish adaptation of the Inca mita.

slavery continued, spread to Americas

• Trans-Atlantic

Slave Trade • Indentured

Servitude

Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production


“Factoids”

4.2.II How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites?

4.2.II.B How did pre-existing political and economic elites react to these changes?

4.2.II.C How were gender and

family structures affected to these changes?

4.2.II.D How did societies in

the Americas reflect the post-1450 economic order?

As new social and political elites changed, they also restructured new ethnic, racial and gender hierarchies. Both imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites. (such as the Manchus in China, Creole elites in Spanish America, European gentry or urban commercial entrepreneurs in all major port cities in the world) The power of existing political and economic elites. (such as the zamindars in the Mughal Empire, nobility in Europe or daimyo in Japan) fluctuated as they confronted new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders. Some notable gender and family restructuring occurred including the demographic changes in Africa that resulted from the slave trades (as well as dependence of European men on Southeast Asian women for conducting trade in that region or the smaller size of European families) The massive demographic changes in the Americas resulted in new ethnic and racial classifications. (such as mestizo, mulatto or creole)

Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion


“Factoids”

4.3 How did empires attempt to administer the new widespread nature of their territories? How did the role of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe develop in this new world-wide political order? How did the people of various empires react to their government’s methods?

Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse subjects and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. European empires in the Americas moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans- Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states—especially on the coast, led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior.

4.3.I How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule?

4.3.I.B What role did religion

play in legitimizing political rule?

4.3.I.C How were ethnic and

religious minorities treated in various empires?

4.3.I.D How did rulers make

sure that their governmental were well run?

4.3.I.E How did rulers finance

their territorial expansion?

Visual displays of political power. (such as monumental architecture, urban plans, courtly literature or visual arts) helped legitimize and support rulers. Rulers used religious ideas to legitimize their rule. (such as European notions of divine right, the Safavid use of Shiism, the Mexica or Aztec practice of human sacrifice, the Songhay promotion of Islam or the Chinese emperors’ public performance of Confucian rituals) States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that both utilized their economic contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state. (such as the Ottoman treatment of non-Muslim subjects, Manchu policies toward Chinese or the Spanish creation of a separate “República de Indios”) Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals. (such as the Ottoman devshirme, Chinese examination system or salaried samurai), became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.

devshirme Confucian

Scholar- Bureaucrat Exam Sys

Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion


“Factoids”

4.3.II What was the relationship between imperialism and military technology?

4.3.II.A How did Europeans

go about creating new global empires and trade networks?

4.3.II.B How did pre-existing

land-based empires and new empires during this era compare to previous era’s empires?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres. Europeans established new trading post empires in Africa and Asia which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but also affected the power of states in interior West and Central Africa. European states, including Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France and Britain, established new maritime empires in the Americas. Land empires expanded dramatically in size, including the Manchus, Mughals, Ottomans and Russians.

4.3.III What obstacles to empire-building did empires confront, and how did they respond to these challenges?

Competition over trade routes. (such as Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean and piracy in the Caribbean), state rivalries. (such as the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid conflict), and local resistance. (such as bread riots) all provided significant challenges to state consolidation and expansion.

Study Guide by Key Concepts - Baltimore Polytechnic Institute · 2019. 1. 12. · Mesopotamia and Babylonia—Sumerians, Akkadians and Babylonians—and Egypt and Nubia along the

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