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Written by Antonia Reihlen (Ökopol) August 2017

Study for the strategy for a non-toxic environment of the

7th EAP

Sub-study b: Chemicals in products and non-toxic

material cycles

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General for Environment Directorate B — Circular Economy & Green Growth Unit B.2 — Sustainable Chemicals

European Commission B-1049 Brussels

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General for Environment Sustainable Chemicals August 2017

Study for the strategy for a non-toxic environment of the

7th EAP

Sub-study b: Chemicals in products and non-toxic ma-

terial cycles

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General for Environment Sustainable Chemicals August 2017

This sub-study report has been prepared by Antonia Reihlen (Ökopol).

The views expressed herein are those of the consultants alone and do not necessarily represent

the official views of the European Commission.

Milieu Ltd (Belgium), Chaussée de Charleroi 112, B-1060 Brussels, tel.: +32 2 506 1000;

e-mail: [email protected]; web address: www.milieu.be.

mailto:[email protected]://www.milieu.be/

Chemicals in products and non-toxic material cycles

(sub-study b)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... 8 LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... 8 ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 10 ABBREVIATIONS USED ........................................................................................................ 17 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 18

1.1 Overview of the Current Policy and Legislative Framework ......................... 18 1.2 Relevance of the issue ....................................................................................... 20

1.2.1 The production and trade of goods are increasing ........................ 20 1.2.2 Articles contain toxic chemicals ......................................................... 21 1.2.3 Toxic substances in articles may cause damage to human health

and the environment ........................................................................... 22 1.2.4 Toxic substances in articles may undermine the goals of a circular

economy ................................................................................................ 25 1.2.5 Little information if available on the content of toxic substances in

articles .................................................................................................... 26 1.2.6 Risk assessment insufficiently addresses toxic risks from articles ..... 28 1.2.7 Conclusions on the scale of problems ............................................... 29

1.3 Definitions and use of terms .............................................................................. 29 1.4 Scoping and work focus .................................................................................... 30

2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 31 2.1 The global context .............................................................................................. 31 2.2 Information needs in the supply chain ............................................................ 31

3 OVERVIEW OF THE STATE OF PLAY OF THE SUB-STUDY AREA .................................... 33 3.1 Cases of the content of toxic chemicals in articles/wastes ......................... 33 3.2 Overview of the flow of (toxic) substances ..................................................... 34 3.3 Overview of the flow of information on (toxic) substances .......................... 35 3.4 Chemicals legislation .......................................................................................... 36

3.4.1 Overview ................................................................................................ 36 3.4.2 Instruments and tools of chemicals policy ........................................ 38 3.4.3 Criticisms of the legal framework for chemicals .............................. 40 3.4.4 Discussions and conflicting policy goals ........................................... 41 3.4.5 Policy initiatives influencing the content of, and information on,

chemicals in articles and material cycles ......................................... 41 3.4.6 Stakeholder initiatives and activities in the chemicals area .......... 43

3.5 Articles legislation ................................................................................................ 43 3.5.1 Overview ................................................................................................ 43 3.5.2 Instruments and tools in product policy ............................................ 47 3.5.3 Criticisms of the current legal framework .......................................... 48 3.5.4 Discussions and conflicting policy goals ........................................... 50 3.5.5 Policy measures related to toxic substances in articles .................. 51 3.5.6 Stakeholder initiatives and activities in the articles area ................ 53

3.6 Waste legislation ................................................................................................. 55 3.6.1 Overview ................................................................................................ 55 3.6.2 Circular economy package ............................................................... 57

3.6.3 Stakeholder positions............................................................................ 58 3.6.4 Material streams .................................................................................... 58 3.6.5 Waste management approaches to toxic substances .................. 59 3.6.6 Discussions and conflicting policy goals ........................................... 66

3.7 Summary of policy elements relevant for a non-Toxic environment ........... 67 3.7.1 Chemicals policy .................................................................................. 67 3.7.2 Product policy ....................................................................................... 68 3.7.3 Waste policy .......................................................................................... 69 3.7.4 Main instruments for policy integration.............................................. 70

3.8 Detailed listing of gaps and deficits identified ............................................... 70 3.8.1 Chemicals policy .................................................................................. 71 3.8.2 Product legislation ................................................................................ 74 3.8.3 Waste legislation ................................................................................... 75

4 AVAILABLE TOOLS TO RESPOND TO GAPS AND DEFICITS ........................................ 77 4.1 Possible intervention points and strategies ..................................................... 77 4.2 Possible response – Overarching materialS-related legislation .................... 77 4.3 Possible mEDIUM-term and short-term responses ........................................... 80

5 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................... 90 6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 94 APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDY PLASTICS .................................................................................100 1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................100 2 REGULATION OF SUBSTANCES IN PLASTICS .............................................................101

2.1 Chemicals legislation - REACH ........................................................................ 101 2.1.1 Specific provisions for recycled plastics .......................................... 101 2.1.2 Provisions related to the exempted uses ......................................... 102

2.2 Product legislation ............................................................................................ 102 2.2.1 Provisions for recycling and the use of recycled plastics.............. 102 2.2.2 Requirements for plastics in the exempted uses ............................ 103

2.3 Waste legislation ............................................................................................... 104 2.4 Summary of legislation and gaps and deficits ............................................. 105 2.5 Discussion ON plastic recycling and toxic substances ................................ 106

2.5.1 Authorisation of the use of DEHP in recycled PVC ......................... 106 2.5.2 End-of-waste criteria .......................................................................... 108

2.6 Plastics in a circular economy......................................................................... 109 3 IDENTIFIED RESPONSES ..............................................................................................112 4 CONCLUSIONS ON TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN PLASTIC WASTE FOR RECYCLING .......114 5 DECISION-MAKING ON WASTE TREATMENT .............................................................116

5.1 Type of waste .................................................................................................... 116 5.2 Type of contained toxic substance................................................................ 116 5.3 Types of subsequent uses ................................................................................. 117

6 REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................118 APPENDIX 2: CASE STUDY EEE ..........................................................................................122 1 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (EEE) ....................................................122

1.1 CRT televisions and PCs .................................................................................... 122 1.2 white goods – washing machines .................................................................. 124 1.3 Overview of legislation ..................................................................................... 124

1.3.1 Chemicals legislation ......................................................................... 124 1.3.2 Articles legislation ............................................................................... 125 1.3.3 Waste legislation ................................................................................. 125

1.4 Information and material flows ....................................................................... 127 1.4.1 Lead-containing glass ........................................................................ 128

1.4.2 PCB-containing capacitors ............................................................... 130 1.4.3 BFRs in plastic casings ......................................................................... 131

1.5 Treatment costs ................................................................................................. 133 1.6 Specific responses identified for CRT TVs and PCs ....................................... 133 1.7 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 135

2 REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................136

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Examples of the influence of legislation on chemicals on the content of, or

information on, substances in articles/materials ............................................................... 39 Table 2: Legal instruments to regulate the content of, and information on, toxic

substances in articles ............................................................................................................. 47 Table 3: Specific legislation influencing the content and communication of

substances in waste materials ............................................................................................. 56 Table 4: Overview of identified responses .......................................................................... 80 Table 5: Sales of new CRT TVs and PCs in Germany from 1997 until 2011 (Source:

Sander et al. 2016) ............................................................................................................... 122 Table 6: Summary of legal obligations applying to some of the substances in CRT

TVs/PCs (lead, cadmium, PBDE) and washing machines (PCBs) ................................. 128

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Flow of (toxic) chemicals in articles and material streams .............................. 34 Figure 2: Information flow with (toxic) substances in the article and waste chain ...... 36 Figure 3: Legal instruments relating to substances for use in articles .............................. 37 Figure 4: Legal instruments influencing content of, and information on, toxic

substances in articles ............................................................................................................. 46 Figure 5: Possible flows of materials in the waste stage ................................................... 55 Figure 6: Symbol for the marking of EEE according to Annex IX of the WEEE Directive

.................................................................................................................................................. 62 Figure 7: Composition of CRT (Source: Widmer 2016) .................................................... 123 Figure 8: Collected WEEE at a recycling facility (Source: own picture) ...................... 132 Figure 9: Collected WEEE in a recycling facility (Source: own picture) ....................... 132

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Study for the strategy for a non-toxic environment of the 7th EAP

Sub-study b: Chemicals in products and non-toxic material cycles, August 2017/ 9

ABSTRACT

This report describes the various aspects of the production and use of chemicals in articles and materi-

al cycles. It outlines the challenges in three main areas: regulation of the content of toxic substances in

articles; communication on the content of toxic substances in articles and material cycles and the relat-

ed potential risks; and information gaps as well as organisational problems arising from the avoidance

of toxic substances in a circular economy.

The analysis of chemicals, products and waste policies shows the lack of a consistent approach to lim-

iting the content of toxic substances in articles and materials. In addition, legal requirements regarding

communicating information on (toxic) substances along the supply chain and to consumers are limited

in the substances they cover, making little information available to authorities and stakeholders en-

gaged in setting risk management priorities. Finally, the routines and infrastructure of the waste sector

are inefficient in decontaminating material streams from legacy chemicals contained in articles.

A number of options to further develop the policy framework have been identified and developed,

with the aim of moving towards a non-toxic environment. These encompass legal measures, the im-

plementation of economic incentives, supporting research, and increased efforts in the communication

of substances and technologies.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report describes the various aspects of the production and use of chemicals in articles and materi-

al cycles. It characterises challenges of regulating the content of toxic substance in articles; communi-

cation on the content of and potential risks from toxic substances in articles and material cycles; and

the communication as well as organisational problems arising from the avoidance of toxic substances

in a circular economy.

The overall aim of achieving non-toxic1 articles and material cycles is to prevent their related risks for

human health, for the environment, and to improve resource efficiency through the recycling of article

wastes. Combining the goal of a non-toxic environment and a circular economy requires:

improving article design and thereby as far as possible preventing the inclusion of toxic substanc-

es in articles with the aim of reducing the exposure throughout the life cycle and increasing the

recyclability of the articles or the materials of which they are composed, and;

collecting and separating wastes that contain toxic substances with the aim of decontaminating

material streams and ensuring high quality recycled materials generated from article wastes.

The issue of non-toxic articles and material cycles is complex because three different but interconnect-

ed regulatory areas are relevant i.e. chemicals legislation, article-related legislation, and waste legisla-

tion. Furthermore, a large number of different types of actors are involved in article production and in

waste treatment. Finally, numerous types of articles and waste streams, which have complex composi-

tions, need to be considered.

Key findings on chemicals and articles and the circular economy

The problem

Toxic substances are included in articles and may be released at any lifecycle stage, resulting

in exposures and potential risks for humans and for the environment. This is true for

new/currently produced articles, as well as for articles already present in society.

The scale of the problem is significant. The following examples involve two substances from

problematic substance groups widely used in articles. The annual amount of DEHP (a

phthalate used as plasticiser in PVC, now listed in REACH Annex XIV as a SVHC substance

subject to authorisation) included in articles on the EU market (produced in the EU or import-

ed), which is estimated to 210,000 t/y (KEMI, 2015). Further, 7 t/y of BDE (a flame retardant

listed as a POP) included in plastics waste from WEEE in the Netherlands, and 22% of this is

estimated to be recycled and used in new products (Leslie, 2013).

Linking the incidence of the health and environmental damage observed to exposures to single

articles or article categories is challenging due to the complex exposure situation and a lack of

basic exposure data. Furthermore, the extent of risks varies with the type of substance, type of

article, and its actual use situation. However, there is evidence that many substances, including

such with known toxic effects, are released from articles and are present in the human body

and the natural environment.

Toxic substances contained in end-of-life articles eventually reach the waste stage and may

contaminate recycled material streams, enter into a second service life, and potentially occur in

unsafe uses, as has been demonstrated e.g. for brominated flame retardants from recycled plas-

1 In this sub-study, the term ‘non-toxic‘ is used to describe substances that have no or at least a low toxicity, i.e. hazard which

are not severe. It implies the ultimate goal of replacing as far as possible substances in articles and materials that could cause

harm to humans and/or the environment. It also implies a procedural approach, that addresses substances with the most se-

vere hazards first, i.e. SVHC properties, and eventually includes further hazards. Exposure considerations would modify the

priority with which substances are addressed.

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Key findings on chemicals and articles and the circular economy

tics used in thermos cups (Samsoneka, 2013).

Information about the content of toxic substances in articles is largely missing, both for specif-

ic articles and at a general level. This lack of data renders it extremely difficult for:

Regulators to carry out overall risks assessment, determine the scale of risks, and to choose regulatory risk management measures;

Economic operators and consumers to make informed choices about how to avoid toxic substances in articles;

Waste treatment operators to separate and treat end-of-life articles in a manner that pre-vents contamination of recycled materials.

Gaps and inconsistencies in current policy

The methodology of current regulatory risk assessment under REACH and other chemicals

legislation does not ensure that risks relevant for articles can be identified, because:

Information on relevant substance properties is partly not available or considered on a routine basis (e.g. PBT/vPvB if registered in low volumes, endocrine disruption or neuro-

toxicity as not sufficiently covered by information requirements under REACH, nano-

materials as the testing regimes are not adapted to them);

Long-term and low-dose effects, cumulative and combined exposures as well as combina-tion effects are not sufficiently well addressed;

The exposure assessment is generic and requires information on substance uses and re-leases from articles, which are frequently not available.

Legislation preventing the presence of toxic substances in articles (where possible) is scattered,

neither systematic nor consistent and applies only to very few substances, articles and uses, of-

ten with many exemptions.

Legal information requirements on toxic substances in articles are vague and cover only a few

substances (of very high concern) under certain conditions, hence rarely resulting in useful in-

formation. If information on toxic substances does exist it is frequently insufficient to support:

Article producers in gaining full knowledge about the presence of toxic substances in the complex objects they assemble and place on the market. Consequently, they can hardly

ensure material compliance, improve product design regarding the reduction of toxic sub-

stances or provide information to their customers;

Waste treatment operators in separating waste streams or components thereof that include toxic substances from other waste streams that are not contaminated.

Legislation and current practices in the waste sector were generally designed to safely treat the

large wastes streams and quantitatively recover materials, if possible, rather than to decontam-

inate waste streams from (articles/materials containing) individual toxic substances in a man-

ner intended to generate recycled materials free from them.

The following issues indicate the scale of the problem in the context of a non-toxic environment:

The overall volume of (toxic) substances included in articles is large, and increases in line with

global trade volumes of articles.

The majority of supply chains are globalised, complex and dynamic. This makes the management

of toxic substances in articles difficult, including the efficient communication on these.

A large share of articles on the EU market are imported. These may include SVHCs (and bio-

cides) that are subject to authorisation in the EU, which may create additional risks and represents

an economic disadvantage for EU article producers.

The composition of articles is complex, making it challenging to identify the content and release

potential of toxic substances, or to assess the risks from articles.

Several studies illustrate that large amounts of toxic substances are present on the EU market,

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giving rise to exposures during their service life in articles, and causing problems during waste

management and recycling, which may result in (risks of) harm to human health or the environ-

ment.

Release of toxic substances from articles contributes to a continuous, long-term, and low-level

exposure to a mixture of different hazardous chemicals, which causes or exacerbates adverse ef-

fects on human health and the environment.

Frequently, only minimum information on the chemical content of articles is communicated along

the supply chains, sometimes due to confidentiality concerns. This information may not be suffi-

cient to ensure legal compliance and the assessment and potential management of risks for work-

ers, consumers and the environment.

Information on the use (amounts) of toxic substances in articles at a general level is missing, due

to the limited scope of the legal notification and communication provisions on hazardous sub-

stances in articles. This hinders assessment of the scale of risks from toxic substances in articles,

as well as impacts on targeted decision-making in respect of risk management measures.

The sheer variety of articles represents a challenge for sorting and separate treatment.

A systematic regime preventing (certain) toxic substances from entering waste streams does not

exist in either waste legislation or articles legislation.

Toxic substances, which have been restricted in the meantime, are still included in materials and

articles manufactured in the past (legacy chemicals). They may leak from articles/materials that

are still in use, emit during waste processing or enter a second service life, if integrated into recy-

cled materials.

The use of toxic substances in articles may lead to their continuous presence in the material

streams if they are subject to recycling. According to modelling studies, it may take centuries to

decontaminate a recycled material stream from a particular substance.

The waste sector lacks information on the content of toxic substances in end-of-life articles and

material streams, because only few and insufficient mechanisms exist to facilitate effective in-

formation flow from article producers to the waste sector exist at present.

Information on certain hazardous substances, such as PBT/vPvB and POPs, are not systematically

communicated in the waste chain.

Toxic substances in recycled materials may occur in articles. Although the quality of virgin and

secondary materials used for the production of articles should be identical, several cases of recy-

cled materials containing banned substances have been observed. This suggests that enforcement

of the requirements is insufficient, in particular for recycled materials.

Although the Waste Framework Directive generally requires the ‘depollution of waste streams’,

this is put into practice for very few types of waste streams.

Toxic substances included in articles may cause exposures to humans or the environment if they are

released during the articles’ service lives, waste treatment or recycling resulting in one - or several -

further life cycles. While risks may stem also from acute exposure, concerns chiefly relate to aggre-

gated and cumulated, long-term exposures to chemicals of both humans and the environment, in par-

ticular of aquatic life.

At the waste stage, different articles (and materials) converge into waste streams. This leads to a dilu-

tion and dispersion of toxic substances in waste streams. Toxic substances in waste materials could

cause risks to workers and the environment, if released during waste treatment. Furthermore, if carried

over into a new product life cycle, risks to consumers and the environment may occur. The presence of

toxic substances in wastes might also compromise the quality and technical functionality of a material,

leading to downgrading.

The exposure levels to chemicals from articles are likely to increase, considering the globally increas-

ing production volume of chemicals and articles. The yearly import of goods to the European Union

has almost tripled between 2000 and 2015, with a large share being imported from countries with less

severe legislation on chemicals control.

A number of studies discuss the presence of toxic substances in articles and biomonitoring data show

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they can be found in human body tissue, in wildlife and the different environmental compartments.

Some exposure levels are of concern and have been demonstrated to cause damage, e.g. to unborn life.

Intentionally added toxic substances usually fulfill particular functions in articles and materials. Where

this is the case, information on their content in materials and articles is generally available and can be

provided along the supply chain. In addition, their content may be unintended, e.g. as residues of pro-

cessing aids, or contaminations from the carry-over from materials or products of other batches pro-

cessed in the same machinery. In such cases, information on the substances’ content is not normally

available. Toxic substances in wastes or – after recycling - in products made from recyclates, could

stem from either of the sources mentioned above, or from different articles mixed together during

waste management and recycling.

There are three distinct categories of challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve non-toxic

articles and material cycles:

Toxic substances are contained in articles causing risks to humans and the environment through-

out the life cycle.

(Legacy) chemicals enter the waste stage with articles and may cause risks during waste treatment

or if included in articles (second service life).

There is a lack of information on (toxic) substances in articles and in waste streams.

Possible paths to address these challenges include developing the legal framework in the field of

chemicals, products (articles) and wastes, and implementing additional measures, e.g. in the area of

enforcement, economic incentives, capacity building and awareness raising, etc. Instruments from all

three policy areas target different stages of the articles’ life cycle and these would influence each oth-

er, given the partial circularity of material flows. Nevertheless, one particular policy area may be bet-

ter suited to address one problem than another. For example, waste management is the most powerful

tool to remove hazardous substance from material cycles, while restrictions of toxic substances in arti-

cles legislation could prevent the influx of new toxic substances.

Chemicals policy

The main pieces of chemicals legislation that may influence the content of and information availability

on toxic substances in articles considered in this study are: the REACH regulation, the regulation on

classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures, the regulation on biocidal products

(BPR) and the regulation on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Legislation on mixtures is not con-

sidered in the study, as long as they are not used for the production of articles.

Chemicals policy sets the framework for the placing on the market and use of chemicals. REACH and

the BPR, among others, define requirements to generate data on substance properties and its uses, and

to apply it for hazard identification and risk/safety assessment. The CLP regulation defines rules and

procedures for the identification and communication of chemical hazards, including notification to the

EU-wide classification and labelling inventory. Information on hazardous properties of substances and

mixtures and their safe use are to be communicated via safety data sheets along the supply chain, ac-

cording to REACH and the BPR. In addition, REACH, the BPR and the POPs regulation include sev-

eral risk management measures, such as substance approval, restrictions, authorisation or notification.

Specific provisions exist on the communication of substances of very high concern (REACH) and

biocidal active substances (BPR) contained in articles. However, the communication obligations are

much less extensive than those for chemical mixtures.

International, European and national stakeholder groups work on chemical safety, including on the

communication on toxic substances in articles. Part of their work is to develop tools to identify if sub-

stances have properties of (very) high concern, to create communication standards and tools, and to

propose actions to increase awareness and responsible use of substances in articles.

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The current legal framework exhibits shortcomings that affect the risk management of and communi-

cation on toxic substance in articles. These include a lack of requirements for generating information

necessary to identify SVHC, if registered in low volumes. In addition, there are deficits in the chemi-

cal safety assessment methodology regarding the exposure assessment for articles and the integration

of combined and cumulative exposures. Furthermore, the risk management measures partly do not

cover imported articles (authorisation) and restrictions are not systematic and cover few substances in

a small number of articles.

Product policy

Article-related legislation considered in the study include the General Product Safety Directive

(GPSD), the Construction Products Regulation (CPR), the Ecodesign Directive, the Toy Safety Di-

rective (TSD), the directives on medical devices, legislation on food contact materials and the Eco-

label Regulation.

The General Product Safety Directive requires that all products placed on the market are safe. Howev-

er, the definition of safety does not include the environment and the GPSD does not define, how

chemical safety should be assessed. Similarly, other article-related legislation does not define a meth-

odology to assess the chemical safety of articles.

The Toy Safety Directive is the only piece of article-related legislation that restricts the content of

toxic substances via a substance list and via excluding the content of substances with certain properties

(CMR) under certain conditions.

All other legislation in this policy area requires that articles placed on the market do not cause any

risks to humans and the environment, which is regarded as ensured either if existing standards are

implemented (CPR, medical devices) or if only substances are used in the production of the article that

are approved for use (plastic food contact materials).

In principle, the Ecodesign Directive allows restricting chemical substances but this is currently not

the case. There are ongoing discussions of using this option to restrict substances in articles in in the

future. Avoiding the use of specific toxic substances in articles may be a condition to obtain (certain)

ecolabels; this is a voluntary activity of the article producers.

Chemicals legislation, such as Annex XVII of REACH, includes several restrictions of substances that

relate to their content in articles. In addition, the use of biocides in articles may be limited during the

approval of active substances or product authorisation under the BPR.

Articles-related legislation does not require communication on the content of (certain) toxic substances

in articles. The only related requirements exist according to REACH Article 7 and 33. They cover only

a small number of substances and are not yet sufficiently implemented. In addition, communication is

required for biocide active substances under the BPR under certain conditions (treated articles).

Stakeholders implement numerous initiatives to identify substances in articles (e.g. reports on analyti-

cal campaigns), to incentivise substitution with safer alternatives, or to communicate about the issue.

At the international level, the project ‘Chemicals in Products’, which is part of the international chem-

icals strategy (SAICM), managed by UNEP, aims to identify challenges and opportunities in com-

municating about substances in products (including articles) along complex international supply

chains, as well as to define any such communication standards.

Several deficits exist in product policy with regard to a non-toxic environment. These include the lack

of a comprehensive risk assessment methodology for articles that sufficiently considers the fact that

low-level, long-term exposures to a multitude of substances occur from articles. In addition, there is no

consistent approach to restricting the use of toxic substances, e.g. based on hazards and/or generic

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exposure and risk considerations. Furthermore, it is insufficiently transparent for the supply chain

actors, which toxic chemicals are contained in articles, limiting their abilities to improve article de-

sign. Consumers lack information on toxic substances in articles to guide their purchasing decisions

and articles handling, except for the information they obtain according to REACH article 33. Finally,

articles legislation does not sufficiently implement standards for the recyclability of articles, regarding

both the content of toxic substances and the separability of articles and materials.

Waste Policy Legislation particularly considered in this policy area include the Waste Framework Directive (WFD),

the Directive on the Restriction of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment

(RoHS) as well as the Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), the Directive

on End-of Life Vehicles (ELVD), the Packaging Directive and the Batteries Directive.

All waste legislation bases on the hierarchy of waste management, which prioritises waste prevention,

including reduction of the hazardousness of wastes as most important waste management principle.

Where waste generation cannot be prevented, material recycling should have priority over thermal

recovery and the last option should be the (safe) disposal of wastes.

The waste management sector handles a broad range of heterogeneous waste streams consisting of a

large variety of articles and materials and, where possible, extracts them as a whole or transforms them

into secondary raw materials for which there is a demand. Reuse and recycling of wastes closes the

material cycles and are therefore a core element of the circular economy.

Waste legislation includes several instruments that influence the content of toxic substances in articles.

RoHS, the ELVD and the Batteries Directive restrict the content of certain toxic substance. The Pack-

aging Directive requires a general minimisation of the content of toxic substances. Although part of

waste legislation, these requirements apply to the article producers.

For certain waste streams, such as steel, copper and glass, end-of-waste criteria exist, which define,

among others, the quality of waste materials that may be used as input and the quality of the secondary

raw material that may be placed on the market as a product (and not a waste). These criteria delineate

the border between waste and chemicals legislation.

The Batteries Directive requires communication of the content of specific toxic substances. The ELVD

requires that vehicle producers provide relevant information, including on hazardous substances, to the

dismantling companies. Labelling requirements exist in the Batteries Directive and the WEEE Di-

rective with regard to the disposal of the articles.

The presence of toxic substances in end-of-life articles may hinder the implementation of the circular

economy and the intended increase in material recycling. This is due to challenges in identifying mate-

rials/articles containing toxic substances in the waste streams, separating them from the waste streams

that are free from them and ensuring separate treatment, while meeting the qualitative recycling targets

and ensuring economic operation of the waste sector.

Communication on the presence of hazardous substances in end-of-life products is crucial for in-

formed waste management decisions on pre-treatment needs and the recycling potential of wastes.

However, such information is not available in a manner easily applicable to daily waste management

practice. For example, no information is currently available for waste treatment companies on whether

or not an end-of-life flatscreen TV contains mercury or LED backlights. Such information gaps mean

that waste treatment companies must invest greater effort (each flat screen must be separated and the

backlight must be checked), thus incurring higher costs. There is as yet no effective system to ensure

that the stakeholder responsible (in this case the producer) bears the costs, in line with the ‘polluter

pays principle’.

In addition, the heterogeneity of waste streams poses a challenge for waste management (e.g. where

some end-of-life products in a waste stream contain brominated flame retardants and others do not),

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not least because of missing information about such products, or the inability of the day-to-day pro-

cesses of waste management to detect the presence of toxic substances in products and materials.

Waste legislation contains some communication tools on hazardous properties due to the presence of

hazardous substances (e.g. European List of Waste, requirements of the Waste Framework Directive

Articles 17 and 19 on Member States approaches). The effectiveness of these tools is however limited

for heterogeneous waste streams, e.g. from complex end-of-life products.

Conclusions on opportunities towards a non-toxic environment

A number of approaches to further develop the policy framework for a non-toxic environment have

been identified, including legal measures, the implementation of economic incentives, supporting re-

search, the development of substances and technologies, and increasing communication.

From a structural perspective, an overarching, life cycle and materials-based approach regulating the

content of and communication on toxic substances in articles and material streams should be devel-

oped and implemented, either as overarching legal approach or by amending existing regulation.

Chemicals legislation and its implementation could be improved, among others, by extending infor-

mation requirements in a way to ensure that SVHC properties of substances relevant for article use can

be identified. Further measures include developing better approaches for the safety assessment of sub-

stances in articles and implementing restrictions based on hazard and generic exposure considerations.

This should be complemented by research on substitution options for toxic substances, a potential

centralised information collection and publication of information on substances in articles, or aware-

ness raising campaigns on the consumers' right-to-know of SVHC in articles according to Article

33(2).

Improvements in the area of product policy may include, complementing approaches in chemicals

legislation, the development of methods and guidance for an appropriate assessment of safety/risks

from substances in articles. In addition, chemical safety of articles should include the management of

environmental risks from toxic substances in articles. Furthermore, mechanisms to include and review

restrictions are needed to address specific risks as well as provisions to inform consumers of the toxic

substances content in articles in order to enable their informed decision-making.

The legal provisions should be complemented by training and education of article designers regarding

the use of less toxic substances as well as improved materials and the design for recycling. Economic

measures to increase substitution and decrease the use of toxic substances could include taxation or

fees.

Waste legislation could be amended with strengthened quality requirements for recycled materials,

e.g. by including qualitative recycling targets that complement the existing quantitative ones. Dealing

with legacy chemicals poses significant challenges and apparently requires different approaches for

simple and complex articles. Simple article may be sorted before shredding and, if containing unwant-

ed toxic substances, be separated from material streams destined for recycling. For complex articles,

approaches to include markers into materials might be applicable to enable identification of contami-

nated materials in a post-shredder fraction. Additionally, measures complementing legislation could

include the use of economic instruments and would require technology research and development to

enhance efficient sorting and decontamination processes for materials.

ABBREVIATIONS USED

Art. Article

ANEC European Association for the Co-ordination of Consumer Representation in

Standardisation

BOG Break Out Group

BPR Biocidal Products Regulation

CAS Chemical Abstracts Service

CEFIC European Chemical Industry Council

CiP Chemicals in Products

CLI Classification and Labelling Inventory

CLP Classification, Labelling and Packaging

CLS Candidate List Substance

CMR Carcinogenic, Mutagenic or Toxic for reproduction

CPR Construction Products Regulation

CSA Chemical Safety Assessment

CSR Chemical Safety Report

DG Directorate General

EEE Electrical and Electronic Equipment

EFIC European Furniture Industries Confederation

ELV End-of-life Vehicles

EPR Extended Producer Responsibility

EU European Union

FCM Food Contact Material

FCMR Food Contact Material Regulation

FR Flame Retardant

GPSD General Product Safety Directive

ICCA International Council of Chemical Associations

LoW List of Waste

MedD Medical Devices Directive

OPS Overarching Policy Strategy

PBT/vPvB Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic / very Persistent and very Bioaccumula-

tive

POP Persistent Organic Pollutant

RAC Risk Assessment Committee

RAPEX Rapid Exchange of Information System

REACH Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of

Chemicals

RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances

SDS Safety Data Sheet

SEAC Socio-Economic Analysis Committee

SEV Substance Evaluation

Subst. Substance

SVHC Substance of Very High Concern

TSD Toy Safety Directive

WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

WFD Waste Framework Directive

WoE Weight of Evidence

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1 INTRODUCTION

This report outlines the status quo in legislation, policy and stakeholder activities in the field of toxic

substances in articles and non-toxic material cycles. Its aim is to set out various policy options to

achieve non-toxic articles and material flows. The study takes an integrated, life cycle perspective and

analyses potential shortcomings and opportunities regarding the content of toxic substances in materi-

als and articles from a number of different perspectives, i.e. chemicals management, product design

and waste treatment. It also focuses on the availability of information on the content of toxic substanc-

es in materials and articles.

The sub-study b on non-toxic products and material cycles is linked to all other sub-studies conducted

in the context of the study supporting the development of a non-toxic environment strategy. It outlines

these links, together with the crucial intervention points in the life cycle of substances and products to

decrease emissions of, and exposures to, toxic substances.

The tasks and objectives of sub-task b are to:

Outline the effects on human health and the environment of the content of toxic substances in

articles and material cycles;

Identify gaps and deficits in existing legislation, policies, measures and activities of stakeholders

preventing the production and use of non-toxic products and the resulting non-toxic material cy-

cles;

Highlight commonalities and conflicts in the policy, goals and instruments of chemicals, articles

and waste both within themselves and in relation to each other, with regard to non-toxic products

and material cycles;

Assess options to tackle the identified gaps and deficits in knowledge and communication on the

presence/absence of substances in articles and waste streams;

Address decision criteria and instruments for sorting/pre-treatment and recycling of end-of-life

products in order to obtain clean material cycles at an acceptable cost and effort for all stakehold-

ers;

Outline short-, medium- and long-term responses (from literature and stakeholders) that would

bring benefits and support from at least by some of the stakeholders in more than one of the poli-

cy areas.

This sub-study relates to the discussions on the further development of the circular economy, which

includes, inter alia, work on the analysis of interfaces between chemicals, articles and waste legislation

and options to reduce the presence of toxic substances in articles and material streams.

Three types of issues and challenges can be distinguished in relation to non-toxic articles and material

cycles:

Risks to human health and the environment from the use of toxic substances in articles, and relat-

ed opportunities to prevent such risks, either by restricting substance uses or by reducing expo-

sure levels through risk management measures;

A lack of information on the presence of toxic substances in articles and wastes, including a lack

of communication;

Risks and technical challenges related to the decontamination of waste streams from toxic sub-

stances by the waste sector.

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE CURRENT POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

The issue of non-toxic articles and material cycles relates to, and is influenced by, three regulatory

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areas: chemicals legislation, articles related legislation, and waste legislation. Each of these legal areas

has overarching legislation, i.e. REACH and the CLP regulation (chemicals), the General Product

Safety Directive (articles), and the Waste Framework Directive (waste), as well as specific legislation,

such as the Biocides Regulation (chemicals), the Toy Safety Directive (articles), the RoHS Directive

or the End-of-life Vehicles Directive (waste).

Each legislative area contributes to a framework for the production of non-toxic articles and genera-

tion of material cycles free from toxic substances to the greatest extent possible. The following de-

scription presents the general approach of the legislation but does not include individual requirements.

The main gaps and deficits, i.e. where legislation does not (sufficiently) ensure the production of non-

toxic articles and maintain clean waste streams, are outlined in the following section.

Chemicals legislation contributes to ensuring that:

the hazardous properties of substances potentially contained in articles are identified and that

this information is available to all parties concerned (registration/active substances approval,

substance evaluation, SVHC identification and candidate listing, notification of classification, and

labelling);

unsafe uses of toxic substances in articles are identified via generic risk assessments and pre-

vented via the limitations of their use2 (chemical safety assessment and discouraged uses, biocide

product approval for use in articles, communication of binding conditions of use through safety

data sheets or article labels, restrictions and authorisation procedures);

recovered substances and mixtures are placed on the market only if information exists and they

are safety assessed. According to REACH, recovered substances must either be demonstrated to

similar to a registered one or be registered. Safety information in form of safety data sheets must

be provided with recovered materials, if they are classified as hazardous;

information about the presences of substances of very high concern (SVHC) in articles above

0.1% is available to everyone handling, using, and regulating articles (REACH Article 33 and

Article 7, as well as labelling of treated articles under biocides legislation). The information

should be sufficient to enable:

economic actors to comply with legal requirements, protect their workers from potential risks during processing, and to consider it in their product design processes;

consumers to make informed choices and to potentially avoid articles containing SVHC; regulators to assess and identify risks from SVHC in articles at an aggregated level, and to

implement corresponding measures, if necessary.

Articles related legislation contributes to ensuring that:

all articles placed on the market are safe for human health during normal and reasonably fore-

seeable use (General Product Safety Directive);

the content of substances that are of particular concern in articles with sensitive exposure po-

tential or with regard to the treatment of waste are restricted (specific restrictions, e.g. Toy Safe-

ty Directive, RoHS or positive lists (food contact materials));

information on the content of certain substances (e.g. sensitisers in toys) and on proper dispos-

al of an article to ensure that it enters the correct waste treatment stream (e.g. electronic devices)

is communicated to consumers.

This also ensures a level playing field with regard to the content of the restricted toxic substances,

given that articles legislation applies to imported and EU produced articles alike.

2 There may be options to limit exposure through article-integrated risk management measures but it is unlikely either that a

registrant will identify this as a risk management measure or communicate it along the supply chain.

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Waste legislation contributes to that:

incentives are created to prevent hazardous wastes (waste treatment hierarchy, extended pro-

ducer responsibility, End-of-life Vehicles (ELV), and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

(WEEE)) and to increase recycling of materials (collection and recycling targets);

infrastructure and management routines exist to collect, sort, and treat large volumes of

waste efficiently, including recycling materials to the greatest extent possible, technically and

economically (Waste Framework Directive);

hazardous wastes are identified and related information is used to decide on the appropriate

treatment technology, as well as the application of stricter management and documentation re-

quirements (waste classification and related requirements for hazardous wastes);

toxic substances are separated from specific waste streams (i.e. hazardous mixtures from vehi-

cles, batteries) and are either finally disposed of by incineration or landfill.

Use restrictions to prevent toxic substances from entering articles could originate from chemicals,

articles, or waste legislation. Chemicals legislation generally takes a top-down view, integrating work-

er, consumer, and environmental concerns in generic risk assessment and management approaches that

cover the entire life cycle. By contrast, articles legislation focuses on consumer health issues and the

service life of articles. Existing restrictions triggered by the waste sector, such as those contained in

the ELV and WEEE Directives, consider problems encountered during waste treatment that may relate

to environmental and health risks, or problems in waste material management and contamination.

Specific requirements to decontaminate waste streams exist only in the ELV and WEEE Directives. In

addition, the end-of-waste criteria indirectly imply these provisions by defining the quality of the input

and output materials for recycled materials that become a product. However, these criteria apply to

very few materials. Due to requirements of chemicals legislation, decontamination of materials may be

necessary, if the recycle material should be placed on the market in case substance bans and use re-

strictions exist (e.g. REACH authorisation, POPs regulation) because these also apply to secondary

materials

1.2 RELEVANCE OF THE ISSUE

1.2.1 The production and trade of goods are increasing

The production volume of chemicals and articles are increasing in the EU and at global level3. An

estimated 35,000 chemicals are on the EU market in volumes above 1 tonne per year, and over 60%

(by tonnage) of these are hazardous to human health and/or the environment4.

The yearly import of manufactured goods to the European Union has almost tripled between 2000 and

2015, including from countries with insufficient regulatory controls over chemicals. In 2016, 3.4

tonnes of products (2.1 raw, 0.4 semi-finished and 0.9 finished products) per capita were imported in

the EU. About 20% of these were imported from China (value of € 344.7 billion)5.

According to Eurostat data, in 2015, products worth more than 3 trillion EUR have been produced and

sold within the EU market while during that same period products worth more than 1.7 trillion EUR

have been imported into the EU-28 from third countries. A high share of these products are articles in

terms of REACH.6

Unfortunately, overview information on the total amounts of (specific) toxic substances contained in

3 European Commission, 1992; European Commission, 2001. 4 Eurostat, 2015. 5 Eurostat, April 2017. 6 Schenten and Führ, 2016

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the articles produced or imported in the EU is missing due to a lack of respective statistics7.

1.2.2 Articles contain toxic chemicals

Hazardous chemicals are contained in a vast array of consumer articles, from clothing, furniture,

buildings and infrastructure, electronics and vehicles to tinned food linings, medical devices and toys.

A literature overview8 concludes that studies on the content of substances in articles usually focus on

those that are either use restricted, subject to authorisation or included on the REACH candidate list.

These publications mostly refer to articles with high exposure potentials to consumers and/or vulnera-

ble groups (such as children). Consequently, textiles, toys and plastic articles are highly represented in

these studies, while other articles, such as construction materials or furniture, are less widely dis-

cussed.

As no specific information is available, examples of substances and articles illustrating the scale of the

problem are provided. All of the substances mentioned in these examples may cause severe damage

(CMRs, EDCs or PBT/vPvBs) and are likely to be released from articles, due to a comparably high

mobility and a generally loose binding to the matrices they are normally included in.

KemI has estimated the supply of phthalates9 in a number of article categories for both the Swedish

and EU markets10

. They used consultant reports on the use of the plasticiser DEHP in Sweden, statisti-

cal data, and made various assumptions to close information gaps for their estimations. They conclud-

ed that the EU production of DEHP fell from 282,000 tonnes in 2007 to 118,000 tonnes in 2012,

demonstrating the impact of regulation. They estimated that approximately 120,000 t/y of DEHP are

used in the production of articles in the EU. The total amount of DEHP contained in articles that are

placed on the EU market (including import) was estimated at 210,000 t/y.

In another study, KemI11

estimated the use of substances with adverse effects on health in construction

products. Forty-six carcinogens were identified in the products analysed, as well as phthalates and

endocrine disrupters, of which many are classified as volatile or semi-volatile. Based on information

from construction products databases and trade statistics, KemI estimated the amounts of hazardous

substances placed on the market in specific construction products (flooring, carpets and panel materi-

als). They concluded that, for example, 36,000 tonnes of the plasticiser DINP12

is placed on the floor-

ing market in Sweden each year, along with 22,000 tonnes of phenols13

in wooden panels. Further-

more, styrenes14

are placed on the market as part of floorings (2,6000 t/y) as well as bisphenol A15

(2,000 t/y). The release of these substances from construction products could cause or contribute to a

considerably high exposure of humans and the environment.

7 Production and trade statistics mostly relate to trade values rather than volumes; furthermore, information on the composi-

tion of articles, which could be linked to volume information, is not available. 8 Reihlen A., Wirth O., Camboni M., 2013. 9 Phthalates are used as plasticisers. Many of them are reprotoxic and some are endocrine disrupters. Several phthalates are

included on the REACH candidate list. 10 KemI, 2015. 11 KemI, 2016. 12 DINP is increasingly used as a softener in plastics. It has reprotoxic effects but is currently not classified. It is use restricted

in childcare articles and toys. 13 Phenols are a group of substances characterised by an aromatic ring and one or more hydroxyl groups. They are used as

reactant of phenolic resins in the production of wood panels. The non-reacted phenols may emit during service life of the

panels. Phenols are toxic if swallowed, in contact with skin and if inhaled. They are also suspected of causing genetic defects

and damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. 14 Styrene is a PBT, may cause damage to the inner organs through prolonged or repeated exposure and is suspected of caus-

ing harm to the unborn child. It is used to produce polystyrene, which may be included in flooring for insulation purposes.

Unreacted monomers may emit during service life. 15 Bisphenol A is used, among others, to produce polycarbonate. It is an SVHC on the candidate list and has recently been

confirmed to be an endocrine disrupter.

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The IVM Institute for Environmental Studies16

analysed the flow of the flame retardants pentaBDE

and octaBDE in waste plastics from WEEE, ELV and other plastic wastes in the Netherlands. These

brominated biphenyl ethers (BDEs) are listed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stock-

holm convention, hence referred to as POP-BDEs.

Overall, BDEs were found in few individual parts in these waste streams, with the majority being plas-

tic parts from WEEE rather than from ELV. However, in shredded plastics, these POP-BDEs were

frequently detected with levels up to 330µg/g. A mass flow analysis for the Netherlands shows that

approximately seven t/a of these POP-BDEs reach the waste stage in plastics from WEEE and approx-

imately 0.2 t/a from ELVs. The corresponding material flows are 72,000 t/a from WEEE and 20,000

t/a from ELV.

A recent Swedish market survey illustrates by analogy the variety, number and complexity of products

containing hazardous substances (Kemi 2016). Biocides prevent harmful organisms from causing ad-

verse effects on humans, products, animals or the environment, and are hence by definition more or

less toxic.

The study searched for articles treated with biocides and identified a wide range of treated articles

marketed with a claim such as “antibacterial”, including sanitary products, electronic products, kitchen

utensils, textiles, leisure equipment, home products, baby products, pet accessories etc. Only 18% of

these products were labelled according to the legal requirements, i.e. named the active substance(s)

contained in the articles.

A more common situation is; however, that articles contain biocides but no biocidal functions are ex-

plicitly claimed. Due to the lack of labelling requirements for these articles, they were much more

difficult to identify in the study.

A conclusion of the study is that large quantities of biocides are used, without any knowledge of or

information on the active substances and quantities involved as well as what exposure of humans and

the environment the use results in.

Further to the content of toxic substances in articles for which no regulation exists, there are also arti-

cles on the market, which do not comply with existing restrictions; i.e. that contain restricted substanc-

es above the legally defined threshold values. This is evident, for example, from the notifications pro-

vided to the RAPEX system. According to the RAPEX database, approximately 25% of all product

warnings made by the enforcement authorities are due to the content of toxic substances.17

Not all of

these notifications relate to articles; nevertheless, they concern only a small share of potential risks

from articles, as they represent the findings only of those articles, which have been controlled.

These examples show that significant amounts of hazardous substances, including restricted ones, are

contained in different materials and articles on the EU market.

1.2.3 Toxic substances in articles may cause damage to human health and the en-

vironment

Articles contribute to a continuous, long-term, and low-level exposure to a mixture of different haz-

ardous chemicals that may, individually or in combination, cause damage to human health and the

environment. While there are few studies that cover the entire evidence chain of a chemicals-induced

damage, i.e. from the content and release of substances from articles to the resulting exposure and

observed damage, evidence exists of the individual stages.

Examples of publications that include several stages of the evidence chain are:

EU risk assessments

16 Leslie et al., 2013. 17 European Commission, 2016.

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to justify restriction proposals under REACH18; to identify if substances may be used in food contact materials.

Risk assessments conducted by Member State authorities, e.g. the

Danish Surveys of Consumer Products19; KemI reports on risks from substances in articles, such as textiles20 and construction prod-

ucts21

.

The Surveys on Consumer Products by the Danish Environment Ministry identify and discuss the con-

tent of, and risks from, substances in consumer products, including articles. Most of these surveys

have a similar structure and include a general literature overview detailing those substances that have

already been detected or are expected in an article, a description and justification of the substances

analysed, the samples purchased and the analytical methods used. The results are presented, showing

the concentrations of different substances in these articles. Some studies also include an assessment of

risks for the substances in these articles.

Reports on the content and release of substances from articles are also available from the Swedish

Chemicals Agency (KemI), as well as Environmental Agencies and Ministries of other EU Member

States, such as Germany, or EEA countries, e.g. Norway.

Due to the campaign focus of NGOs, several studies are available on toxic substances in textiles, e.g.

by Greenpeace or ChemSec but also for other article types.

There are also databases providing information on the substance content in articles, e.g. under the

Children’s Safe Products Act in Washington State.

Proof of substances releases from articles is also available from of ample testing results, e.g. migration

tests for food contact materials, evaporation studies for construction products, leaching tests for waste

classification etc. Generally, these analyses show that substances are released from article matrices

and that the extent of emissions varies greatly, both in terms of the materials into which they are inte-

grated and the conditions under which they are used.

There is also evidence of exposure to toxic substances, e.g. from bio-monitoring data, samples from

indoor air or substance concentrations in food or water. Information from these sources clearly indi-

cates the presence of toxic substances in the (living) environment and organisms, but does not easily

allow tracing the origin of these substances.

In particular house dust presents information on actual exposures, as it accumulates substances emitted

from the house’s interior, as well as from the indoor use of mixtures. Mitro et al.22

reviewed recent

U.S. studies on the content of several groups of toxic substances in house dust, among others of

phthalates and brominated flame retardants, which are mainly used in articles and unlikely to be found

in consumer mixtures for indoor use. They conclude that house dust is a reservoir for (toxic) substanc-

es, which proves that substances emit from products, including articles, and provides hard evidence for

cumulative exposures.

At the waste stage, substances may emit from the material matrices in a manner similar to emissions

during service life. In addition, the (potential) destruction of the matrices during recycling processes or

final disposal may increase the level of release, either due to an increase of the materials surface area

(milling, grinding, shredding etc.) or due to a destruction of the matrix and related bindings of the

18 ECHA, Submitted Restriction proposals; There are 31 submitted restriction proposals, of which 24 include use in articles.

Risk assessments conducted under the Existing Substances Programme frequently relate to the uses of substances as interme-

diates, solvents or in mixtures. The risk assessment reports (RARs) for some substances also cover the service life of articles

but these assessments under the former EU chemical policy are less detailed then those conducted in restriction proposals

under REACH. 19 Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark, Danish surveys on chemicals in consumer products. 20 KemI, 2015. 21 KemI, 2016. 22 Mitro et al., 2016

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toxic substances. For example, when waste paper is recycled, toxic substances may leach to the pulper

and enter waste water.

Workers in the waste sectors handle different types of end-of-life articles and are potentially exposed

to the full gamut of substances used in these articles. A Swedish study23

on the exposure of workers in

EEE recycling plants identified high dust levels at the plants. Workplace air measurements and biolog-

ical data revealed that the workers were exposed to several heavy metals and organic substances, in-

cluding brominated flame retardants. Combined and cumulative exposures occurred, due to the pres-

ence of several (end-of-life) articles and substances (absorbed or integrated into dust).

A research programme by the German Institute for Occupational Health and Safety24

conducted work-

place measurements at different recycling plants (EEE, vehicles, paper, textiles and plastics) and iden-

tified significant exposure levels to particles, as well as heavy metals. Apart from demonstrating that

risks from chemicals in (end-of-life) articles can – and do - occur, these results stress that the release

potential of a substance from a matrix may not always be decisive for worker risks, as the release

could occur also with particulate matter from article processing or specific waste treatment processes.

Biomonitoring data show that hazardous substances are present in the human body and in wildlife.

Furthermore, several studies have been published with respective evidence of exposure levels of con-

cern.25

Unacceptable risks were demonstrated for certain substances in the past and are currently being de-

rived in restriction proposals, such as the existing one for nickel in jewellery or the currently discussed

one on PFOA and their precursors, which are used in several article categories.

The combined exposures giving rise to risks of harm to human health are documented for some sub-

stances in human biomonitoring studies. These indicate the occurrence of a growing number of differ-

ent hazardous chemicals in human blood and body tissue including pesticides, biocides, pharmaceuti-

cals, heavy metals, plasticisers and flame retardants. The concentration of these substances in the hu-

man body is linked to health damage, in particular if exposure occurs pre-natal (e.g. Govarts, 2016;

Hass, 2017; Danish EPA, 2017).

In conclusion, there is evidence of the content of toxic substances in article, there is evidence indicat-

ing that they are released during service life and the waste stage, there is evidence of exposure levels

of concern in humans and the environment from (bio)monitoring data and there is evidence of adverse

effects of chemicals to human health and the environment.

A comprehensive and fully proven chain of evidence between the content of toxic substances in arti-

cles, their emissions, the exposure levels and a damage to human health or the environment is difficult

to establish. This is due to the numerous factors determining the exposure levels and effects of toxic

substances, including exposures from sources outside a study design or empirical assessments as well

as and combination effects with other substances.

The low number of proven, comprehensive chains of evidence should not be interpreted as proof of

the absence of risk from substances in articles. In contrast, the available evidence indicates a need for

action and resources may rather be invested in prioritising action areas than gathering further proof of

risks.

23 Julander et al., 2012. 24 Hebisch R. and Linsel G., 2012. 25 Govarts et al., 2016; Hass U., et al., 2017 or Danish EPA, 2017

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1.2.4 Toxic substances in articles may undermine the goals of a circular economy

Chemical contaminations of articles may hinder recycling and present new, unexpected exposure situ-

ations if contaminated recycled materials are used in products for which the use of included substances

are not foreseen. While problems from toxic substances in article wastes can partly be addressed by

preventing their inclusion in new articles, long-lived products may contain and hence re-introduce

legacy chemicals into secondary materials. The elimination of toxic substances from material cycles

may take a long time. The core concerns are that the content of toxic substances in waste materials

may:

cause risks to the environment and workers during waste processing (c.f. Section 1.2.3);

lead to unforeseen consumer exposure situations during a second service life;

remain in the material cycles for a long time, in particular if used in articles with long life-spans

and

contribute to a decreased quality of waste materials, resulting in downcycling of materials (or

thermal recovery).

Articles entering the waste stage are diverse in their composition, including their toxic substances con-

tent. While this is obvious for different article types, difference may occur for the same article type but

from a different producer and may even significantly differ for the same articles manufactured by the

same producer, if he changes the design, e.g. due to new legislation.

The sheer variety of articles causes challenges for sorting and separate treatment, which is a pre-

condition for decontaminating material cycles. Furthermore, the waste volumes increase, with a time

lag, with increasing volumes of articles (c.f. Section 1.2.1). However, the increase in waste amounts

treated in the EU does not necessarily correspond with the volume of goods used in the EU, because

several types of articles are exported as well as particular (waste) materials they are composed of.

Recycling of materials from end-of-life articles (and sometimes also processing conducted to enable

the reuse of an article), may involve shredding and other (intense) mechanical processes. This may

lead to the formation of dust26

during waste treatment, which may cause risks to workers (c.f. Section

1.2.3). In addition, recycled materials may have an increased surface area as compared to the virgin

material/article giving rise to higher substance releases during the second/further service life. For ex-

ample, if mineral wastes are crushed and used in path construction, the surface area available for

leaching to the ground from rainwater is increased.

There are studies available providing evidence that toxic substances are re-introduced into articles

made from secondary raw materials. These second service lives may lead to critical exposure levels, in

particular if the “new” uses differ from the original ones.

The IVM Study27

(c.f. above) analysing the flow of pentaBDE and octaBDE in waste plastics shows

that 22% of the POP-BDEs recovered with materials from WEEE and 14% recovered from ELVs end

up in recycled plastic materials. In addition, 19% of the POP-BDEs are included in vehicles as second-

hand parts (reuse).

The IVM also identified POP-BDEs in some new products from recycled plastics, all of which were

produced outside the EU. The authors conclude POP-BDE-containing recycled plastics re-enter the

EU via products containing these recycled plastics. However, the levels of POP-BDEs in products

were stated to be lower than in the early 1990s, indicating some success for the relevant policies. Nev-

ertheless, the example also shows that banned substances will prevail in waste streams and recycled

26 EU Commission, JRC, 2015. 27 Leslie et al., 2013.

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materials for a long time.

Another study found that brominated flame retardants are included in thermos cups, which are made

from recycled plastics28

.

Toxic substances in articles and materials may remain in the material cycles for a considerable time,

even if measures are taken to prevent their use or to decontaminate waste streams.

Pivnenko et al.29

modelled the concentration of Bisphenol A, diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and min-

eral oil hydrocarbons (MOHs) in recycled paper over time. They identified the conversion process as

the main source of (toxic) chemicals in paper products, for example the printing and gluing processes.

The models used for the analysis are based on information on paper flows, their chemical content and

transfer factors for different recycling processes, which were collected from public sources, industry

associations and independent research. Three scenarios were modelled to identify the most effective

waste management option. Preventing the input of these substances proved to be most effective, alt-

hough it resulted in a time lag of up to 30 years for full removal of the substances from the waste

streams. Better decontamination technologies, as well as better separation of paper streams (avoidance

of recycling of contaminated papers) showed some effect but markedly less than the preventative ap-

proach and at the cost of recycled volumes (lower recycling rates). The study shows that toxic sub-

stances could also occur in materials originally regarded as comparatively free of them, and that relat-

ed decontamination scenarios take time to show effects.

A decrease in the quality of recycled materials as compared to virgin materials could result from the

(accumulating amounts of) contained toxic substances. For example, toxic substances may accumulate

in polymers if it is not possible to “reuse” the contained additives in the recycled materials, due to a

lack of knowledge on the material composition. Then, new additives are introduced at each new cycle,

regardless of the residual content of additives used in earlier cycles. The extent to which this accumu-

lation may lead to a decrease in technical quality and an increase in exposure levels has not yet not

been systematically assessed.

Problems with recycled materials associated with the content of toxic substances in articles are par-

ticularly relevant because of the current weaknesses in end-of-life product management; i.e. the fact

that different materials are frequently mixed rather than being kept separate, contaminating ‘clean’

material streams. In the case of construction and demolition waste, insufficient sorting ‘at source’,

together with a lack of selective demolition or controlled deconstruction, results in a contamination of

‘clean’ materials streams, hereby keeping the contaminated materials, which could/should be phased-

out in the materials loop30

.

1.2.5 Little information if available on the content of toxic substances in articles

Information about the content of toxic substances in articles is largely missing, both for specific arti-

cles and at a general level. This lack of data renders it extremely difficult for regulators to carry out

overall risks assessment, determine the scale of risks, and to choose regulatory risk management

measures. In addition, economic operators and consumers lack data to make informed choices about

how to avoid toxic substances in articles or to protect themselves against potential risks. Finally, waste

treatment operators lack information that would help them identify end-of-life articles that, due to their

content of toxic substances, should be separated from materials intended for recovery in order to pre-

vent contamination of recycled materials.

The collection of information on toxic substances in articles (within supply chains and at EU-level) is

28 Samsoneka, 2013. 29 Pivnenko et al., 2016. 30 BIO IS, 2011.

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