Student powerpoint 2010 Social Dev Lectures · Suppose you are watching a monkey in Harry Harlow's research on attachment. When presented with a fear stimulus, such as a toy that

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Social development

Andrea Mead University of Auckland

Some general points on lectures

• Lectures don’t focus only on the course text I will cover additional information & examples

• You need to attend the lectures and read material from the course text to do well in this section.

• Feel free to print out the worksheet and complete this during or after lectures

2nd Ed

Human Development Across the Life Span

Chapter 11

(pg 394 - 411)

1st Ed

Human Development Across the Life Span

Chapter 10

(pg 358 - 375)

Social Development ObjectivesThe main objective of these lectures is to

answer the following questions:

• How do our ways of relating to others come about?• How do we come to ‘fit in’ (to a greater or lesser

degree) to society?• How do we develop ways of behaving which are seen

to be appropriate to the people we are?• How do we develop ways of distinguishing right from

wrong?• How do we come to develop notions of our own

identity?• How do things like the above change as we proceed

through life?

Social Development

• An individuals social interactions and expectations change across their life span

• Social & Cultural environments interact with biological aging

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Lets start at the beginning

A theory that sets out the stages of life

• Erikson (1963) Proposed a theory of eight Psychosocial life stages which presented particular conflicts.

• Conflicts are resolved but never completely disappear.

Erikson’s Life Span Theory

Trust vs. Mistrust

• 0-1.5 years• Infant needs to develop a sense of trust • Parent provides basic necessities of life

– leads to Basic sense of safety.• Absence of a caring adult can lead to

mistrust, insecurity & anxiety.

Autonomy vs. Self-doubt

• 1.5 – 3 years• Expansion of exploration and

manipulation of world around them• Develops a sense of Autonomy –

Capable and worthy individual• Excessive restriction or criticism can

lead to Self-doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

• 3-6 years• Begins to initiate intellectual and motor

activities• Develops sense of freedom & self

confidence• Can produce feelings of guilt, ineptitude

& lack of self worth

Competence vs. Inferiority

• 6 years – Puberty• Systematic development of

competencies• Leaning intellectual and motor skills,

developing social skills• Feelings of adequacy• Can lead to lack of self-confidence &

feelings of failure

Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Adolescence 11-20 years• Crisis of discovering true identity • Playing different roles for different

audiences• Strong sense of self• Fragmented sense of self

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Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Early Adult 20-40 years • Develop capacity to make emotional,

moral & sexual commitment • Requires compromise, responsibilities,

loss of some privacy & independence• Capacity for closeness and commitment• Feelings of aloneness, separation

Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Middle Adulthood 40-65 years• 30’s – 40’s focus shift from self &

partner to family, work, society, future generations

• People who have not resolved earlier conflicts can be self-indulgent, pursue freedom, lack of future orientation

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

• Later Adulthood 65 years +• Resolving earlier conflicts allows

individual to look back without regret• Sense of wholeness, basic satisfaction

with life• Can lead to feelings of futility &

disappointment

• Important to note, however, that models such as Erikson’s were developed within a very specific type of community – individualist, capitalist Western societies

All you know about a girl is that she is 14 years old. According to Erikson’s theory of life span development, she is probably facing the crisis of:

(a) Intimacy vs. isolation.(b) Competence vs. inferiority.(c) autonomy vs. self-doubt.

(d) Identity vs. role confusion.

So lets head to the very beginning

In terms of Social Development key factors are:

• Temperament• Attachment• Socialisation

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Temperament

• Biologically based levels of emotional & behavioural response to the environment

• Kagan (2004) Babies can be:• “Born Shy” - Cautious & emotionally

reserved• “Born Bold” – Sociable, affectively

spontaneous

Longitudinal studies

• Temperament can be detected in the womb

• Evidence of Stability of Temperament across early childhood

• Children at extreme ends of scale may become less extreme

• Rarely switch from one extreme to the other

• Infant temperament sets stage for later social development

Attachment

• Close emotional relationship

• Child – Mother / Father / Caregiver

• Intense, enduring social – emotional relationship

• Ensures survival

• Imprinting – Some species

imprint on the first moving

object that they see

Bowlby’s theory of Attachment

• Infants & adults biologically predisposed to form attachments

• Creates a lifelong schema for social relationships

According to John Bowlby, an influential theorist on human attachment, infants and adults will form attachments:

(a) despite biological predispositions to remain independent.

(b) due to biological predispositions.

(c) to everyone in their social environment.

(d) based on a one-directional process of conveying emotion from infant to caregiver.

Ainsworth “Strange Situation”

• Attachment studied at length using measures like the “Strange Situation Test”– Typically involves infant (usually around 12-18 months)

and mother (or other caregiver) being taken into room then reaction of infant observed when mother leaves child with stranger, when mother returns etc.

– Noted various distinct patterns of response, including “avoidant” (ignoring mother on return), “secure” (distressed when mother departs, easily comforted by mother on return) and “resistant” (ambivalent reaction to mother on return).

• Note however that there is controversy as to how stable these responses are, and the extent to which they predict other characteristics later in life. Predictive validity in early childhood, less validity in Adulthood.

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In the Strange Situation Test, a 15 month old child is upset and anxious when her mother leaves the room. When her mother returns, she cannot be comforted and shows anger, but also a desire for contact with her mother. The child is most likely to be categorized as:

(a) insecurely attached – ambivalent / resistant.

(b) insecurely attached – disorganized.

(c) insecurely attached – avoidant.

(d) securely attached.

Importance of Attachment

• Evidence exists that disrupting early attachment may lead to serious psychological problems later in life

• Important to note that caregiver’s role not simply one of providing “necessities” of life like food and water “Cupboard theory of attachment”

Importance of Attachment

• Harlow – hypothesis that infants attach to those who provide contact comfort

• Harlow separated Macaque monkeys from mother at birth.

• Provided two artificial mothers• Babies nestled to terry cloth

mother spent little time with wire mother even when it provided milk.

• Experiments by Harlow using monkeys showed that comforting texture more important than history of providing food when infants startled

• Monkeys that had been deprived of mothers in this experiment had trouble forming normal social & sexual relationships in adulthood

Suppose you are watching a monkey in Harry Harlow's research on attachment. When presented with a fear stimulus, such as a toy that makes loud noises, you should expect the monkey to

(a) run to the wire mother for protection.

(b) run to the cloth mother.

(c) venture out to explore the fear stimulus and then return to the terry cloth mother before exploring further.

(d) be just as likely to run to a cloth mother as it is to run to a wire mother.

Importance of Attachment

• Certainly easy to see the same kinds of response in animals in the wild as noted in Harlow’s monkeys in the laboratory.

• When frightened, is common for young to cling to mother for comfort.– Does however leave open the

question as to how much these kinds of findings can be extended to humans.

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Importance of Attachment Disrupted attachment

• Lack of close loving relationship in infancy can affect physical growth and survival

• Evidence exists that disrupting early attachment may lead to serious psychological problems later in life.

• Evidence from so-called “feral children” and others brought up under conditions of extreme social deprivation - Romanian orphans

Genie• From infancy kept harnessed to a chair

in an attic with no view except of sky• Frequently beaten with a stick if she

made a noise• Never spoken to but backed at like a

dog by her father• Found at the age of 13.

– When rescued she was not toilet-trained, could hardly talk, and such words as she knew were mostly negative; could not stand straight, walk or eat solid food.

– Although she learned to some extent, she never progressed beyond abilities of 4-5 year old.

• (Note however absence of any premorbid information for comparison)

•Genie: a psycholinguistic study of a modern-day “wild child”, Academic Press, NY 1977.

Sujit Kumar - raised with chickens in Fiji

• In 1976 his mother committed suicide and his father was murdered. His grandfather, not knowing how to care for him, confined him to a chicken coop.

• Sujit Kumar was found in 1979 and taken to an Rest Home in Suva, where because of his disruptive and violent behaviour he was tied to a bed for the next 22 years, before being released and put into therapy.

• "Sujit would mostly hop around like a chicken, peck at his food, perch like a chicken and make noises like a chicken," she said. "He would prefer to roost on the floor to go to sleep rather than sleep in a bed.“

• In 2003 a visitor to the Home initiated a rehabilitation programme. although he still cannot speak he is now learning human behaviour and the ability to communicate.

Socialisation

• Lifelong process through which an individual acquires:Behaviour patterns ValuesStandards SkillsAttitudes Motives

Socialisation

• Process whereby individuals learn the rules, conventions, accepted norms of society etc.

• Normally seen as a task of childhood, although of course individuals may undergo further socialisation as and when they become part of different communities and cultures

• Several processes considered to be involved, including;– Reinforcement and punishment– Observation and modelling– Cognitive development

Freud and social development

• The work of Sigmund Freud has had a major impact in many areas of life, not just in psychology

• Hypothesised three components to individual’s psyche– Id – basic instincts for food, sex etc– Ego – sense of identity developed

during first year of life– Superego – “conscience” –

internalising of moral standards learned in childhood

• Interactions between these three seen as directing child’s socialisation

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Reinforcement of behaviour• Basic principles of

reinforcement identified by B F Skinner

• Most simply noted that behaviour which leads to successful outcome (“reinforcement”) is likely to be repeated, behaviour which does not will be discontinued

• Role of punishment less clear, but apparent that behaviour which leads to unpleasant outcome will be suppressed

Social learning approaches

• Developed particularly by Albert Bandura– Acknowledges roles of rewards and

punishments in shaping behaviour of individual, but especially concerned with learning by imitation (“modelling”)

– Clear that humans (and in some clearly demonstrated instances, non-humans) can learn by observing the behaviour of others.

– Numerous parameters of modelling identified, including

• Attention• Retention• Motivation• Potential ability

Other factors

• Cognitive aspects – suggestion that some elements of socialisation process are linked to aspects of cognitive development (see later lectures and PSYCH 109)

• Biological influences – especially in context of areas like gender-role socialisation

• Important to remember that the various processes to be considered are not mutually exclusive; rather they interact and combine in potentially complex ways

Socialisation

• Important to note reciprocity in social learning – children also influence those from whom they learn.

• Children’s temperaments and parents behaviours influence each other .

• Parents aren’t the child’s only influence –also influenced by siblings, other carers, peer groups etc.

Authoritative-reciprocal

• Parents make appropriate demands on children

• Children conform to appropriate rules• Responsive to children• Open channels of communication• Foster ability to self regulate

Authoritarian / Autocratic

• Power assertive - Strict discipline applied

• Little attention to child’s autonomy

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Indulgent / Permissive

• Parents are responsive but apply little discipline

• Fail to help children learn about structure of social rules

Neglecting

• Lack of responsiveness to child• Neglecting, ignoring, indifferent,

uninvolved• Lack of discipline or responsiveness

Neglecting, ignoring, indifferent, uninvolved

IndulgentUndemanding low in control attempts

AuthoritarianPower assertive

Authoritative -reciprocalHigh in bidirectional communication

DemandingControlling

RejectingUnresponsiveParent-centered

AcceptingResponsiveChild-centered

Parent’s Responsiveness

Par

ent’s

Dem

andi

ngne

ss

A child has parents who require him to conform to appropriate rules of behaviour that they have established, but they are also willing to talk with him about his concerns. This style of parenting is classified as:

(a) Authoritarian.

(b) Authoritative.

(c) Demanding.

(d) Indulgent.

With respect to parenting styles, parents who apply discipline with little concern for their child’s autonomy are classified as _________, where as parents whose style fails to help children learn about the structure of social rules under which they must live are referred to as________.

(a) abusive; submissive.

(b) authoritarian; indulgent.

(c) rigid; flexible.

(d) disciplinarians; child-centred.

Influence of Parenting Styles

• Much research into Parenting Styles, with different approaches categorised and assessed for impact on learning:

• Such categories may however be culture-specific, limited in distinctiveness and temporally/contextually variable

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Summary so far

• Socialisation is the process by which we come to know how to behave appropriately in society

• Freudian model hypothesises interaction between three psychic components, id, ego, superego

• Reinforcement model suggests that we learn by discovering which patterns of behaviour lead to approval, acceptance etc.

• Social learning models argue that this is supplemented by learning through observing others

• Important to note that the child influences the behaviour of others, as well as others influencing the child

Social interaction• Early studies of young children noted that over

first few years of life, their patterns of playing with others rapidly developed from solitary to interactional and cooperative

• Preadolescent and early adolescent friendships more likely to be same-sex – As with parents, such friendships will also provide

opportunities to learn appropriate social behaviour– Once again, note that causality may be complex, each

child’s behaviour affecting the other’s.

• Thus, through interaction with others, children learn what behaviour is appropriate and what behaviour is acceptable

Lets side track for awhile

What about Sex and Gender Development?

Sex & Gender Differences

• Sex differences - Biological based

• Gender – Inner sense of being Male or Female

Sex differences

• Research often focuses on sex differences

• 6 weeks after conception male fetuses diverge from female fetuses

• MRI scans show males have bigger brains

• Females have larger frontal lobes – social behaviour and emotional functions

Biological influences• Clear anatomical and physiological differences

between the sexes but the relationship to behaviour however is far from simple:– Attempts to demonstrate links between androgens and

aggression is ambiguous at best, and largely disappointing (basic assertion that women are ‘less aggressive’ is questionable in itself)

– Even direct stimulation of areas of brain linked to aggressive behaviour may fail to produce response if context is one where it would be socially inappropriate

• At best, relationship between biology and behaviour is likely to be extremely complex

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Biological influences• Similarly links between biological factors

and cognitive ability is far from straightforward:– Some evidence for genetic and hormonal

influences on factors such as visuo-spatial ability

– Evidence also, however, for clear link between sociocultural factors and performance – e.g. ability of women in mathematics

• Once again, important to remember that the relationship is likely to be extremely complex

Gender Identity / Gender Roles

• Gender Identity awareness and acceptance of ones sex

• 18 months• Gender roles – behaviour regarded as

appropriate for males & females• Cultural expectations impact on gender

identity & roles

Gender Constancy

•The recognition that your gender is essentially irrevocable (without medical assistance) develops around the ages of 6 – 7 years.

Gender-appropriate behaviour

• Among the various roles to which individuals are expected to conform, those determined by gender may be especially powerful

• Research indicates that awareness of differing gender expectations develops very early– Up to around 2 years of age, little gender preference between toys

(toys in very early age may be largely gender-neutral anyway –rattles etc)

– Gender permanence not acquired until about age 2-3– Studies of 3-11 year olds across several cultures reveal greater

prevalence of ‘rough and tumble’ play in boys than girls– From age 3 boys show greater willingness to explore new

environments

What is the term that describes the belief that people are permanently males or females depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors?

(a) Gender constancy.

(b) Gender schema.

(c) Gender identify.

(d) Sexual identity.

Processes in socialisation

• Several key processes apparent in socialisation of gender-role behaviours, paralleling those of socialisation in general: – Differences in parental reinforcement of certain

behaviours in girls and boys

– Child’s observation (in reality and through things like TV) of the differences in behaviour of males and females.

– Cognitive processes, reasoning about how and why males and females behave differently

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Teaching gender-appropriate behaviour

• Studies consistently show differential treatment of male and female children– Even in first year of life, parents show more concern for

well-being of girls than boys– Parents more likely to encourage competitiveness in

boys, empathy and sensitivity in girls– Boys encouraged to be independent, girls to ask for

help– Study of infants at a shopping mall found 90% were

wearing clothing which was sex-typed in either style or colour

– “Joey/Janie” experiments

Teaching gender-appropriate behaviour

• Differential treatment of boys and girls also seen in schools:– Study of preschool children showed that

teachers responded more often to misbehaving boys then to misbehaving girls

– Children’s tasks varied by gender

• Note that even censorious attention from a teacher may have reinforcing effect on behaviour

Back to the life journey

Heading into Adolescence

Adolescence

• Traditional view – Period of turmoil, extreme mood swings, unpredictable, difficult behaviour

• Hall (1904) Storm & Stress• Some argue that turmoil is normal and

failure to exhibit turmoil is a sign of arrested development

• Adolescence characterised as period during which individual has to transform identity; rather than being identified as the child of particular parents, progression needs to be made to independent sense of self.

Adolescence across Cultures

• Cross-cultural differences • Mead (1928) Benedict (1938) Argue

storm & stress do not apply to all cultures

• Children gradually take on adult responsibilities without sudden turmoil

• Cultural dependent – American adolescent attempts to achieve independence

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Adolescent Peer Relationships

• Individuals attitudes and behaviours shaped by family now challenged by Peers

• Peer relationships at 3 levels - Friends, Cliques and Crowds

• Adolescents define the social component of their developing identity.

Off on the side track

•How do we develop Morals and learn right from wrong?

Moral Development

• Judge your behaviour according to the needs of society rather then your own needs

• Morality a system of beliefs, values & underlying judgments about the right or wrong of human acts

Learning right from wrong• Development of moral values an important part of

becoming an acceptable member of society• Freudian perspective sees development of

morality as primarily a means of dealing with anxiety brought about by threat of punishment – Note however that the most punitive patterns of

parenting do not appear to be most effective in inculcating moral values

• Reinforcement and social learning perspectives suggest that much of moral development results from our interactions with others

• Cognitive development researchers have looked at the process of developing moral reasoning

Moral development

• Early work by Jean Piaget suggested that before age of around 8 years, moral censure was largely reflection of harm caused. Older children also took into account issues such as intentionality

• Piaget’s work extended and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg, who presented children with a number of scenarios involving moral questions and asked the children what would be the right thing to do

• Older children focus on outcomes and intentions

• Kohlberg Described seven stages in three levels of moral development

• Scoring based on reasons person gives for their decision not on the decision itself

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Kohlberg’s levels and stagesPreconventional moralityLevel 1

(ages 7-10)

Stage 1 Right/wrong matter of obtaining reward or avoiding punishment

Stage 2 Right/wrong a matter of reciprocity and negotiation

Conventional moralityLevel 2

(ages 10-16+)

Stage 3 Interpersonal expectations and conformity to rules to enhance self-image or please others

Stage 4 Conformity to societal rules forms basis of moral reasoning

Postconventional moralityLevel 3

(ages 16+)

Stage 5 Moral reasoning involves balance between societal rules and individual rights

Stage 6/7 Consideration of universal principles of justice to form basis for moral reasoning

4 Principles of Kohlberg’s Model

1) An individual can only be at one stage at a given time

2) Everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order

3) Each stage is more comprehensive and complex then the preceding

4) The same stages occur in every culture

According to psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, which of the following stages reflects a person’s approach to moral problems as a member of society, where the person is interested in pleasing others by acting as a good member of society?

(a) Conventional morality.

(b) Postconventional morality.

(c) Moral reasoning.

(d) Preconventional morality.

Evaluating Kohlberg’s theory• Criticisms:• Not all people attain stages 4-7. Many never reach stage 5

– Kohlberg’s original research was originally developed only with male, middle-class white participants; raises question as to universality of stages – higher stages are not found in all cultures

– Gilligan (1982) has argued that Kohlberg’s stages are characteristic of males, with females adopting a caring-based rather than justice-based approach1

– Rest (1986) has suggested a ‘schema’ based approach, individuals acquiring patterns of expectations about events which guide their judgements; individuals may at times use higher or lower level schemas2

– Acknowledged that theory applies only to judgements, not to actions

1 Gilligan, C (1982) In a Different Voice; Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Harvard University Press2 Rest, J R (1986) Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. New York, Praeger

As an alternative to Kohlberg's view of moral reasoning, Carol Gilligan proposed that women's moral development is based on a standard of ________, and that the moral reasoning of men is based on a standard of

________.

(a) emotion; intellect

(b) caring for others; justice

(c) feeling; doing

(d) submission; dominance

Evaluating Kohlberg’s theory

• Support:– Broad support from cross-cultural studies– Broad support from longitudinal studies involving

objective measure (“Defining Issues Test”)– Large-scale review of studies, statistically combining

results (“meta-analysis) found overall pattern of “nonsignificant sex differences in moral reasoning”1

– Some studies have found a relationship between stage of moral development and behaviour, although findings are less than perfect; important to note, however, that Kohlberg never claimed that to have developed a theory of behaviour, only of reasoning

1 Walker, L J (1984) Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: a critical review . Child Development 55, 677-691

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Back to Adulthood

Does Social Development continue in Adulthood?

Social Development in Adulthood

• Erikson - Tasks of adulthood - Intimacy and Generativity

• Freud - Needs of adulthood - Love & Work

• Maslow - Needs of adulthood - Love & Belonging and then Success & Esteem

• Social relationships and personal accomplishments take on priority

Intimacy

• Capacity to make a full commitment• Sexual, emotional, moral• Occurs in friendships and romantic

relationships• Requires Openness, Courage, Ethical

strength & ability to compromise

Young Adulthood

• Individuals enter stable relationships• Couples may decide to have children• Children can impact on relationships• Relations based on equality may move

towards traditional gender roles

Middle Adulthood

• Conflict can increase as children pass through adolescence

• Parents may look forward to children leaving home • In particular, so-called “midlife transition” (cf “midlife

crisis”) has received considerable study with changes in self-perception– Parents die, leaving individual as ‘older generation’, aware

that their own death is the next in the expected sequence– Children leave home, emphasising end of major task of

adulthood (childrearing) and raising questions about role and function

– Expectations and ambitions for the future may change

Late Adulthood

• Marriages may be happier when spouses reach later adulthood

• Factors such as retirement may (especially given powerful expectation of ‘work’ within capitalist philosophy) leave individual feeling they are of no value

• Although not in paid employment, many individuals find themselves performing valuable social roles in such areas as caring for grandchildren, acting as volunteers in organisations in which they have interest

• In many communities, age may be more or less revered (see e.g. respect for elders in Japan, Kaumatua in Maori society etc)

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Challenges in Late Adulthood

• Individual may have to cope with a range of changing roles and tasks

• Physical health may be impaired, producing change in capacity to perform various activities

• May face the death of partner, loss of ability to function independently etc. involve need to adapt substantially to new status

• Interactions can shift from family to friends• Change in the focus of your life

Final Recap

• Socialisation is the process by which we come to know how to behave appropriately in society – the ways in which we learn the rules, norms, expectations of society

• Freudian model hypothesises interaction between three psychic components, id, ego, superego

• Reinforcement model suggests that we learn by discovering which patterns of behaviour lead to approval, acceptance etc.– behaviour which leads to successful outcomes likely to be repeated

• Social learning models argue that this is supplemented by learning through observing others

• Cognitive models – development of more and more sophisticated ways of thinking

• Influences – parents (whether autocratic, permissive or authoritative-reciprocal) and others

• Important to note that the child influences the behaviour of others, as well as others influencing the child

• Models of moral development suggest that people pass through a series of stages in moral reasoning –but considerable controversy about the details.

So in terms of your learning….

• Go over your notes that you have made during lectures

• Read and take notes from the text book• Complete the worksheet as revision• Focus on developing an understanding

of concepts and theories• Think of good examples for use in short

answers