STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS IN A HIGH STAKES GRADE 12 PHYSICS EXAMINATION by CELESTÉ VAN NIEKERK DISSERTATION submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION in the FACULTY OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPERVISOR: Dr. U Ramnarain CO-SUPERVISOR: Dr. JJJ de Beer NOVEMBER 2011
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STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS
IN A HIGH STAKES GRADE 12 PHYSICS EXAMINATION
by
CELESTÉ VAN NIEKERK
DISSERTATION
submitted in accordance with the
requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SUPERVISOR: Dr. U Ramnarain
CO-SUPERVISOR: Dr. JJJ de Beer
NOVEMBER 2011
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own and all the sources I
have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of references. I
also declare that I have not previously submitted this dissertation or any part of it to any
university in order to obtain a degree.
Signature: __________________________
(Celesté van Niekerk)
Johannesburg
November 2011
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I wish to thank My Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ for granting me all that I
needed to complete this study and for always being with me.
I dedicate this research study to my husband and two sons. Carel, Carel Jnr. and Allan
continuously supported and motivated me throughout this study. I would not have been
able to complete this study without their love, understanding and help.
In particular I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Umesh Ramnarain, for his
invaluable support and academic guidance. At times when I felt like giving up, he
remained patient. I also would like to thank Dr JJJ de Beer for his contribution as co-
supervisor.
I sincerely thank the National Research Foundation and the University of Johannesburg
for their financial support.
I wish to express my gratitude towards my family, friends and “omgee-groep” for all their
support and encouragement throughout this study. I am especially grateful to my
parents, Maureen and Errol Gunn, and my in-laws, Gerrie and Cielie van Niekerk, for
their encouragement and support throughout this study. Their example of diligence and
dedication has shown me that through perseverance anything is possible.
I also would like to thank Leunis van Rooyen for his skilled editing, done in a very
professional manner.
A special word of thanks and appreciation goes to the teachers and students who
voluntarily participated in this study. Without their co-operation this study would not
have been possible.
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SYNOPSIS
The grade 12 Physical Sciences students of 2008 were the first group of South African
students to write a National Senior Certificate (NSC) on the new outcomes-based
education (OBE) curriculum – the National Curriculum Statement (NCS). Society
scrutinised the performance of students in this high stake examination. The outcome
was disappointing: 71,3% of the students achieved a mark of less than 40%, and 45%
of the group achieved a mark of less than 30%. Concern amongst the educational
community, specifically the Department of Education (DOE), initiated a request for
research into the possible causes of the poor performance by students in this
examination.
There are many factors that affect the performance of students, including the
misconceptions held by students regarding subject content. This study aims to
contribute knowledge about the common misconceptions held by science students
regarding Physics. It also investigates the performance of students in explanation-type
questions and what explanation-types reveal about student misconceptions. The
research design for this study is a content analysis which was carried out qualitatively in
two phases. In the primary phase, a sample of student examination scripts was
analysed. During the secondary phase, interviews were conducted with grade 12
Physical Sciences students and teachers from one school.
The findings of this study are that the following misconceptions are commonly held by
students:
• Heavier objects exert more force on lighter objects during a collision;
• Total external resistance decreases when an external resistor, connected in
parallel, is removed;
• Energy is lost in certain situations;
• A split-ring is found in an AC generator;
• The voltage increases when appliances are added to a multi-plug.
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The misconceptions identified in this study were revealed in explanations that students
constructed in response to examination questions. The data indicate that students
perform 8,4% more poorly in explanation-type questions than in other types of
questions. In addition, 89,3% of student explanations which revealed misconceptions
were genetic, mechanical or functional explanations. These explanation-types exposed
misconceptions about what happens in certain situations, the effect certain physical
properties of objects have on a situation and the function of certain objects,
respectively. In these types of explanations students do not relate the physical evidence
of a situation to the laws of Physics, thereby failing to provide the evidence required in a
scientific explanation. A few student explanations which revealed misconceptions were
rational explanations (1,3%). These explanations revealed misconceptions regarding
the relationship between the physical properties of objects and the laws of Physics.
Currently, the focus of assessment in Physics is on the rote learning of exemplar-type
calculations. The focus of assessment should be changed so that it targets conceptual
understanding. The in-service training of teachers regarding the remediation of
students’ misconceptions is also a recommendation of this study. In addition, since
misconceptions cannot simply be removed from the conceptual framework of a student,
the researcher recommends that the curriculum be narrowed. This will grant teachers
and students the time needed to develop a deeper conceptual understanding of
Physical Sciences.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background to the research problem 1
1.3 Motivation for this study 3
1.4 Aims, objectives or purpose of the inquiry 4
1.5 Research design and methodology 5
1.5.1 Research design 5
1.5.2 Research methodology 7
1.5.3 Data collection 7
1.5.4 Data analysis 8
1.6 Compliance with ethical standards 9
1.7 Outline of the remainder of the thesis 10
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Scope of the literature review 11
2.3 Defining the key concepts 12
2.3.1 Pre-knowledge 13
2.3.2 Misconceptions 14
2.3.3 Explanation 15
2.4 Theoretical and conceptual framework 18
2.4.1 Constructivism 18
2.4.2 Social constructivism 19
2.4.3 Conceptual change 21
2.4.4 Classification of explanation-types 25
2.5 Literature review 34
2.5.1 The nature of misconceptions 34
2.5.2 Sources of misconceptions 37
2.5.3 The relationship between language and misconceptions 39
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2.5.4 The relationship between assessment and misconceptions 41
2.5.5 The relationship between context and misconceptions 47
2.5.6 Misconceptions within the field of Physics 49
2.5.6.1 Misconceptions regarding Newton’s Laws on Motion 49
2.5.6.2 Misconceptions regarding momentum and kinetic energy 53
2.5.6.3 Misconceptions regarding the conservation of energy 56
2.5.6.4 Misconceptions regarding electricity and electromagnetism 58
2.5.7 Strategies for the identification and reconstruction of misconceptions 59
2.5.7.1 Concept maps 60
2.5.7.2 Writing activities 61
2.5.7.3 Group discussions and debates 62
2.5.7.4 Practical investigations 64
2.6 Conclusion 65
CHAPTER3
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 The structure to be constructed – research questions 69
3.3 Beliefs regarding the knowledge to be constructed – epistemology 69
3.4 Research plan for the construction of knowledge– research genre 71
3.5 Construction process - research methodology 72
3.6 Collecting materials – Data collection 73
3.6.1 Exam-script data 74
3.6.2 Interview data 74
3.6.2.1 The rationale behind using interviews to supplement
the exam-script data 74
3.6.2.2 Surveying the site 75
3.6.2.3 Gaining entry and acquiring permission – ethical concerns 75
3.6.2.4 Pre-interview testing for the purposive sampling of
interview participants 77
3.6.2.5 Choosing discursive interviews as the research tool 79
3.6.2.6 Planning the interviews 80
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3.6.2.7 Interview procedure 81
3.6.2.8 Recording the interview data 83
3.6.2.9 Follow-up communication with the interview participants 84
3.7 Constructing evidence – Data analysis 84
3.7.1 Qualitative analysis of the exam-script data 84
3.7.1.1 Identifying the misconceptions 85
3.7.1.2 Designing the classification-grid 86
3.7.1.3 Preliminary classification 87
3.7.1.4 Further classification of student responses
in the sample of exam scripts 91
3.7.2 Quantitative analysis of the exam-script data 91
3.7.3 Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis 92
3.8 Cleaning up the construction site – Data Storage 97
3.9 Conclusion 97
CHAPTER 4
4 .1 Introduction 98
4.2 Student performance in explanation-type questions 98
4.3 Distribution of explanation and non-explanation questions 100
4.4 Describing the different types of misconceptions and their frequency 101
4.5 Five common misconceptions 107
4.5.1 The frequency of five common misconceptions 107
4.5.2 The nature of five common misconceptions 108
4.5.2.1 First common misconception: heavier cars exert more impact
on lighter cars during a collision 109
4.5.2.2 Second common misconception: total external resistance decreases
when an external resistor connected in parallel is removed 114
4.5.2.3 Third common misconception: energy is lost 117
4.5.2.4 Fourth common misconception: a split-ring is found in
an AC generator 120
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4.5.2.5 Fifth common misconception: the voltage increases when
appliances are added to a multi-plug 122
4.6 Other misconceptions 124
4.6.1 Forces acting on two separate interacting bodies can be added,
and may add up to zero, causing the bodies to remain stationary 124
4.6.2 Light objects have less momentum and experience a greater
change in momentum during a collision 125
4.6.3 Momentum is lost or converted into heat or some other form of
energy and kinetic energy and momentum is the same property of motion 126
4.6.4 Misconceptions regarding the internal voltage of a battery 127
4.6.5 The potential difference across resistors connected in parallel remains
constant when one of the resistors is removed 128
4.6.6 DC motors and generators have slip rings and motors and
generators are the same type of machine 128
4.6.7 A cut- off switch works just like a normal switch, it can be switched
off to save electricity 130
4.6.8 Household appliances such as those connected to a multi-plug are
connected in series 130
4.7 Interpretation of the results regarding possible sources of misconceptions 131
4.7.1 The individual as a source of misconceptions 131
4.7.2 Social interactions as a source of misconceptions 132
4.7.3 Language as a source of misconceptions 134
4.7.4 Assessment as a source of misconceptions 136
4.7.5 Context as a source of misconceptions 137
4.7.6 Graphical representation of the possible sources of misconceptions
and their link with misconceptions 140
4.8 Conclusion 143
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Introduction 144
5.2 Summary of major findings 145
x
5.2.1 Common misconceptions in Physics 145
5.2.2 Student performance in explanation-type questions 146
5.2.3 What explanation-types reveal about misconceptions 147
5.2.3.1 Explanation-types reveal the nature of misconceptions 147
5.2.3.2 Explanation-types reveal the sources of misconceptions 149
5.3 Implications for teachers and other role-players in education 150
5.4 Critique of the Study 154
5.5 Recommendations for future studies 155
5.6 Summary 156
REFERENCE LIST 157
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 2.1: Dagher and Cossman’s organising scheme for explanations 27
Figure 2.2: The nature of misconceptions – stumbling blocks or
stepping stones 35
Figure 4.1: A bar graph of the performance of a sample of students 99
Figure 4.2: A pie chart of the question-types in the NSC 2008
Physics examination 101
Figure 4.3: A bar chart of the frequency of misconception-types in
a sample of student exam scripts 104
Figure 4.4: A bar graph of the frequency of common misconceptions
as revealed in a sample of student exam scripts 107
Figure 4.5: An examination question on the collision between two cars 109
Figure 4.6: An examination question on a circuit diagram of three
external resistors 115
Figure 4.7: An examination question on a hydro-electric power plant 118
Figure 4.8: An examination question on a generator 121
Figure 4.9: An examination question on a cut-off switch 122
Figure 4.10: A concept map illustrating the relationship between
misconceptions and the causes of misconceptions 141
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
Table 2.1: Comparisons between various authors’ explanation-types 32
Table 3.1: Final misconception classification-grid 90
Table 3.2: Analysis codes 93
Table 3.3: Code families 95–96
Table 4.1: Types of responses identified in a sample of student
exam scripts 103
Table 4.2: Types of student responses classified per examination question 108
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX DESCRIPTION PAGE
Appendix A Ethical Clearance from UJ 177
Appendix B Approval form to conduct research from DOE 178
Appendix C Permission letter to conduct research from DOE 180
Appendix D Letter of consent to school principal 181
Appendix E Letter of consent to science teachers 182
Appendix F Letter of consent to parents/guardians 183
Appendix G Letter of assent to students 185
Appendix H 2008 NSC Physics examination 186
Appendix I Possible answers for the 2008 NSC Physics examination 202
Appendix J Pre-interview test 228
Appendix K Extended memorandum for pre-interview test 232
Appendix L Exemplars of classification-grid data 239
Appendix M Questionnaire schedule for interviews 243
Appendix N Transcripts of student interviews 248
Appendix O Transcripts of teacher interviews 322
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LIST OF COMMONLY USED ACRONYMS
C2005: Curriculum 2005
DOE: Department of Education
GDE Gauteng Department of Education
OBE: Outcomes-Based Education
NCS: National Curriculum Statement
NSC: National Senior Certificate
RNCS: Revised National Curriculum Statement
UJ: University of Johannesburg
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This study investigates the common misconceptions held by South African grade 12
(17-18 years) Physical Sciences students, regarding Physics. It also explores the
performance of students in explanation-type questions, the type of student explanations
which reveal misconceptions and what explanation-types reveal about student
misconceptions. The misconceptions identified in this study were extracted from
students’ explanations and were classified according to a framework of explanation-
types generated by Dagher and Cossman (1992). The study is framed in the
constructivist learning theory of social constructivism, according to which knowledge,
including misconceptions, is a social construct.
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The grade 12 students of 2008 were the first group of students to write a national
examination on a curriculum which is underpinned by outcomes-based education
(OBE). This revised curriculum, called the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), was
introduced in 2003, following a series of curriculum-related reforms, including
Curriculum 2005 (C2005).
C2005 had the following three design features: transformational outcomes-based
education (OBE), integration of knowledge and learner-centred pedagogy (Chisholm,
2004). Outcomes-based education focuses on outcomes or results that students need
to achieve; instead of rote learning of subject content it encourages the development of
skills and the use of information on higher levels than recall (Mason, 1999).
Conventional school subjects were replaced by eight learning areas to ensure
2
integration of knowledge in and between different disciplines (Cross, Mungadi &
Rouhani, 2002). Learner-centred pedagogy removes the focus from the transmission of
knowledge by the teacher towards the facilitation of co-discovering knowledge together
with the students. From the outset, all three of the design features and C2005 as a
whole received both a large measure of support and criticism from a range of stake-
holders. The major objections were the complex language the OBE curriculum was
written in, the marginalisation of curriculum content, increased administrative burdens
and loss of control by teachers in classrooms due to a learner-centred pedagogy
(Chisholm, 2004; Cross et al., 2002; Jansen, 1998).
A review of C2005 in 2000 directed the way forward to the design of the Revised
National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) in 2002, and the National Curriculum Statement
(NCS) as it is known today (Chisholm, 2005). The NCS is a less radical form of OBE in
that it clearly defines the core knowledge that needs to be covered in each learning
area.
Despite considerable curriculum changes, the 2008 National Senior Certificate (NSC)
Physical Sciences examinations were similar in structure and question-types to papers
based on the previous syllabus (NATED550). The main difference was that new topics
which had been introduced into the curriculum were now examined.
The performance of students in Physical Sciences was poor. Of the 218 156 students
who wrote the paper, 98 060 students (45% of the total) achieved below 30%, and only
62 530 (28,7%) achieved 40% and above (Department of Education, 2008). The poor
performance of Physical Sciences students in the 2008 NSC examinations was of great
concern to both the educational community and to society in general. This lead to the
Department of Education (DOE) requesting that the University of Johannesburg (UJ)
conduct an exam-script analysis to investigate the possible causes of poor performance
in subjects such as Physical Sciences. While factors such as curriculum change, lack of
educational resources and inadequate teacher training inevitably contributed to the
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problem, this study focuses on student misconceptions and the nature of student
explanations.
1.3 MOTIVATION FOR THIS STUDY
Poor results in Physical Sciences education have often been ascribed to students’
misconceptions. Students come to school with a collection of life-experiences, ideas
and explanations for the physical world in which they live (Driver, 1983; Posner, Strike,
Hewson & Gertzog, 1982). These concepts or ideas are commonly referred to as
preconceptions. Many of these experientially and socially constructed conceptions are
different to the scientific concepts that are taught in the Physical Sciences classroom,
so they are referred to as misconceptions. Since these misconceptions work in the
context of the students’ observations, students “cling rigidly to their current beliefs”
(Pine, Messer & St. John, 2001, p.83) and are hesitant to accept scientific concepts.
During examinations, students formulate responses based on their understanding.
Since misconceptions form part of their understanding and differ from scientific
conceptions, students formulate incorrect responses which negatively affect their
performance.
Alternative ideas or misconceptions also arise in the classroom when students interact
with their peers, teachers and learning material such as textbooks. In these interactions
students may be presented with incorrect conceptions, which they then make their own.
Sometimes teachers and textbook writers use analogies to illustrate a concept and then
students may take these analogies too far and be unable to separate it from the original
subject content; other students only remember the analogy and struggle to remember
the original content (Thiele, Yenville & Treagust, 1995). When students apply concepts
which they have learnt in the class or from experience to situations where they do not
apply, such over-generalisations also constitute misconceptions. Students may even
take a correct explanation and construct their own incorrect conception that makes
sense to them. Students’ misconceptions often go undetected and may only reveal
themselves when students write a test or an examination. Since misconceptions are
4
also formed in class and are not easily recognised, it is important to increase teacher-
awareness of misconceptions by identifying specific misconceptions held by students.
In addition, Pine et al. (2001) warn that even when teachers are aware of student
misconceptions they do not necessarily have the time to investigate how their students
developed them or how to address them. Therefore it is important not only to identify
misconceptions but also to further investigate their nature, thereby constructing
knowledge that could be used in the design of remediation strategies. According to
Zuzovsky and Tamir (1999, p.1101) “Explanations are demonstrations of understanding
and provide a window to a person’s thinking.” Hence, in order to determine more about
the nature of student misconceptions, which form part of a students’ understanding, this
study explored student explanations and their connection with the misconceptions
revealed in them.
The new curriculum is student-centred as it conceives of the student as one who
constructs and applies scientific knowledge (Department of Education, 2003). The
teaching and learning approaches implicit in the new curriculum are largely founded
upon the basic tenets of social constructivism, according to which knowledge is initially
attained through social interactions after which it is internalised (Vygotsky, 1978). In
adopting a social constructivist approach in classrooms, it was expected that students
would have the opportunity to express and exchange ideas with peers and the teacher
on a particular topic. Students would then be in a position to test the degree of fit
between their preconceptions and the scientific explanations of phenomena and
reconstruct their conceptions where necessary. However, the poor results of 2008
indicate that misconceptions continue to form part of students’ conceptual frameworks
and may not be receiving the required attention.
1.4 AIMS, OBJECTIVES OR PURPOSE OF THE INQUIRY
The aim of the study is to contribute knowledge about the common misconceptions held
by Physical Sciences students, as evidenced by the 2008 NSC Physics examination. I
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also aim to investigate the performance of students in explanation-type questions, the
types of student explanations which reveal misconceptions and also what explanation-
types reveal about student misconceptions. In this regard the following research
questions were formulated:
1. What are the common student misconceptions that are revealed in a high stakes
Physics examination?
2. How do students perform in explanation-type questions?
3. What do explanation-types reveal about student misconceptions?
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
In this section I will commence by discussing the research design of this study, then I
will discuss the methodology employed to carry out the study as designed. Next I will
discuss the data collection and analysis methods which enabled me to collect evidence
regarding student misconceptions as revealed in explanations.
1.5.1 Research design
An appropriate research design and methodology yields evidence which accurately
addresses the research problem. Mouton’s advice (2009) regarding the selection of a
research design and methodology is that researchers first consider what beliefs they
hold regarding the evidence they are searching for as well as what type of evidence
they are searching for.
I approached this study from the belief that knowledge, including explanations and
misconceptions, is not merely transferred to the student but rather co-constructed by the
student and various social role-players (Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, I framed this
study in the epistemology of social constructivism.
I employed Mouton’s three pairs of design logics (2009), which are formulated to assist
researchers in deciding what type of evidence they require so that a suitable research
design can be selected. Mouton’s first pair of design logics is contextualisation versus
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generalisation. Contextualisation refers to the generation of research data which is more
detailed and focussed on a small number of cases. Generalisation refers to the
generation of research data which is applicable to a wider population. For the purpose
of this study I chose to focus on a small number of cases for a more in-depth
investigation, thereby situating this study in the logic of contextualisation.
Mouton’s second pair of design logics is discovery versus validation. Discovery refers to
the generation of research data through a process of discovery, whereas validation
refers to the generation of research data through the testing of a hypothesis. I chose to
discover more about misconceptions rather than to test a specific hypothesis regarding
misconceptions.
Mouton’s third pair of design logics is synchronicity versus diachronicity. Synchronicity
refers to the generation of data which represents a process, whereas diachronicity
refers to the generation of data which represents a specific moment in time. I chose to
generate data which would represent the development of student misconceptions and
explanations over a period of time, in other words ― the logic of synchronicity.
After using Mouton’s design logics to determine that the evidence I required for this
study would need to come from a small number of cases which I aimed to explore in-
depth, I was in the position to select a research design for this study. A sample of
student exam scripts from the 2008 NSC had been made available to me and I realised
that an exploration of the textual content in these scripts would expose student
misconceptions. Therefore, I decided to select content analysis as the research design
for this study. According to Berelson, as quoted by Breecher (1993, p.15), content
analysis is “a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication.” Therefore, a content analysis
would allow me to construct a thorough description of student misconceptions evident in
their explanations.
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In order to further illuminate student misconceptions I decided to also conduct a content
analysis of interview data, which I collected and analysed in a second phase of this
study. According to White and Marsh (2006), interview data that adds valuable evidence
with regard to the research question is suited to content analysis.
1.5.2 Research methodology
Deciding what methodology I would use to carry out the content analysis followed next.
Since this study aims to generate evidence regarding the process by which students
construct explanations and misconceptions, a qualitative methodology suits the
research design. Bogdan and Biklen (1998, p.38) explain that “The qualitative
researchers’ goal is to better understand human behaviour and experience. They seek
to grasp the processes by which people construct meaning and to describe what those
meanings are.” A qualitative methodology would not only allow me to better understand
the misconceptions that students construct, but would also allow me to position myself
inside the social world (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) of the student as a co-constructor of
meaning. Even though my research adopted the form of a qualitative study, I collected
both numeric and textual data in order to induce or construct a description of student
misconceptions as revealed in their explanations.
1.5.3 Data collection
The data collection of both the numeric and textual data took place during the two
phases of this study. In the primary phase I collected data from a random sample of 921
grade 12 Physics exam scripts, which were provided by the Gauteng Department of
Education (GDE). These scripts were made available as a result of a script analysis
project being conducted at UJ for the GDE. I only collected data from the student
responses to explanation-type questions, as calculation-type questions do not provide
descriptions of students’ misconceptions and I aimed to investigate what explanations
reveal about misconceptions.
The aim of the second phase of this study was to further clarify the data collected from
the exam scripts by conducting interviews with grade 12 students and teachers. During
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interviews I would be able to probe students’ ideas regarding the misconceptions
revealed in their exam scripts. However, since I did not have access to the students of
2008, I needed to identify students from a later cohort who displayed the same
misconceptions as those presented by the 2008 cohort. Selecting a sample of research
participants for a specific purpose, such as finding students with similar misconceptions,
requires a purposive sample. In order to enable the selection of the purposive sample, I
administered a test to a group of 2010 grade 12 Physical Sciences students from a
school which is conveniently located close to my place of work. The test consisted of
the same explanation-type questions, extracted from the 2008 NSC Physics paper, that
I had collected data from in the exam scripts. After the students wrote the test I
analysed the test scripts in the same manner as the 2008 exam scripts. This enabled
me to identify students who displayed the same types of misconceptions as the 2008
cohort of students. These students constituted the sample for my interviews. The
interviews provided a richer description of the misconceptions and were also used to
seek an explanation of how students develop these misconceptions. Thereafter, the
teachers of these students were interviewed. The teachers were asked for their opinion
on the misconceptions held by their students, possible sources of misconceptions and
about the strategies they are using to address these misconceptions.
1.5.4 Data analysis
In this study the data analysis also took place in two phases. First, a qualitative and
quantitative analysis of the exam-script data was conducted. Then a qualitative analysis
of the interview data and its relationship with the exam-script data followed.
The qualitative analysis of the exam scripts commenced with the identification of
misconceptions. Student responses were compared to the memorandum. Responses
that differed from the correct answer were classified as misconceptions. Since this study
aims to investigate the relationship between misconceptions and explanations, I then
designed a grid which would be employed to categorise different types of explanations.
The categories of explanation-types were taken from the Dagher and Cossman (1992)
framework of explanation-types. Each exam-script response constituting a
9
misconception was then categorised according to the type of explanation in which the
misconception had appeared. I tested the reliability of my analysis by asking another
researcher and two Physical Sciences teachers to apply the framework in categorising
student misconceptions in the exam-scripts. Through discussion we attained consensus
with regard to the classification of misconceptions found in the exam-scripts. Intercoder
reliability was 86%.
The quantitative analysis of the exam scripts commenced with a calculation of the total
number of each type of misconception and the total number of misconceptions all
together. I also calculated the average percentages achieved by the students for
explanation-type questions and for non-explanation-type questions in the examination.
After the interviews with the students and teachers I used the qualitative analysis
methods of coding and clustering to construct findings regarding the students’
misconceptions. Coding and clustering involves the breaking-down, conceptualisation
and reconstruction of the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In order to reconstruct or
recontextualise the data I needed to make meaning of the data. Making meaning of the
data or constructing findings involves discussing the clusters or themes and making a
case as to how these themes are the answer to the research questions (Henning et al.,
2004). In order to improve the management of the data analysis, I used the computer
software Atlas.ti.
1.6 COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS
In my study I have complied with the ethical standards of the university. I have done this
by informing and seeking permission from the head office (Appendix B) and relevant
district office of the GDE to conduct research at a school (Appendix C). Permission for
the analysis of the 2008 grade 12 scripts was granted by way of a script analysis project
that was commissioned by the GDE. Written consent was obtained from the school
principal, teachers and parents of students who participated in the study (Appendix D –
F). Students who agreed to participate signed an assent letter (Appendix G). The letters
10
informed participants of the background and purpose of the study. The potential benefits
of the findings of this study were pointed out to the participants. An explanation was
also provided regarding the nature and duration of the test and interviews. The identity
of the participants and the information obtained was kept confidential. Participants were
assured that the study would not expose them to harm in any way. Participants were
made aware that their participation is voluntary and that they could choose to withdraw
from the study at any time. The teachers and students received feedback on the
findings of the study. It is expected that the findings will inform teachers and students
about common misconceptions and how these misconceptions develop. This
information and the recommendations emanating from the study could be of value to
them in addressing these misconceptions. Data was stored in such a manner as to
ensure the confidentiality of participants and it will be kept under lock and key for two
years after the study, and thereafter it will be destroyed. The letter of ethical clearance
that was obtained for this study is included as appendix A.
1.7 OUTLINE OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS
In this section I will discuss briefly how my thesis will unfold and I will indicate the main
topics that I will discuss in each of the remaining chapters.
In chapter two I have compiled a literature review of what research says regarding
student misconceptions.
Chapter three is a discussion of my research design and the method which I used to
collect and analyse data which would inform my research question.
Chapter four is a discussion of the data collected and an interpretation of what the data
means.
Chapter five is a summary of my findings, implications for teachers and other role-
players and a critique and summary of this study.
11
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the research trends and theories that form the
theoretical framework or scaffolding of my research problem. My research aims to
identify common student misconceptions as revealed in a Physics examination, and to
classify these misconceptions according to the type of explanation offered. Since there
are many theories regarding misconceptions and explanations, I will commence this
chapter by discussing the scope of my literature review. Thereafter, I will define the
concepts of pre-knowledge, misconceptions and explanations which are central to my
study. I will also discuss how the learning theories of constructivism, social
constructivism and conceptual change explain that knowledge, including
misconceptions, is constructed and re-crafted by a student, together with society. Next, I
will discuss the explanation classification framework which forms the conceptual
framework of my study. I will continue by reviewing literature on the nature of
misconceptions, the sources of misconceptions, the relationship between
misconceptions and language, assessment and context. I will list common
misconceptions held within the field of Physics as identified in previous studies. The
identification and remediation of misconceptions should form part of teaching, hence I
will discuss contemporary teaching methods designed to address misconceptions.
Finally, I will conclude the chapter with an overview of the main conclusions that I have
reached on the basis of my literature review.
2.2 SCOPE OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
There is an abundance of literature and research studies on the topic of
misconceptions, thus it is necessary for me to discuss the scope of my literature review.
From my initial literature review it became evident that students enter the classroom
12
with preconception and then continue to construct concepts which often differ from the
accepted scientific concepts. It also became evident that strategies for the remediation
of misconceptions have been the topic for many research studies over the last few
decades. Initially strategies for the remediation of misconceptions were based on the
learning theories of empiricism and behaviourism, and the removal and replacement of
misconceptions was proposed. However, traditional studies showed that
misconceptions are resistant to change, even after the use of various teaching methods
designed to remove misconceptions. Contemporary learning theories, such as
constructivism, social constructivism and conceptual change, offer an alternative view
on the nature and remediation of misconceptions. Studies on constructivist teaching
strategies have shown them to be effective in addressing misconceptions. Therefore, I
will focus my literature review on the theories of constructivism, social constructivism
and conceptual change, and on the alternative views which these theories offer with
regard to the nature and remediation of misconceptions.
Research studies on misconceptions are not only based on many different learning
theories but also on many different subject fields. Since my study aims to identify
misconceptions as revealed in a high school Physics examination, I will focus my
literature review on studies that investigate misconceptions within the field of high
school Physics. I have done this because misconceptions, sources of misconceptions
and some of the remediation strategies are more subject specific.
My study also aims to investigate how misconceptions can be classified according to
the type of explanation offered. Therefore, the scope of my literature review also
includes studies on various types of explanations using the Dagher and Cossman
(1992) framework of explanation-types.
2.3 DEFINING THE KEY CONCEPTS
The key concepts that I investigated during this study are pre-knowledge,
misconceptions and explanations. In this section I will review information regarding
13
these concepts from previous studies, and supply working definitions of these concepts
for the purpose of this study.
2.3.1 Pre-knowledge
The word pre-knowledge consists of the prefix: pre, meaning before, and the root:
knowledge, meaning information, facts or understanding (Sinclair, Hanks & Fox, 1988).
Hence I will use the following definition for this study: pre-knowledge is a prior
understanding. These prior understandings are also referred to as “preconceptions”
(Morrison & Lederman, 2003, p.849). According to Novak (2004, p.23), a conception or
concept can further be defined as “perceived regularities or patterns in events or
objects, or records of events or objects, designated by a label, usually a word.”
Students come to school with a collection of prior understandings in the form of life
experiences, ideas and explanations of the physical world in which they live (Posner et
al., 1982). Mintzes, Wandersee and Novak (1998, p.75) explain that “students develop a
set of well-defined ideas about natural objects and events before they arrive at the
classroom door.” Children also construct these ideas when asking family members or
acquaintances about how and why things happen (Kibuka-Sebitosi, 2007). Students
also construct pre-knowledge inside the Physical Sciences classroom. During the
various teaching and learning activities that take place at school, students construct
their own version of the scientific concepts under discussion. These understandings
develop as the student engages with the learning material, the teacher, and with other
students (Mintzes, et al., 1998; Morrison & Lederman, 2003).
Pre-knowledge, constructed both outside and inside the school environment, forms the
foundation for constructing new knowledge (Smith, diSessa & Roschelle, 1993). Novak
(1998, p.xix) quotes Ausabel’s well-known reference which explains that “the most
important single factor influencing learning is what the student already knows.” Moore
and Harrison (2004, p.14) add that “teaching strategies that explore prior knowledge are
essential to ascertain the kinds of images and ‘talk’ that children use when constructing
14
their ideas about science and how ‘things’ work.” Hence it is vital that teaching is based
on the students’ conceptual networks (Glaserfeld, cited by Mintzes et al., 1998, p.45).
2.3.2 Misconceptions
Some of the pre-knowledge or preconceptions constructed by students are different to
the scientific concepts that are taught in the Physical Sciences classroom (Akku,
Kadayifçi, Atasoy & Geban, 2003; Dekkers & Thijs, 1998; Eryilmaz, 2002; Smith et al.,
1993; Tekkaya, 2003). Traditionally preconceptions that differ from scientific
conceptions were viewed as incorrect ideas, hence the introduction of the term
misconception, which means “wrong idea” (Sinclair et al., 1988, p.497). Misconceptions
were considered to be an obstacle which hinders learning and which needs to be
removed and replaced with the correct concepts (Palmer, 2001; Tytler, 1998). However,
studies have reported that these misconceptions are very resistant to instructional
Hadjiagapiou & Constantinou, 2005). In view of these difficulties in identifying and
86
analysing student mirsconceptions, this study attempts to broaden our understanding of
student misconceptions by classifying misconceptions evident in student explanations.
Hence, I set about identifying the questions in the examination paper which would elicit
an explanation response from the students. Twelve of the questions from the
examination are explanation-type questions.
3.7.1.2 Designing the classification-grid
I designed the classification-grid as a research instrument with the purpose of
classifying misconceptions according to the explanation-type offered. I based my design
on the ten Dagher and Cossman explanation-types. Dagher and Cossman (1992)
generated ten types of explanations while exploring the nature of explanations in high
school classrooms. Moore and Harrison (2004) then employed their categorisation of
explanation-types in describing students explanations on the floating and sinking of
objects. These ten explanation-types can be described as follows:
Analogical: A story that parallels the unfamiliar phenomenon, e.g., “it can float because
it’s like a submarine.”
Anthropomorphic: Attributing human characteristics to a phenomenon, e.g., “she floats
because she is lighter.”
Functional: Explained as a consequence of function (natural), e.g., “It floats because of
the air in it.”
Genetic: Uses a sequence of events (what, not why) and resembles description by
stating “what happens, not why it happens”, e.g., “it floated on top of the water.”
Mechanical: A relationship because of physical (shape/design) properties (pressure),
e.g., “it floats because of its shape.”
Metaphysical: Where a supernatural agent is identified as a cause of the phenomena,
e.g., “God made it float.”
Practical (how to): Instructions of how to perform physical or mental operations, e.g., “to
float you need to do …” this is regarded as description rather than explanation.
87
Rational: A clearly identifiable scientific statement or story where scientific evidence is
given for a claim, e.g., “a boat floats because the up-thrust from the water equals the
weight.”
Tautological: This is a circular story, e.g., “it floats because it is made to float.”
Teleological: It has to or needs to happen as part of the phenomena, e.g., “boats float
because we need them to float.”
I designed the misconception classification-grid as a table, with spaces to fill in data with
regard to a single student’s exam responses. The grid includes columns representing
the ten Dagher and Cossman explanation-types and rows representing the 12
explanation-type questions asked in the examination. The grid enables one to classify
the student responses as a particular type of explanation. This was critical in my
analysis as I was then able to understand the characteristics of the explanation, which
led me to effectively diagnose a misconception that was inherent to a type of
explanation. Besides the columns for the ten explanation-types, I included columns to fill
in when the student held no misconception or when the classification of the
misconception was inconclusive. Responses that were constructed so poorly that their
meaning was unclear were to be classified as inconclusive. I also included spaces to
record the marks obtained by the student for each explanation-type question, the total
achieved by the student for the explanation-type questions and the total achieved by the
student for the Physics examination. I did this so as to be able to compare the students’
performance in explanation-type questions and non-explanation-type questions. I added
space to record the student’s responses, which I used when the responses represented
a richly descriptive expression of a misconception. On completion of the classification-
grid I submitted the grid to my supervisor, who examined and refined it.
3.7.1.3 Preliminary classification
With the grid refined, I performed a preliminary classification of 100 scripts together with
two other coders. The coders are both suitably qualified, experienced science teachers.
According to Franzosi (n.d., p.187), it is “good practice to test the reliability of each
coding category by having different coders code the same material.” When a
88
misconception became evident in an explanation, it was labelled according to the type
of explanation offered. For example, a misconception in a mechanical explanation was
referred to as a mechanical misconception. This approach therefore provided a way by
which misconceptions in scientific explanations could be categorized. The student
responses in the exam scripts were then classified into the following categories:
• No misconception, where the student explanation was conceptually correct.
• Misconception, where the students explanation is inconsistent with the commonly
accepted scientific explanation.
• Inconclusive, where the response was marked incorrect, but it could not be
established that a misconception existed.
• No response, where the student did not attempt the question.
The category of “inconclusive” was not a part of the original classification, but I was
forced to include it after it became clear to me that many responses that were incorrect
lacked sufficient evidence to be coded as a misconception. I do not contend here that
students who produced these responses did not have a misconception inherent to their
explanation, but merely that there was a lack of evidence in the explanation for us to
infer that a misconception existed. Many cases that fell into this category suggested that
the students had either not read the question properly or that they did not understand
the question due to poor language skills or lack of knowledge on the specific subject
content. Student responses that were catergorised as “inconclusive” in terms of
misconceptions did not focus on what was demanded in the question. For example, in
answering question 5.3 students were expected to use Physics principles to explain
how the masses of the cars affect the risk of injury during a collision. The following
examples show how students neglected to consider the masses of the cars and instead
focused on another aspect in the question.
It is too dangerous for people who are inside the car because they will all have an accident that is
caused by the high speed of the cars.
89
Modern cars are designed to crumple partially on impact, and it decreases the dangers of risk in
the injury.
In the first example, the student refers to the speed of the cars, which despite being a
factor in the risk of injury, was not the focus of this question. In the second example, the
student refers to modern cars which crumple upon impact. Although this is correct, it
again represents a case where the student had missed the focus of the question.
As part of the preliminary classification we also recorded specific student responses that
expressed detailed misconceptions, commented on significant issues such as poor
language usage and misunderstanding of the question and recorded the marks
achieved by the students for each explanation-type question and for the Physics paper
as a whole. The preliminary classification helped to verify the reliability of the
classification process. Intercoder reliability was 86%. Where disagreement did exist it
was resolved through discussion.
During the preliminary classification we found five specific misconceptions that were
occurring frequently. Together with my supervisor, I decided to add them onto the
analysis grid in order to determine the exact frequency at which these misconceptions
were occurring in the sample provided. The final classification-grid is included as table
3.1, next:
90
Table 3.1: Final misconception classification-grid
Source: Compiled by researcher
Common
misconceptions
He
av
ier
car
-mo
re
imp
act
En
erg
y is
lost
R l
ess
wh
en
pa
ralle
l R
bu
rns
Sp
lit-r
ing
Vo
lta
ge
incr
ea
ses
Scr
ipt
nu
mb
er:
Stu
de
nt'
s to
tal
for
the
ex
pla
na
tio
n Q
's:
/32
Stu
de
nt'
s a
nsw
er
Stu
de
nt'
s m
ark
for
the
Ph
ysi
cs
pa
pe
r: /1
50
No misconception
Inconclusive misconception
Teleological :
Part of phenomenon
Tautological :
Back to question
Rational expl: Evidence
Practical expl: How to
Metaphysical: Supernatural
Mechanical:
Physical properties
Genetic : What not why
Functional explanation
Anthropomorphic :
Human attributes
Analogical explanation:
Familiar situation
Question totals 2
3
1
2
2
2
2
4
4
2
4
4
32
Students’ marks
Qu
est
ion
s
5.2
Wh
y m
ay
co
nse
rva
tio
n o
f p
no
t
be
va
lid?
5.3
Wh
y a
re p
ass
en
ge
rs in
a h
ea
vie
r
car
less
lik
ely
to
ge
t in
jure
d?
7.5
Wh
at
ha
pp
en
s to
Ek
th
at
is n
ot
con
ve
rte
d t
o e
lect
rica
l en
erg
y?
9.3
De
scri
be
dif
fra
ctio
n p
att
ern
9.4
Na
me
1 s
imila
rity
an
d 1
dif
fere
nce
ob
serv
ed
be
twe
en
sin
gle
an
d d
ou
ble
slit
pa
tte
rn
9.5
Will
pa
tte
rn b
e s
ee
n w
ith
a li
gh
t
bu
lb?
Re
aso
n?
10
.2
Is
B –
or
+?
Re
aso
n?
11
.2 P
or
Q b
ett
er
con
du
cto
r?
Exp
lain
.
12
.3 H
ow
wil
l V c
ha
ng
e if
R b
urn
s
ou
t/ R
ea
son
.
13
.1 T
yp
e o
f g
en
era
tor?
Re
aso
n.
14
.3 E
xpla
in w
hy
cu
t o
ff s
wit
ch is
imp
ort
an
t.
15
.3 I
nte
nsi
ty in
cre
ase
d.
Exp
lain
wh
at
ha
pp
en
s to
en
erg
y a
nd
no
. o
f
ph
oto
-e
To
tals
:
Co
mm
en
ts:
91
3.7.1.4 Further classification of student responses in the sample of exam
scripts
After the preliminary classification process and final refinements to the classification-
grid, I continued to fill in a classification-grid for each one of the 921 exam scripts. I
followed the same process of classification and recording as in the preliminary
classification, classifying each student response as a particular type of explanation. I
also continued to record specific student responses that represented misconceptions,
commented on significant issues as they became apparent and recorded the marks
achieved by each student. In addition, I recorded whether or not each student held any
of the five common misconceptions that I had added onto the classification-grid after the
preliminary classification process. The process of classification extended from July 2009
to December 2009. Examples of completed classification-grids are included as
appendix L.
3.7.2 Quantitative analysis of the exam-script data
The exams contained numeric data, such as marks allocated to specific questions and
marks achieved by individual students. Burton et al., (2008, p.146) explain the following:
Research reports that make effective use of both quantitative and qualitative data will often lead
with the quantitative evidence to provide an immediate point of impact as a ‘headline’ and then
follow it up and enrich the interpretation and analysis through the introduction of the qualitative
sources.
The purpose of the quantitative analysis was to indicate the frequency of
misconceptions, the frequency of various explanation-types and the performance of
students in explanation-type questions, thereby highlighting the need to delve further
into the nature of these misconceptions and explanation-types.
In order to calculate the frequency of misconceptions, I made use of the data on the
classification-grids which had been filled in for each student during the data-collection
phase of this study. I used the data to calculate the following proportions: percentage of
misconceptions revealed in explanations, percentage of responses with no
92
misconception, percentage of misconceptions revealed for each explanation-type,
percentage of no responses and percentage of responses classified as inconclusive
with regard to misconceptions.
In order to determine the performance of students in explanation-type questions I
calculated the average percentage achieved for explanation-type questions and the
average achieved for non-explanation-type questions. I also calculated the percentage
of explanation-type questions and non-explanation-type questions present in the
examination paper. I did this in order to explore the possible emphasis on exemplar-
type calculations and rote-learning as the majority of non-explanation-type questions fall
into these categories.
3.7.3 Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
Both the exam scripts and interview transcriptions contain information-rich text. I typed
out several information-rich student responses which I extracted from the exam scripts. I
copied these responses and the interview transcriptions onto documents called primary
documents, using the computer software Atlas.ti. I used the software to systematise the
data, while understanding that it remains the researcher’s task to code the data and
organise the analysis (Smit & Lautenbach, 2009).
When working with qualitative data there are many possible ways to process data into
“patterns of meaning”, however it is crucial to fit the method of analysis to the research
design (Henning et al., 2004, p.102). Hence I decided to select qualitative content
analysis which involves seeking emerging patterns. In order to find patterns I read
through all of the interview transcripts, thereby attaining a comprehensive idea of the
data. As I read through the data a second time, I started to identify and highlight
meaningful words or phrases that captured common misconceptions and their
relationship with explanation-types. I extracted these meaningful words and phrases
from the data and reduced them to codes which convey the essence of the data. I
constructed 50 codes and organised them with the assistance of Atlas.ti, as indicated in
table 3.2:
93
Table 3.2: Analysis codes
HU: Student Misconceptions in grade 12 Physics.hpr1 File: [D:\Celeste (F)\Celeste\STUDIES\Masters\atlasti\Student Misconceptions in grade 12 Physics.hpr1.hpr6] Edited by: Super Date/Time: 10/07/02 08:14:20 AM
Application of theory is problematic Assessment as a barrier to diagnosing and remedying misconceptions Calculation questions are more straightforward Confused: Between internal and external R Confused: conservation of Ek vs p Confused: Generators vs motors Confused: difference btw laser and light bulb, coherent Confused: mass and weight, using interchangeably Confused: series and parallel Construction of a functional misconception Construction of a functional misconception regarding resistance Construction of a genetic misconception Construction of a genetic misconception: Why current increases when adding appliances in multi-plug Construction of a genetic Misconception: voltage across parallel resistors Construction of a mechanical misconception Construction of a metaphysical misconception Construction of a practical misconception Construction of a rational misconception Construction of a tautological misconception Construction of a teleological misconception Construction of an analogical misconception Construction of an anthropomorphic misconception Electricity misconceptions Experiments are important Frequent misconception: A heavier car exerts a greater force on a lighter car during a collision Frequent misconception: Cut-off switch increases V, safe and saves
Frequent misconception: Energy is lost Frequent misconception: R decreases when a parallel resistor is removed Frequent misconception: Split rings Hidden construct: Teleological, inconclusive and no response Incomplete constructions: Mechanical, Genetic, Functional, Tautological, Metaphysical and Practical Inconclusive misconception Language as a source of misconceptions Language problem Students answer questions without true understanding Students don't understand what is expected in explain questions Students forget electricity done in grade 11 and examined in grade 12 Mathematical literacy Misconception: Conductivity depends on both I and V, not only I Misconception: matter is created Misconception: momentum Misconceptions influences and is influenced by class atmosphere Newton's third law doesn't make application sense to the student No training or meetings on misconceptions Remedies for misconceptions_1 Simple construct: Anthropomorphic and analogical Sources of misconceptions Struggles with the concept of potential difference Teach principles without revising basic principles Write it exactly like in the book
Source: Compiled by researcher
Next, I allocated codes to the data that matched the themes in the data, thereby
breaking-down and conceptualising the data into themes (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), this
process is known as open coding (Henning et al., 2004). The following are examples of
the open coding performed in this study: The code “Energy is lost” was attached to the
data “some of the energy is lost through sound”, the code “Mechanical explanation” was
attached to the data “Because it’s mass is greater.”
94
I also used “In-Vivo” coding (Atlas.ti), where the selected text itself becomes the code.
For example, I selected the data: “Like I want to say something and I try to write it
exactly like in the book, and if I forget I get blank and then just move onto the next
question, and think I will come back to it” and coded it as “Write it exactly like in the
book.”
The next step was to reconstruct the data, by clustering interrelated codes together. For
example: the codes “Application of theory is problematic”, “Calculation questions are
more straightforward”, “Language problem”, “Students answer questions without true
understanding”, “Students don't understand what is expected in explain questions”,
“Students forget electricity done in grade 11 and examined in grade 12” and “Write it
exactly like in the book”, were clustered together to form the family: “Assessment as a
barrier to diagnosing and remedying misconceptions.” These codes which had been
attached to both exam-script data and interview-data are all related to the relationship
between assessment and misconceptions which also emerged in the literature review.
Another example is the clustering of the codes: “Construction of a tautological
misconception”, “Frequent misconception: Energy is lost”, “Inconclusive misconception”
and “Misconception: matter is created” to form the family: “Hidden constructions:
Tautological, inconclusive and no response”. These codes all relate to the hidden nature
of misconceptions, which makes their diagnoses complex and calls for more emphasis
on assessment and teaching strategies that promote conceptual understanding and
reconstruction of misconceptions.
I repeated the clustering process until I had narrowed down the clusters, also known as
families, to seven main themes or findings. These families, which supply valuable
information regarding common misconceptions and their relation to explanations, have
been extracted using the computer software, and are listed in table 3.3:
95
Table 3.3: Code families HU: Student Misconceptions in grade 12 Physics.hpr1 File: [D:\Celeste (F)\Celeste\STUDIES\Masters\atlasti\ Student Misconceptions in grade 12 Physics.hpr1.hpr6]
Edited by:Super Date/Time:11/09/17 12:49:43 PM ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Assessment as a barrier to diagnosing and remedying misconceptions Created: 10/07/01 10:44:49 AM (Super) Codes (7): [Application of theory is problematic] [Calculation questions are more straightforward] [Language problem] [ Students answer questions without true understanding] [ Students don't understand what is expected in explain questions] [ Students forget electricity done in grade 11 and examined in grade 12] [Write it exactly like in the book] Quotation(s): 39 ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Hidden constructions: Tautological, inconclusive and no response Created: 10/07/01 10:43:06 AM (Super) Codes (4): [Construction of a tautological misconception] [Frequent misconception: Energy is lost] [Inconclusive misconception] [Misconception: matter is created] Quotation(s): 14 ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Incomplete constructions:Mechanical, Genetic, Functional, Teleological and Practical Created: 10/06/30 05:24:35 PM (Super) Codes (20): [Confused: Between internal and external R] [Confused: conservation of Ek vs p] [Confused: Generators vs motors] [Confused: series and parallel] [Construction of a functional misconception] [Construction of a functional misconception regarding resistance] [Construction of a genetic misconception] [Construction of a genetic misconception: Why current increases when adding appliances in multi-plug] [Construction of a genetic Misconception: voltage across parallel resistors] [Construction of a mechanical misconception] [Construction of a practical misconception] [Construction of a teleological misconception] [Frequent misconception: A heavier car exerts a greater force on a lighter car during a collision] [Frequent misconception: Cut-off switch increases V, safe and saves] [Frequent misconception: R decreases when a parallel resistor is removed] [Frequent misconception: Split rings] [Incomplete constructions: Mechanical, Genetic, Functional, Tautological, Metaphysical and Practical] [Misconception: Conductivity depends on both I and V, not only I] [Misconception: momentum] [Struggles with the concept of potential difference] Quotation(s): 46 ______________________________________________________________________
96
The computer software enabled me to code the data and cluster the 50 codes more
efficiently as it is able to pull together data with common codes.
Code Family: More complex constructions: Rational misconceptions Created: 10/07/01 11:33:32 AM (Super) Codes (3): [Construction of a rational misconception] [Frequent misconception: A heavier car exerts a greater force on a lighter car during a collision] [Frequent misconception: R decreases when a parallel resistor is removed] Quotation(s): 20 ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Relationship between language and misconceptions Created: 10/07/01 10:50:18 AM (Super) Codes (9): [Application of theory is problematic] [Confused: difference btw laser and light bulb, coherent] [Confused: mass and weight, using interchangeably] [Frequent misconception: Energy is lost] [Language problem] [Misconception: matter is created] [Newton's third law doesn't make application sense to the student] [Struggles with the concept of potential difference] [Write it exactly like in the book] Quotation(s): 52 ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Remedies for misconceptions Created: 10/07/01 10:54:55 AM (Super) Codes (7): [Experiments are important] [Language problem] [ Students don't understand what is expected in explain questions] [Mathematical literacy] [No training or meetings on misconceptions] [Sources of misconceptions] [Teach principles without revising basic principles] Quotation(s): 34 ______________________________________________________________________ Code Family: Simple constructions: Anthropomorphic, analogical and metaphysical Created: 10/07/01 11:42:43 AM (Super) Codes (3): [Construction of a metaphysical misconception] [Construction of an analogical misconception] [Construction of an anthropomorphic misconception] Quotation(s): 1
Source: Compiled by researcher
97
3.8 CLEANING UP THE CONSTRUCTION SITE – DATA STORAGE
The data have been stored in such a manner as to ensure the confidentiality of
participants. It will be kept under lock and key for 2 years after the study, after which it
will be destroyed.
3.9 CONCLUSION
In this chapter I have discussed the processes of designing my qualitative content
analysis based on the foundations of social constructivism and the logics of
contextualisation, discovery and diachronicity. I then discussed the collection of data by
means of identifying the misconceptions in both the exam scripts and discursively
oriented interviews. Lastly, I discussed the data analysing methodologies of coding and
clustering as assisted by computer software. Now it is time to move to the next chapter
where I will discuss the results that I have found emerging from the data.
98
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH
RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter commences with a presentation of data regarding the performance of
students in explanation-type questions as opposed to non-explanation-type questions.
Next, the distribution of explanation and non-explanation type questions, in the 2008
NSC Physics examination, is presented. The chapter continues with a presentation of
the frequency of the misconception-types that were generated in this study. These
misconception-types were generated according to the Dagher and Cossman (1992)
explanation-types. These misconception-types are also discussed and illustrated using
examples from the exam-script and interview data. In addition, the frequency of five
common misconceptions is presented and these five common misconceptions together
with other misconceptions identified through this study are discussed. The chapter ends
with an interpretation of what the misconception-types reveal in terms of possible
sources of misconceptions.
4.2 STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN EXPLANATION-TYPE QUESTIONS
The aims of this study are to identify student misconceptions as revealed in student
explanations and to classify these misconceptions according to the types of
explanations in which they are revealed. I also aimed to determine how students
perform in explanation-type questions. According to Bryce and MacMillan (2009)
students perform poorly in explanation-type questions. In this section I present data on
the performance of students in explanation-type questions. I have also included data on
the performance of students in non-explanation-type questions, as the comparison
between the performance of students in explanation and in non-explanation-type
questions highlights the poor performance of students in explanation-type questions.
99
On analysing the exam scripts I found that the sample of 921 students achieved an
average of 17, 4% for the explanation-type questions, and an average of 25, 8% for the
non-explanation-type questions, and an overall average of 24% for the Physics exam in
its entirety. A graphical presentation of these results follows in figure 4.1:
Figure 4.1: A bar graph of the performance of a sample of students
Source: Compiled by researcher
As can be seen by the above results, the poor performance of students in explanation-
type questions decreases the overall performance of the sample by 1,8%. Students
performed 8,4% worse in explanation-type questions than in non-explanation-type
questions.
The poor performance of students in explanation-type questions may be attributed in
part to the fact that explanation-type questions expose students’ understanding and
misconceptions (Graesser et al., 1996; Sevian & Gonsalves, 2008). On the other hand,
students’ responses to the type of non-explanation-type question that can be mastered
by rote learning do not effectively reveal their true level of understanding (Mintzes et al.,
2001). According to Harrison et al., (1999), students are able to treat exemplar-type
calculation questions as simple algorithms. These exemplar-type calculation questions
are found as examples and in exercises within textbooks. Students study these
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examples and practice them for homework. This allows students to complete these
types of calculations successfully in assessments without revealing their
misconceptions and without changing their incorrect conceptions. The following
comment was made by one of the student interviewees regarding exemplar-type
calculation questions: “That’s because it’s straight forward, you know the formula and
you just do it.”
Students may also perform poorly in explanation-type questions because they are not
aware of what is expected from them in the answering of these types of questions. This
problem may arise due to the overemphasis on non-explanation-type questions and is
discussed in the next section.
4.3 DISTRIBUTION OF EXPLANATION AND NON-EXPLANATION QUESTIONS
In this section I present the distribution of explanation-type questions as opposed to
non-explanation-type questions in the 2008 NSC Physics examination paper. Of the 150
marks allocated to the Physics exam, 32 marks (21%) were allocated to explanation-
type questions and a substantially larger share of 118 marks (79%) was allocated to the
non-explanation-type questions. The non-explanation-type questions consisted largely
of selected response questions and exemplar-type calculations. The selected response
questions consisted of multiple-choice and true or false questions. The distribution of
question-types is illustrated in figure 4.2:
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Figure 4.2: A pie chart of the question-types in the NSC 2008 Physics exam
Source: Compiled by researcher
The data illustrate the emphasis that examiners place on non-explanation-type
questions. This emphasis focuses the attention of teachers and students on non-
explanation-type questions. Most non-explanation-type questions can be mastered by
rote learning. Even the calculation-type questions found in school exams rarely differ
from the examples found in textbooks and in previous exams. This focus leads to very
little time being spent on the development of students’ conceptual understanding. It is
important that examiners do not merely change the emphasis from non-explanation-
type to explanation-type questions without aiming to promote conceptual learning, as
this may lead to more rote learning.
4.4 DESCRIBING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MISCONCEPTIONS AND THEIR
FREQUENCY
Each of the 11052 student exam-script responses [twelve responses for each student in
the sample of 921 students] was coded into one of the following categories:
• Misconception, where the student’s explanation is inconsistent with the
commonly accepted scientific explanation.
• No misconception, where the student explanation was conceptually correct.
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• Inconclusive, where the response was marked incorrect, but it could not be
established that a misconception existed.
• No response, where the student did not attempt the question
As mentioned in chapter 3 the category of “inconclusive” was not a part of the original
classification, but because many responses lacked sufficient evidence for them to be
coded as misconceptions I was forced to include the category of “inconclusive”.
Each exam-script response revealing a misconception was then classified according to
the Dagher and Cossman (1992) explanation-types. Classifying each response as a
specific type of explanation enabled me to diagnose the misconception that was
inherent to a type of explanation. For example, where a student advanced a mechanical
explanation I was able to focus on his/her conception of the relationship between a
physical property of an object and its behaviour and then explore this relationship for a
misconception. Such responses were then classified as a mechanical misconception.
The data regarding the occurrence of various types of misconceptions are tabulated in
table 4.1 and illustrated in figure 4.3:
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The most prevalent misconceptions were located in genetic and mechanical
explanations. Both table 4.1 and figure 4.3 indicate that these two types of explanations
together yielded 77,7% of the identified misconceptions. In the genetic explanations
students explained what happened instead of why it happened. In the mechanical
explanations students explained the phenomenon by supplying the physical properties
of an object as the only evidence.
In total, 11,6% of the identified misconceptions were classified as functional
explanations. The majority of these misconceptions occurred in question 14.3 where
students were asked to explain the importance of the cut-off switch in a multi-plug.
Students have various misconceptions regarding the function of the cut-off switch.
These include the misconceptions that it lowers the voltage when the voltage gets too
much, that it saves electricity by switching off when electricity usage is too high, that it
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Appendix A
Ethical Clearance from UJ
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Appendix B
Approval form to conduct research from Department of Education
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Appendix C
Permission letter to conduct research from Department of Education
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Appendix D
Letter of consent to school principal
45 Sable Mansions Mooikloof Ridge Moreleta Park 27th January 2009
To the principal, HOD of Sciences and the grade 12 Science teacher Requesting permission to involve your Science students and Science teacher in a research project. I am currently conducting a study on student misconceptions in the 2008 grade 12 National Senior Certificate Physics examination, as part of my Masters studies. In order to construct a better understanding of these misconceptions it is necessary for students, participating in this study, to answer a worksheet which contains nine explanation-type questions from the 2008 grade 12 National Senior Certificate Physics examination. This worksheet may be completed during any Science lesson, under test conditions, to allow students the opportunity to think about their answers carefully. Thereafter I will mark the worksheets, identify the common misconceptions and then ask about 10 students that hold these misconceptions to participate in an interview of approximately a half an hour each. I would also need to interview the grade 12 Science teacher, as she may have valuable information regarding the misconceptions that her students hold. I would like to conduct this study at your school at the start of the third term. If you agree to allow me to involve your students and science teacher, I will request written permission from the parents and students to participate voluntarily and anonymously. In a letter requesting their participation, I will explain the benefits of participation to the students. Such benefits include the opportunity to practice typical exam questions and receive valuable feedback regarding personal misconceptions that could affect their performance in their final examination. I am also in the process of gaining permission from the Gauteng Department of Education to conduct this research. I hereby request your permission to involve your Science students and Science teacher in this research project. Kind regards Celeste van Niekerk ________________________
Signed by: _________________________________________________________________________
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Appendix E
Letter of consent to science teachers
P.O. Box 174 Menlyn 0063 Cell: 082 688 0834
______________________________________________________________________ TO: The Science Teachers FROM: Celeste van Niekerk RE: Request to conduct research DATE: 29 June 2009 ______________________________________________________________________ The purpose of this letter is to request permission to determine your opinion regarding the extent to which student misconceptions are prevalent in your classes, possible sources of misconceptions and the strategies that you are using to address these misconceptions. It would be appreciated if you could participate in a one-to-one interview in my research study. Please note that you are at liberty to withdraw from this study at any time, without penalty or pressure from me, as the researcher, to provide reasons. In this regard, I will undertake to ensure that participating in this study does not disadvantage you. It is also my belief that there are benefits for you. Your input will contribute to making teachers more aware of the types of misconceptions and sources of misconceptions that students struggle within their Physics exams. It will also be a valuable opportunity to reflect on teaching strategies that are useful to address these misconceptions. Please note that all information supplied will be treated with confidentiality and outcomes of the research will be made available on request. Tape recordings/data will be kept under lock and key and will be destroyed after completion of the research study. Your cooperation and time is highly appreciated. Yours in Education _______________________ _________________________ Celeste van Niekerk Dr U Ramnarain Researcher Supervisor ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CONSENT
I, _________________________________________________ will participate in the study and give consent that the interview may be tape-recorded. __________________________________ _____________________ Signature of participant Date
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Appendix F
Letter of consent to parents/guardians
45 Sable Mansions
Mooikloof Ridge
Moreleta Park
22nd
July 2009
TO: Parents/guardians of the grade 12 Physical Science students
FROM: Mrs Celeste van Niekerk
RE: Request to conduct research
DATE: 22 July 2009
The purpose of this letter is to request your permission to involve your child in my research study. The grade 12 students of 2008 were the first group of students to write a national examination on a curriculum which is underpinned by outcomes-based education. The performance of students in Physical Sciences was poor. Of the 218 156 students that wrote the paper, 98 060 students (45% of the total) achieved below 30%, and only 62 530 (28, 7%) achieved 40% and above (Department of Education, 2008). Poor results in science education have often been ascribed to students’ misconceptions. Therefore, a great deal of support and guidance is needed with regard to the identification and remediation of students’ misconceptions in Physical Science. I will be conducting research on the causes of grade 12 students’ misconceptions in the Physics exam and on remediation strategies; as part of my Masters Degree at the University of Johannesburg. Research in this area will contribute to improved awareness by teachers and students of common misconceptions that need to be remediated in order to improve student results in Physical Science. The students participating in this study will benefit from this study by getting the opportunity to practice typical exam questions and receive valuable feedback regarding personal misconceptions that could affect their performance in their final examination.
To participate in this study your child will need to answer a worksheet which contains nine explanation-type questions from the 2008 grade 12 National Senior Certificate Physics examination. This worksheet will be completed during a Science lesson next week, under test conditions, to allow students the opportunity to think about their answers carefully. Thereafter I will mark the worksheets, identify the common misconceptions and then ask
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about 10 students that hold these misconceptions to participate in an interview of approximately a half an hour each.
Please note that students are at liberty to withdraw from this study at any time, without penalty or pressure to provide reasons to me, as the researcher. In this regard, I will undertake to ensure that participating in this study does not disadvantage the participants. All the information supplied will be treated with confidentiality and outcomes of the research will be made available on request. Data will be kept under lock and key and will be destroyed after completion of the research study.
Should you have any queries or comments regarding this research study, you are welcome to make contact with me at 082 688 0834. Your cooperation is highly appreciated. Yours in Education
CONSENT REPLY SLIP (Please return this slip to your Science teacher by Monday the 27th July) I, ________________________________________________________, the parent/guardian of ________________________________________ give my consent that he/she may participate in the study and that the information may be used confidentially for research purposes.
___________________________ _____________________
Signature of parent/guardian Date
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Mmmm Science
Research????
Appendix G
Letter of assent to students
Dear student You are kindly requested to complete a Science worksheet during one of your Science lessons next week. The worksheet consists of nine explanation-type questions which were taken from the 2008 grade 12 National Senior Certificate Physics examination. The aim of the worksheet is to identify possible misconceptions that you and ultimately other students may have regarding these typical Science exam questions. The ultimate aim of the research study is to make teachers aware of what misconceptions Science students are struggling with. It will take approximately 30 minutes to complete the worksheet and it should be completed during class under supervised examination conditions. Afterwards I will mark the worksheets and give you feedback about any misconceptions that you may have. The worksheets will not be used by the school for any form of assessment and you are not required to study anything beforehand. I will then identify a few students to conduct an interview with so that I can make sure that I understand your answers and possible misconceptions. I assure you that your identity and your responses to the worksheet will be treated as CONFIDENTIAL at all times and that it will NOT be made available to any unauthorized user. Please note that you are at liberty to withdraw from this study at any time, without penalty or pressure from me, as the researcher, to provide reasons. In this regard, I will undertake to ensure that participating in this study does not disadvantage you. Should you have any queries or comments regarding this research, you are welcome to contact me via your teacher. Your cooperation is highly appreciated. Yours in Education CELESTE VAN NIEKERK Researcher ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONSENT REPLY SLIP (Please return this slip to your Science teacher by Monday the 27th
July) I, ___________________________________________________, the student have read and understand the aims of this research study and agree to participate in the study. ___________________________ _____________________ Signature of student Date
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Appendix H
2008 NSC Physics examination
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Appendix I
Possible answers for the 2008 NSC Physics examination
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Appendix J
Pre-interview test
Grade 12 Physics Worksheet.
Instructions
Read each of the nine questions carefully and then write down your answer as
thoroughly as possible. Take time to write down everything that comes to mind
regarding the answer to the question. None of the questions involve calculations, they
are all questions that require you to explain or describe something.These questions are
not for assessment purposes, they will be used to find out why you think that your
answers could be correct.
Question 1
A circuit is connected as shown below. The resistance of R, which is connected in
parallel with the 10 Ω resistor, is unknown. With switch S closed, the reading on
voltmeter V decreases from 45 V to 43,5 V. The internal resistance of the battery is 0,5
Ω.
How will the reading on voltmeter V change if resistor R burns out? Give a reason for
your answer.
Question 2
A coil is rotated anti-clockwise in a uniform magnetic field. The diagram below shows
the position at the instant the coil lies parallel to the magnetic field.
What type of generator is illustrated in the diagram? Give a reason for your answer.
229
Question 3
An ink-jet printer makes use of the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel
plates to control the position of an ink drop on paper.
In the diagram below, the generator (G) of the printer shoots out ink drops that are
charged in the charging unit C. The input signal from a computer controls the charge
given to each ink drop. P is a negatively charged ink drop.
Is plate B negatively or positively charged? Give a reason for your answer.
Question 4
A helium-neon laser emits red light that passes through a single slit. A diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen some distance away from the slit.
4.1. Briefly describe the pattern that will be observed on the screen.
The single slit is replaced with a double slit.
4.2 Name ONE similarity and ONE difference in the pattern observed when the
single slit is replaced with a double slit.
4.3. Will this pattern be observed if the laser is replaced with a light bulb? Give a
reason for your answer.
Question 5
It is common practice to connect many appliances to a multi-plug. Modern types of
multi-plugs have a cut-off switch built in. Using principles in Physics, explain clearly why
this cut-off switch is important.
230
Question 6
Learners investigate the conducting ability of two metal wires P and Q, made of different
materials. They connect ONE wire at a time in a circuit as shown below.
The potential difference across each wire is increased in equal increments, and the
resulting current through these wires is measured. Using the measurements, the
learners obtained the following sketch graphs for each of the wires.
Which one (P or Q) is the better conductor? Explain your answer.
Question 7
A fully automatic camera has a built-in light meter. When light enters the light
meter, it strikes a metal object that releases electrons and creates a current.
The intensity of the incident radiation on the metal plate is increased whilst
maintaining a constant wavelength of 200nm. State and explain what effect
this change has on the following:
5.1. The energy of the emitted photo-electrons
5.2. The number of emitted photo-electrons
231
Question 8
The diagram below represents how water is funnelled into a pipe and directed to a
turbine at a hydro-electric power plant. The force of the falling water rotates the turbine.
Each second, 200 m of water is funnelled down a vertical shaft to the turbine below.
The vertical height through which the water falls upon reaching the turbine is 150m.
NOTE: One m³ of water has a mass of 1000 kg.
Assume that a generator converts 85% of the maximum kinetic energy gained by the
water, as it falls, into hydro-electricity. Explain what happens to the 15% of the kinetic
energy that is NOT converted into electrical energy.
Question 9
The most common reasons for rear-end collisions are too short a following distance,
speeding and failing brakes. The sketch below represents one such collision. Car A of
mass 1000kg, is stationary at a traffic light, and is hit from behind by Car B of mass
1200kg, travelling at 18m. . Immediately after the collision Car A moves forward at
12m. .
9.1. Modern cars are designed to crumple partially on impact. Explain why it may
NOT be valid to assume that linear momentum is conserved in accidents such as
the one described above.
9.2. A traffic officer appears at the scene of the accident and mentions the dangers of
a head-on collision. He mentions that for cars involved in a head-on collision, the
risk of injury for passengers in a heavier car would be less than for passengers in
a light car.
Use principles of Physics to explain why the statement made by the traffic officer
is correct.
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Appendix K
Extended memorandum for pre-interview test
Grade 12 Physics Worksheet Memorandum.
Instructions
Read each of the nine questions carefully and then write down your answer as
thoroughly as possible. Take time to write down everything that comes to mind
regarding the answer to the question. None of the questions involve calculations, they
are all questions that require you to explain or describe something. These questions are
not for assessment purposes, they will be used to find out why you think that your
answers could be correct.
Question 1
A circuit is connected as shown below. The resistance of R,
which is connected in parallel with the 10 Ω resistor, is
unknown. With switch S closed, the reading on voltmeter V
decreases from 45 V to 43, 5 V. The internal resistance of the
battery is 0, 5 Ω.
How will the reading on voltmeter V change if resistor R burns out? Give a reason for
your answer.
Question 2
A coil is rotated anti-clockwise in a uniform magnetic field. The diagram below shows
the position at the instant the coil lies parallel to the magnetic field.
What type of generator is illustrated in the diagram? Give a
reason for your answer.
233
Question 3
An ink-jet printer makes use of the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel
plates to control the position of an ink drop on paper.
In the diagram below, the generator (G) of the printer shoots out ink drops that are
charged in the charging unit C. The input signal from a computer controls the charge
given to each ink drop. P is a negatively charged ink drop.
Is plate B negatively or positively charged? Give a reason for your answer.
Question 4
A helium-neon laser emits red light that passes through a single slit. A diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen some distance away from the slit.
4.1. Briefly describe the pattern that will be observed on the screen.
The single slit is replaced with a double slit.
4.2 Name ONE similarity and ONE difference in the pattern observed when the
single slit is replaced with a double slit.
234
4.3. Will this pattern be observed if the laser is replaced with a light bulb? Give a
reason for your answer.
235
Question 5
It is common practice to connect many appliances to a multi-plug. Modern types of
multi-plugs have a cut-off switch built in. Using principles in Physics, explain clearly why
this cut-off switch is
important.
236
Question 6
Learners investigate the conducting ability of two
metal wires P and Q, made of different materials.
They connect ONE wire at a time in a circuit as
shown below.
The potential difference across each wire is
increased in equal increments, and the resulting
current through these wires is measured. Using the
measurements, the learners obtained the following
sketch graphs for each of the wires.
Which one (P or Q) is the better conductor? Explain
your answer.
237
Question 7
A fully automatic camera has a built-in light meter. When light enters the light
meter, it strikes a metal object that releases electrons and creates a current.
The intensity of the incident radiation on the metal plate is increased whilst
maintaining a constant wavelength of 200nm. State and explain what effect
this change has on the following:
5.1. The energy of the emitted photo-electrons
5.2. The number of emitted photo-electrons
Question 8
The diagram below represents how water is funnelled into a pipe and directed to a
turbine at a hydro-electric power plant. The force of the falling water rotates the turbine.
Each second, 200 m of water is
funnelled down a vertical shaft to the
turbine below. The vertical height
through which the water falls upon
reaching the turbine is 150m.
NOTE: One m³ of water has a mass of
1000 kg.
Assume that a generator converts 85% of the maximum kinetic energy gained by the
water, as it falls, into hydro-electricity. Explain what happens to the 15% of the kinetic
energy that is NOT converted into electrical energy.
238
Question 9
The most common reasons for rear-end collisions are too short a following distance,
speeding and failing brakes. The sketch below represents one such collision. Car A of
mass 1000kg, is stationary at a traffic light, and is hit from behind by Car B of mass
1200kg, travelling at 18m. . Immediately after the collision Car A moves forward at
12m. .
9.2. Modern cars are designed to
crumple partially on impact. Explain why it may NOT be valid to assume that linear
momentum is conserved in accidents such as the one described above.
9.2. A traffic officer appears at the scene of the accident and mentions the dangers of
a head-on collision. He mentions that for cars involved in a head-on collision, the
risk of injury for passengers in a heavier car would be less than for passengers in
a light car.
Use principles of Physics to explain why the statement made by the traffic officer
is correct.
239
Appendix L
Exemplars of classification-grid data
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Appendix M
Questionnaire schedule for interviews
Teachers:
1. Tell me, in your experience with the Science students in your class, how common
are student’ misconceptions?
2. How do you think students develop misconceptions?
3. From your point of view, what would you say are the main sources of student’
misconceptions?
4. How would you define a misconception?
5. What strategies do you use or have you tried, which may remedy student’
misconceptions?
6. Have you received any training or attended any course or meeting where
student’ misconceptions in Science or strategies for remedying them has been
discussed? Tell me about that.
7. Have you come across any articles on students misconceptions while reading
about Science? Tell me about that.
8. Have you come across any misconceptions in Science textbooks? Tell me about
those.
9. What are the most common misconceptions that you have come across in your
grade 12 students Physics papers?
10. In your opinion would practical work and experiments have any effect on student
misconceptions? Tell me about that.
11. Do you think that language would have any effect on student misconceptions?
Tell me about that.
12. Do you think the language of Science terminology would have any effect on
student misconceptions? Tell me about that.
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Students:
1. When a heavy vehicle collides into a lighter car the passengers in the lighter car
are likely to be injured more seriously. Tell me from a scientific point of view why
this happens.
Why do you think that cars with a greater mass exert a greater force on lighter
cars during a collision?
Where do you think you got the idea that heavier cars exert a greater force on
lighter cars during a collision?
Explain to me what impulse is.
Explain the difference between weight and mass.
Newton’s third law states that for every force there is an equal but opposite force.
How would you apply this law to the heavy and light car that collided head- on?
During a head-on collision both the lighter and the heavier car experiences a
deceleration. Do you think the cars experience the same acceleration? Explain
why/why not.
Where would you say you got most of these ideas on momentum? Where else?
In certain collisions linear momentum isn’t conserved. When would you say does
that happen?
Explain why you think momentum isn’t conserved when that happens.
What would you say is the difference between an elastic collision and an inelastic
collision?
2. At a hydro-electric power plant the generator converts about 85% of the water’s
kinetic energy into hydro-electric energy. What happens to the other 15% of the
kinetic energy?
Explain what you mean when you say the energy is lost. Where would you say
you got the idea that the energy is lost? Does this idea of lost energy match up
with the law of conservation of energy? Why/ Why not?
3. What happens to the voltmeter reading if resistor R burns out?
245
Tell me more about why you think the voltmeter reading will increase if there is
less resistance in the circuit?
What potential difference would you say the voltmeter measures when it is
connected in the position shown in the diagram?
What does a voltmeter actually measure? What are volts?
Tell me more about why you think the circuit’s resistance will be less when
resistor R burns out?
4. What type of generator is illustrated in the diagram?
Tell me more about the difference between an ac and a dc generator.
Is there a difference between a split-ring and a slip-ring? What is the difference?
Where do you find a split-ring and a slip-ring?
5. Modern types of multi-plugs have a cut-off switch built in. Why are they so
important?
What do you think could cause the power to get too intense? What exactly is
power?
Explain to me in more detail why the components get hot.
Explain how the components take more volts.
Tell me, what are volts?
246
When you connect components into a multi-plug, would you say they are
connected in series or parallel? Explain your answer.
If the components are connected in parallel in a multi-plug, then what happens to
the resistance as you add resistors in parallel?
What happens to the current in the circuit if the resistance decreases?
6. What is the charge on plate B if the ink droplet in the diagram is negatively
charged? Explain your answer.
Tell me more about how this works.
7. When a laser emits red light that passes through a single slit, a diffraction pattern
can be seen on a screen some distance away from the slit. What does the
diffraction pattern look like?
Tell me more about what it will look like. What colour?
Have you seen a diffraction pattern? Where?
If the single slit is replaced with a double slit, what similarity will you notice
between the patterns formed?
If the single slit is replaced with a double slit, what difference will you notice
between the patterns formed?
Have you seen a double split interference pattern? Where?
What will you observe if the laser is replaced with a light bulb?
Are there any other differences you can think of between the laser and a light
bulb?
247
8. The conducting ability of two metal wires P and
Q was tested, by measuring the current running
through the wires and the potential difference
across the wires. Results as in this diagram
were obtained:
Which conductor is a better conductor?
Tell me more about why having the highest potential difference would make P
the better conductor.
How would P get a higher potential difference across it?
What would you say have conductivity and current got to do with one another?
Explain to me what the gradient of this graph represents.
9. A fully automatic camera has a built-in light meter. When light enters the light
meter, it strikes a metal object that releases electrons and creates a current.
What happens to the energy of the emitted photo-electrons if the intensity of the
incident radiation is increased, whilst maintaining a constant wavelength?
Tell me why you think the energy of the photo-electrons will increase if the
incident radiation increases?
What do you think it means when the wavelength of the radiation stays constant?
What do you think increases when you increase the incident radiation without
changing the wavelength?
What would you say happens to the number of photo-electrons emitted when the
incident radiation increases?
Have you seen a light meter or photo-electric cell? Where? Where would you say
did you get most of your ideas about the photo-electric effect?
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Appendix N
Transcripts of student interviews
N1: Interview with the first student on 12/08/2009 at 11h00-11h15
Researcher: In your worksheet over here, you wrote that: “wire P will be a better
conductor, because it provides the highest level of potential difference.”
Can you tell me more about why you think that because wire P has a
higher potential difference that will make it a better conductor?
Student 1: I have no idea, honestly mam I was guessing on that because I do very
badly in what's its name.
Researcher: Electricity?
Student 1: Yes mam, (Pause).
Researcher: OK, but why do you think you guessed that? Why would that be your
guess? When wire P has a bigger potential difference?
Student 1: Ummm, I suppose…
Researcher: Let me show you the circuit again. The circuit looks like this, (showed
learner the circuit on the worksheet) so there’s wire P.
Student 1: Mmm
Researcher: And now you said that it has a higher potential difference, there is the
voltmeter and the voltmeter is giving you that reading. And so you said
that you think that it’s got something to do with potential difference. The
fact that it has a higher potential difference makes it a better conductor.
249
Why do you think you guessed that, do you think there is a connection
between potential difference and being a good conductor?
Student 1: Pause. I have no idea. I think I looked at it and I can’t remember but I was
thinking of... what was I thinking?, Pause, umm what was I thinking now?,
Pause, I figured that if it has a high potential difference then it will have, I
really can’t remember mam.
Researcher: Can you think of the connection between V and A.
Student 1: No.
Researcher: Potential difference and current? Do you know of some relationship
between those?
Student 1: I don’t know…
Researcher: Or an equation between those two?
Student 1: I=V, no, there is a V and a I somewhere, pause isn’t it I=V/R, no, R=, but
then there was no R here so I just figured…
Researcher: So you knew there was some relation there, ok in that relationship there is
R, and here there is no R?
Student 1: Mm.
Researcher: What is the wire?
Student 1: Which wire mam? This wire?
250
Researcher: Ja, that wire. Could that be the R?
Student 1: I suppose because they always draw the resistor like that.
Researcher: Ok, so it could be the resistor. Ok so if it was the resistor, then this V and
R could have something to do with the resistor (finding it very difficult not
to explain it to her, I think I already am). What do you think resistance has
got to do with conductivity? Because here they wanted to investigate
which metal is a better conductor. What has conductivity got to do with
resistance? Because you know that there is a connection here between V
and I and R?
Student 1: MM
Researcher: But they are asking about conductivity, what has conductivity got to do
with resistance? Is there any connection between conductivity and
resistance?
Student 1: Pause, I don’t think so.
Researcher: You don’t think so?
Student 1: Well, conductivity isn’t it like related to electricity, but then this one resists
it, doesn’t it like resist.
Researcher: What is resistance?
Student 1: Resistance? I think like it decreases I wonder a current that flows or
something.
Researcher: So what would you say then is the relationship between conductivity and
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resistance?
Student 1: That they are directly proportional, no no, I wonder, no, ugh, I suppose
that the higher the resistance the less the conductivity (very hesitant).
Researcher: Ok, so in other words you know that if the resistance is high the
conductivity is low.... ok let’s see what else there is, if you now had to
have a look at this graph, what do you think the gradient of this graph
represents?
Student 1: Could it be resistance? Pause. This is I right and this is V?
Researcher: How do you work out the gradient of a graph?
Student 1: Gradient, a change in y over change in x.
Researcher: Ok so it would be?
Student 1: Um, it would be this over that, (pause).
Researcher: Ok and what would that then be?
Student 1: R? No, it can’t be resistance; I think it’s got to do with resistance I’m not
sure.
Researcher: So it’s got to do with resistance? So in a way it is telling you conductivity?
It’s got something to do with that.
Student 1: Why didn’t I think of that?
Researcher: Did you think of the gradient when you answered the question?
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Student 1: Not at all, honestly speaking.
Researcher: You just saw that there were the same values there but you didn’t think of
the gradient?
Student 1: I didn’t and I umm with electricity we haven’t really touched it like the last
time we actually did something extensive on electricity was like in grade 9.
Researcher: Ok, in grade 11, last year?
Student 1: Last year, it was um what is it um self study, I think, because we didn’t
have enough time or something.
Researcher: In grade 11 and you haven’t done it in grade 12?
Student 1: No we haven’t, no yes did we do it?
Researcher: Did you do electricity in grade 12?
Student 1: Yes I think so mam.
Researcher: So you think so, but you don’t remember that much?
Student 1: No.
Researcher: Ok, let’s look at another question. Pause. Ok, let’s look at this one.
Student 1: Ooo, that’s a bad one.
Researcher: The question was: What type of generator is this? And you wrote that:
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“this generator is a split-ring generator.” Why do you think that this is a
split-ring generator?
Student 1: I guessed that maybe, I didn’t know the split ring is in it but it can like turn
or something, I don’t know, I can’t remember. But then, jaaa but then….
Researcher: Tell me about the split-ring.
Student 1: That was the only thing that I actually remembered about generators, oh
and ac conductor, ok, ac conductors or something.
Researcher: Do you think that this is an ac or a dc generator, because those are the
two types of generators that you get? So do you think that this is an ac
generator or a dc generator?
Student 1: I think that it is an ac.
Researcher: Ok, so you think it is an ac generator? What is the difference between an
ac generator and a dc generator?
Student 1: AC is alternate current, changing direct current.
Researcher: And physical differences? How would it do that?
Student 1: Umm. Isn’t it that if you can with this umm split ring I think, if you turn it or
something I don’t know it turns or somehow, something about the
magnetic, I really can’t remember.
Researcher: Something about the magnetic?
Student 1: Magnetic field. I can’t remember.
254
Researcher: You spoke about a split-ring, and you also get a slip-ring, do you know the
difference between slip-rings and split-rings?
Student 1: No mam.
Researcher: Ok, so you wouldn’t be able to tell me where you find a split-ring and
where you find a slip-ring?
Student 1: I would, had I actually studied, but I didn’t.
Researcher: Ok, so you haven’t done this type of question for a while?
Student 1: Since, wow, last term.
Researcher: Ok, umm, let’s look at this other question of yours, this question I think
may be more familiar, I think you did it this year. Ok. This is the one about
the collisions with the two cars. The two cars bumping into one another.
Ok, so the question said: “In certain collisions, momentum, linear
momentum, isn’t conserved”, and then the question asks: “when isn’t
momentum conserved”… and you wrote that: “momentum will not be
conserved in this type of collision because the kinetic energy before the
collision is not going to stay the same as afterwards." Explain why you
think momentum isn’t conserved, when this happens.
Student 1: Because, as some of the energy is lost through sound and when and ja
sound, heat.
Researcher: Ok, so energy is lost in sound and so on, so tell me why if energy isn’t
conserved, why do you think momentum isn’t conserved?
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Student 1: Umm, because there is an external ja it’s not a closed system because
there are external force acting on it (very hesitant). No, no, no I am lying,
oh.
Researcher: You are not actually, say that again.
Student 1: I said something about an external force.
Researcher: What external forces do you think could be acting on those cars?
Student 1: Ah, I wonder is friction an external force? Pause. So there is an external
force? Pause
Researcher: Nod. So the external forces act, that’s why the momentum isn’t conserved.
What have the external forces got to do with energy though?
Student 1: Long Pause. Because isn’t that F=ma, so no no, umm, pause, you said
why is force, what was the question again?
Researcher: What has the force, the fact that there are external forces, got to do with
the energy lost, why is the energy lost when there are external forces?
Student 1: Um, long pause. I don’t know. Pause. This force will cause these things to
move right? And no work don’t know, no, ugh I really …
Researcher: Ok, um just one other thing I wanted to ask, you said that energy is lost
during the collision, because it is changed into heat and sound. Why do
you say energy is lost if it has changed into heat and sound?
Student 1: Yes it is transferred, sorry.
256
Researcher: Transferred? To what?
Student 1: Ja, energy can never be lost only transferred into other forms.
Researcher: Ok so you know energy can never be lost, where did you get that idea
from?
Student 1: We learnt it like.
Researcher: So there is a law?
Student 1: Yes.
Researcher: A Science law? Do you agree with that law? Does your everyday
experience match what you have seen in collisions and that the law that
says energy cannot be lost. Do you believe it; do you think that it is true?
Student 1: That energy cannot be lost?
Researcher: Ahaham.
Student 1: I suppose (hesitant) I never really think about it, I’m going to have to think
about.
Researcher: So why do you say it’s lost if you that the Science law says that energy
isn’t lost, you say that it is so easy to talk about energy lost. Why is it so
easy?
Student 1: Cause we don’t see it. We can’t see…
Researcher: You can’t see the heat? Or where it has gone really?
257
Student 1: Yes mam.
Researcher: So that’s why, it’s just a way of talking, that it’s lost, ok. Um there was one
other thing that I was thinking of while you where answering there. Um
when you write your Physics exam, um, when was your last Physics exam
that you wrote? Did you write one in March?
Student 1: I also wrote one in …
Researcher: June?
Student 1: Yes, mam.
Researcher: Do you struggle with the time? Did you finish in time?
Student 1: No.
Researcher: You didn’t finish? (Learner nods) So time was an issue?
Student 1: Yes mam.
Researcher: Because a lot of what you said was correct and you didn’t write it in your
paper. If you had written what you said to me now you would have got lots
more marks. In other words all the answers that were looking for, you
actually know them, but when I asked you to tell me more, explain to me
more then you suddenly said them. Like for example the closed system
that would have been a mark, um I can’t remember now but there were a
few things. Keywords that you said if you had written them you would have
got the marks, so you lost quite a lot of the marks and you actually knew
the stuff but you didn’t write it, do you think it has got to do with the time?
258
Student 1: I have a problem, I tend to doubt myself. Like I want to say something and
I try to write it exactly like in the book and if I forget I get blank and then
just move onto the next question, and think I will come back to it.
Researcher: Ok, I think that’s all. When a heavy car collides into a lighter car the
passengers are more seriously injured and you wrote: “the heavier car will
exert a much higher force than the lighter car”, why do you think so, why
do you think that the heavier car will exert a much higher force on the
lighter car?
Student 1: Because it’s mass is greater.
Researcher: Ok and why if its mass is greater will it exert more force?
Student 1: Because the momentum is um directly proportional to the mass and so if
the mass is greater, obviously the momentum is going to be higher, and
isn’t it that F is equal to momentum, so if the momentum is higher than the
force, I don’t know if like it’s there so the force is going to be greater, isn’t
it that the amount of force that it exerts on the small car isn’t it that the
same amount exerts back on the car or something.
Researcher: Ok so now you are saying that it is equal?
Student 1: No no, just that mm ugh, all I know is that the big car is going to hurt the,
it’s going to exert a much greater force than the light car.
Researcher: Where do you think you got the idea that it’s going to exert a bigger force?
Student 1: Umm, because pause, because of the fact that momentum equals mass
times velocity.
259
Researcher: Ok, but if it’s got more mass does that mean it’s got more velocity?
Student 1: Noo, Oooh yeah.
Researcher: Would you say it is from an experience point of view? or from science
lessons?
Student 1: I suppose, I remember mam said something about it.
Researcher: You also wrote that the fact that the stationary car moved also indicates a
greater force by the heavier car, do you think that it is always like that, that
the object that moves is experiencing a bigger force?
Student 1: Yes, cause, I think so, because if like the um the force was the same then
it wouldn’t have moved at all like if you try and push a wall your force is
not big enough so it is not going to move at all.
Researcher: Ok, and what would you say would Newton’s third law work here because
he said that for every force there is an equal opposite force, so when the
two cars hit one another then the force is equal. Does that apply in a
head-on-collision?
Student 1: I think it does apply, I think so.
Researcher: If it applies how come the little car gets hurt more?
Student 1: Stronger materials, I don’t know. (Bell rings)
Researcher: Thank You.
260
Student 1: The crumple zones I suppose.
Researcher: Ok. (The researcher switches off the tape-recorder).
N2: Interview with the second student on 12/08/2009 at 14h15-14h30
Researcher: There we are, (researcher open the learners’ answers to the worksheet)
so how I chose questions, it doesn’t mean that you got the question right
or wrong if I chose the question, it just means that you expressed yourself
and I sort of, it sort of gives me a good understanding of what you are
thinking, but I want to know more. And then also maybe no one else
answered that question so I want all the questions covered. All these
questions come from last years’ Physics paper, ok. So the question that I
want to ask you first is about light. The question says that: “when a laser
emits light through a single slit, then you get a diffraction pattern, and it
can be seen on a screen some distance away from the slit. In your answer
you wrote: “The diffraction pattern consists of many lights, produced on
the medium, when using double slits, one light using the single slit.”
Student 2: Ok.
Researcher: Have you seen a diffraction pattern?
Student 2: Ja, we made a, a small science experiment.
Researcher: Please talk a little louder.
Student 2: We made a small Science experiment, in class and I kind of like remember
a few stuff from xx.
Researcher: When did you do that experiment?
261
Student 2: Um I don’t quite remember, I think it was in March.
Researcher: This year?
Student 2: Ja.
Researcher: Can you tell me more about what it looked like, you said it consists of
many lights, what do those light look like?
Student 2: Ok we used a red laser light, right, so uh, we took paper as the medium
and we put it against the wall and then uh there was a double slit
apparatus and then we light the light through the double slit then it
diffracted, like into I think four lights, four different lights.
Researcher: What colour?
Student 2: It was red.
Researcher: And all the same, all, all the different lights did the whole pattern look the
same?
Student 2: Mm (Laugh)
Researcher: Let’s say I had never seen it, what, you are saying it was a red light, what
did it look like, was it just one blur of red light, or what did it look like?
Student 2: It wasn’t, it was spots.
Researcher: Spots?
262
Student 2: Ja.
Researcher: Ok.
Student 2: It wasn’t a, a, um like a spectrum, like you know, separating all the
colours, it was just …
Researcher: Red spots?
Student 2: Ja.
Researcher: Ok.
Student 2: Showing diffraction.
Researcher: Ok, if the single slit is replaced with a double slit then you get a different
pattern. Ok, um what is the difference between the pattern that you get
when you use a single slit and when you use a double slit? What’s the
difference? Can you remember? Did you do both, the single slit and the
double slit?
Student 2: No, we only did the one slit.
Researcher: Only one slit?
Student 2: Aahah.
Researcher: So you haven’t seen the double slit?
Student 2: No I mean, aah, we did the double slit, but not the single slit.
263
Researcher: So you are not sure, have you seen it in a book or something, the
difference?
Student 2: (Pause) Oh well we, I’ve seen with the water, the double slit with the water
and the single slit with the water, but not with a laser light.
Researcher: Umm, ok then there was another question, the B part of the question, it
said that: “if you replaced the laser with a light bulb …
Student 2: Ok.
Researcher: -and you let the light go through a single slit,
Student 2: Aaha mm.
Researcher: -would you be able to see a diffraction pattern on the paper?
Student 2: I said I don’t think so because it is not strong enough.
Researcher: Ok you said it is not concentrated like a laser. What do you mean by
concentrated?
Student 2: Like a um, how can I explain it, like the strength of the light, you know a
laser you can show a laser and you can see it on the other side of the
room and a light bulb it’s just, aah, you can just light it in a room, one
room, and you can’t see it on the next wall.
Researcher: Ok, and are there any other differences between laser light and a light
bulb, other than that strength that you can think of?
Student 2: Oh, well a laser light just shines on one spot and a light, a light bulb can
264
shine like the whole room, and lighten.
Researcher: Ok. Let us see what other questions you answered. (Pause). The one
about the collisions, with the cars colliding into one another. The question
said: “in certain collisions linear momentum isn’t conserved.” And the
question was: “When is linear momentum not conserved? And you wrote:
“the momentum will not be conserved because the collision may be
inelastic."
Student 2: Aahahm.
Researcher: Why do you think momentum isn’t conserved when a collision is inelastic?
Student 2: Um the difference between the kinetics I think. (Laugh)
Researcher: What’s the difference? (Smile)
Student 2: Mmm?
Researcher: What’s the difference between kinetics?
Student 2: The kinetics, like a, that the kinetic energy, that the a..., the difference in
the mass of the object and ... you know, the velocities and all that, so, so
maybe can’t be the same, can’t you know....
Researcher: What is the difference between an elastic and an inelastic collision?
Student 2: Umm, (you know I can’t remember) (smile) umm, an inelastic collision is,
ok, an inelastic collision is a collision where two objects like collide, uuh
it’s not the same, the, the, amount of force or ah ah or what’s momentum,
the amount of momentum is not the same as when it started and … elastic
265
is when it’s ah like conserved right?
Researcher: What is conserved-
Student 2: (Laugh)
Researcher: in an elastic collision?
Student 2: (Laugh) Ok, um, ……..(pause)…I am nervous.
Researcher: Don’t worry you do not need to be nervous (smile) there isn’t a right or a
wrong.
Student 2: I know what it is, but I can’t explain, I forgot the words.
Researcher: Ok, umm, there was something else; oh there was a B part-
Student 2: Um,
Researcher: Have you thought about it now?
Student 2: I think conservation of momentum is like, how can I put it now, it’s like … I
had it just now, (laugh) ….. xxx
Researcher: Think about it and then we will come back to it. Umm there is a B part of
the question, in the B part of the question there is a traffic officer at the
accident and he says that in head- on collisions, the passengers in the
lighter car usually get hurt more, and you had to explain using Physics
why that is so, why in a head-on collision the passengers in the light car
usually get hurt more. And you wrote: “the driver of the truck will take less
impact because of its size and mass, and the truck will make the car move
266
in the same direction. Tell me more about why you think the truck will take
less impact because of its mass?
Student 2: I think it is because of the material which it is made of, it’s it’s, a car it’s
more like a, I don’t want to say plastic, because there are some parts, like
it’s made out of plastic, more than the truck, you know, it’s not plastic,
plastic, but you know that…, I don’t know that material it’s made off; and
the truck has more weight, you know there’s more stuff put on it and
because of the material as well, so when it collides it will move um the
car… the same direction as the truck was moving.
Researcher: Ok, you said that the truck will take less impact on its materials that it’s
made of, what is impact?
Student 2: Um impact is is the, (pause) for example, a car right, um, put it um,… ish,
ok, …, impact is the amount of force um, an object can take, but then, it
gets destroyed in a kind of way, like when it impacts, yah.
Researcher: So it’s the amount of force that it can take.
Student 2: Yah.
Researcher: Ok, so you are saying the, the, truck can take more force than what the
little car can take. Ok, umm, would you say Newton’s third law applies to a
head-on-collision? Newton’s third law says: “for every force there is an
equal opposite force. Do you think his law works in a head-on -collision,
that the heavy truck exerts the same force as what the light car does?
Student 2: No.
Researcher: Do you think it can’t work there?
267
Student 2: Yah.
Researcher: So … his law that says for every force there is a equal opposite force
doesn’t always work, it’s not really for every force?
Student 2: Maybe it can, but it doesn’t make sense.
Researcher: It doesn’t make sense?
Student 2: Yah.
Researcher: Why do you say that it doesn’t make sense?
Student 2: …Maybe it’s because of the explanation he has made …xx
Researcher: Does it not make sense from your experience point of view?
Student 2: Yah. It doesn’t make logic sense, to me.
Researcher: Ok, …um I was thinking of another place where Newton’s third law is
always used, for example the apple and the earth, the earth pulls the
apple down and the apple pulls the earth up, and Newton’s third law says:
“for every force there is an equal but opposite force, so the earth pulls the
apple down as much as what the apple pulls the earth up. Do you think
that’s right there?
Student 2: Yah it makes sense there that the apples mass is equal upward and
downward, and that the earth’s size has more influence on the gravity of
the, which pulls the apple down.
268
Researcher: So they have the same, there you believe that the forces are equal and
that the reason the apple falls is because the earth’s bigger?
Student 2: Yah.
Researcher: Ok…. Umm. The last question asked about modern multi-plugs, they
have a cut-off switch, you can actually see it over there, that little thing
sticking out. Umm, why is the cut-off switch so important, and you said
that: “the cut-off switch is important because once there is an overflow of
power into one plug and it is damaging your devices it is not
recommended if such a similar thing happens to pull the plug connected
because that can result in your death, because of the voltage power.
Therefore when pressing the cut-off switch it will allow you to remove the
plug, connecting any device, and avoid the fire." Why do you think, what
do you think will cause a overflow of power?
Student 2: I think if you put too many plugs in one, step-up and step-down, lots of
plugs can cause confusion.
Researcher: What is power?
Student 2: The amount of work that can be done.
Researcher: And what is the voltage, power that you wrote about?
Student 2: Electric voltage, human body is, what’s that word, it’s like a conductor as
well, not a weak conductor we can’t survive it, electricity and heat can be
transferred, too much heat causes our death.
Researcher: Are the plugs in the multi-plug connected in series or in parallel?
269
Student 2: Series.
Researcher: Why do you say so?
Student 2: I remember something, it is easier can’t be room in parallel or a house
can’t be in a single row.
Researcher: (The researcher switched off the tape recorder and thanked the learner.)
N3: Interview with the third student on 12/08/2009 at 14h30-14h45
Researcher: In your worksheet you wrote that: “when resistor R in the diagram burns
out, then because the electric line is divided up into parallel line, the
voltage will stay the same, but the current will increase and the heat will
build up”, and the question was: “What will happen to the voltmeter
reading, so you say it will stay the same, but the current will increase and
the heat will build up, ok tell me more, why will the current increase when
the resistor burns out?
Student 3: Because the, in my understanding the resistor doesn’t actually work on
the, well it decreases the voltage but it doesn’t like decrease the voltage, it
just slows down the current so it’s like less harsh power or less, like if you
work on the voltage it wouldn’t be as effective as a circuit unit. So I figured
if it went then the ah, um, the , it went because the heat built up in the first
place, and if it went, then there is like no light bulb or like any other circuit
items to like, um, vent the heat and energy that’s in it. So like the current
would, I think I said, increase, so the current would increase because the
resistor like slows down the current and so if it’s not there it would like
increase the current.
Researcher: So you say that when that resistor burns out there is less resistance, that’s
270
why the current increases?
Student 3: Yes.
Researcher: Ok. Even though it is in parallel?
Student 3: Well, like I figured it is in parallel, like it splits, and if it burns out, then the
electrons would just find another route around, but seeing as it is not split
up any more they would move faster on one leg, like on one wire.
Researcher: How do you add resistors that are in series, let’s say they are a 10 and a
12 ohm?
Student 3: Well I know that if they are in parallel there is a little formula that I can’t
remember now, but if series then I am just going to add them.
Researcher: Ok, so the formula for parallel you can’t remember how that works?
Student 3: Umm you, you, take the ratio between the, the, them and then you add
them in the ratio or something like that.
Researcher: Can you try an easy one for me, let us say that you need to add 2 and 2, 2
resistors of 2 ohms in parallel and you need to add them, can you try and
add them. I can give you the formula, because that is given in the exam,
(researcher writes the formula on paper and gives it to the learner to try
the sum) try and see if you can add those two.
Student 3: (The learner does the sum and gets the correct answer of 1 ohm.)
Researcher: So you get 1 ohm, let me check your sum, yes it is correct, so 2 plus 2 is
1, so what does that tell you about adding resistors in parallel?
271
Student 3: Umm, that the total is a fraction.
Researcher: So it is actually less, if I had one two ohm resistor the resistance would be
two, but if I add another one the resistance goes down.
Student 3: Oh...
Researcher: So that that is quite weird if I have two in parallel and I take away one the
resistance goes from one to two, it actually increases when I take away a
resistor.
Student 3: Oh ja, then the current will decrease.
Researcher: Yes. Ok another question now, the one about the two cars bumping into
one another. The one car is standing at the robot and the other car comes
and bumps into it. The first question says that in certain collisions
momentum isn’t conserved, and then the question is: when is it not
conserved. In your worksheet you said that: "momentum will not be
conserved because energy is lost in the crash due to exchange into heat
and sound." Explain why you think momentum isn’t conserved when that
happens?
Student 3: Well momentum is like the product of mass times velocity, right? And
when it catches the, the, energy, the kinetic energy that the vehicle has,
when it catches it, not a lot, but some of it is lost, due like to conversion
into other forms of energy, um it will have like a small bounce and it will
deform the vehicle. I am not sure what linear momentum is, but I figure
that linear momentum is basically the same as momentum, and when it
like, it will, the energy of the truck would be lower after the crash because
of,...the producers of the cars produce the cars so that they do lose
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energy during the crash, so that the momentum does go down, so it would
go down.
Researcher: So you say that the momentum would go down?
Student 3: Yes.
Researcher: Why do you think that it would go down?
Student 3: Because the, I can put the word impulse there as well because I don’t
know where it goes.
Researcher: Ok.
Student 3: But energy is lost you know and so it has to be lower.
Researcher: Ok, so tell me more about this energy is lost thing, you say that energy is
lost when it is exchanged into sound and heat.
Student 3: Yes, well no the energy doesn’t really disappear, it is converted, but it is
lost from kinetic energy, the actual kinetic energy of the vehicle is lower
after the crash than before the crash, you know.
Researcher: So because it’s changed you say that it is lost?
Student 3: Yes, in terms of kinetic energy.
Researcher: Ok, then in the B part of the question the traffic cop standing there says
that he has seen head-on collisions before and in head-on -collisions the
passengers in the smaller lighter car usually get injured worse and from a
Physics point of view why does that happen? So you (L3) said that “the
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reason it happens is that the light object has little momentum and when it
collides with a heavy object momentum is transferred between them. The
light object with the large momentum will now move at a higher velocity,
so the impulse of such a collision will be also more on a lighter object”.
Tell me why you think the light car has little momentum before the
collision?
Student 3: Um, because it has a low mass and like a light car it’s like a golf ball or
something when you catch it, it doesn’t have a lot of momentum you can
stop it with you hand or so. But when it gets bigger like a truck or so, like
even when you apply full breaks it still takes ten meters or twelve meters
to stop, because the mass is so large.
Researcher: So the little car has low momentum because of its low mass? Does
momentum only depend on mass?
Student 3: Um no, it also depends on the velocity.
Researcher: So if the car had a higher velocity?
Student 3: Then it would also you know have a high momentum, but, I figured that
seeing as it is a small car, small cars usually have small engines as well,
and a small engine can’t really let a small car go faster than a big car.
Researcher: Do you think that a small car could ever have more momentum than a big
car?
Student 3: In some cases yes… extreme cases.
Researcher: Explain to me why you think that the impulse will be more on the light
car?
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Student 3: Because the impulse is like the change in, the change in momentum, from
like before, and a light car will have low momentum before it crashes and
then when it does crash the, the, like energy which is transferred between
the two vehicles will increase its momentum and it will like, the shock will
be large, like the people on the inside will feel like a big force backward
and their necks will hurt or break or whatever, so the impulse, the change
in momentum will like be larger.
Researcher: How do you know that the people in the smaller car will experience a
bigger force?
Where would you say you got that idea from?
Student 3: Because, um, for instance if they crashed into a wall, a big one, not like a
small one, the impulse there will be very large because the wall doesn’t
have crumple zones and the wall would just direct all the energy back from
the car, like and then the car will basically just bounce off the wall, it has
its own small crumple zones, but a lot of bouncing is involved, and so
that’s the same with another vehicle, another vehicle just absorbs more
energy.
Researcher: So the wall would hardly experience any impulse?
Student 3: Um I think the impulse is the same but the wall doesn’t experience it,
because the wall doesn’t, it’s like strong.
Researcher: Ok, so you are saying that the impulse is the same?
Student 3: I think so, yes.
Researcher: Do you think it is the same for the small car and for the big car?
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Student 3: It might be I am not sure.
Researcher: Newton’s third law says that for every force or action there is an equal but
opposite force or reaction, do you think that applies in a head-on collision?
Student 3: Yes.
Researcher: Do you think the force of the big car on the small car is equal to the force
of the small car on the big car?
Student 3: Yes, it should be, I heard an example once where they said that when a
mosquito collides into a car the mosquito experiences the same force as
the car experiences from the mosquito.
Researcher: Do you believe that?
Student 3: I don’t know what they mean by that.
Researcher: Are they going to look the same?
Student 3: No, well, not at all. I don’t know what they mean, that the force will be the
same, because like, like to me it doesn’t make much sense.
Researcher: Ok, so you know the law, that’s why you are agreeing with it, but it doesn’t
make much sense from an experience point of view?
Student 3: Maybe if I had more equipment and stuff to measure it, then it would
make more sense, but from my limited experiences I don’t see it.
Researcher: Ok, thank you. Last question, (pause, while looking up the next question
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that the learner answered). In the hydro-electric power plant, the generator
converts 85% of the water’s kinetic energy into hydro-electrical energy, the
question is: what happens to the other 15% of the water’s kinetic energy
that doesn’t get converted into hydro-electrical energy. You wrote that:
“the other 15% is converted into other forms of energy, and that a
significant amount of energy get’s lost, the 15% of the kinetic energy that
is lost is lost due to friction, which is converted to heat and sound.” Explain
to me more about what you mean by this “energy is lost”?
Student 3: Um, like, when I answer questions like that I use things as a, like certain
parts of the question as a reference for, to my answer, and they asked
about the energy that could be converted into electrical potential energy
and kinetic energy, right? And from the perspective of kinetic energy,
energy is like lost into other forms of energy, you know, and um, like you
can’t really get sound back into kinetic energy, you know, well not with our
current technology, also not with heat, well heat a little bit, but not much,
you can’t get all the heat back into kinetic energy again. So in all essence
it is lost, but the energy still is there it just isn’t in your possession.
Researcher: Ok, there is a whole lot of Science vocabulary that we use, like kinetic
energy and momentum, impulse, sound, heat, etc. Do you think that
talking about energy is lost is Science terminology or every day
terminology? Have you seen it in textbooks or do you use it in the Science
class? Where would you say that wording came from?
Student 3: Well in Science class and the books and stuff, they never use it, they try
and steer us away from the term that it is lost, they try to tell us that it is
not lost, it is just converted and so forth, but for me to use, like, layman’s
terms and to explain the science behind it, to understand it better, I try to
explain it in things that are easy to understand, like lost and not converted.
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Researcher: Ok, thank you, and then how would you say does this idea of lost energy
match up with the conservation of energy?
Student 3: Um…
Researcher: Are you familiar with the law of conservation of energy?
Student 3: I think I know it, but …
Researcher: What do you remember about it?
Student 3: That in a closed system, I think it is a closed system, it’s a closed system,
or it’s a bouncy ball thingy, um in that system, it, it, if there is no friction
and stuff, then it would be conserved, right? But that can’t happen, like
you can’t have a closed system you know, because um normal things
can’t do that like you can’t get a little box and catch two things in there,
because something will happen, you know, it will absorb some energy.
Researcher: Thank you, that is all that I want to ask you, do you have any questions?
Student 3: No.
N4: Interview with the fourth student on 13/08/2009 at 11h00-11h15
Researcher: In your worksheet you wrote that: “this generator is a dc generator,
because of its slip rings.” Tell me more about the difference between an
ac and a dc generator.
Student 4: Ok, I don’t know. Um, ac, am I right, ac generators, …, dc generators use
electricity to create mechanical energy, I think, and ac generators, …, yah,
use mechanical energy to create energy, I think, I am not sure, cough, so
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what I think mam, is that because an ac generator is slip ring and a dc one
is, no a dc one is slip rings and an ac one is split rings, that’s what I mean.
Researcher: Would you say these in the diagram are spilt rings or slip rings?
Student 4: Slip.
Researcher: Have you done an experiment in the class, where you have built one or
have you seen an ac or dc generator?
Student 4: Experiment no; it’s what I saw from the textbook, slip rings...
Researcher: So pictures?
Student 4: Yes.
Researcher: The next question that you answered was the one about the cut-off switch.
These multi-plugs like this one over here, (researcher points to the nearby
multi-plug) has got a cut-off switch.
Student 4: Ok.
Researcher: So the question on the worksheet said: “why is the cut-off switch so
important?” You wrote that: “The cut-off switch stops the flow of power,
before anything harmful happens, because of the power getting too
intense.” What do you think caused the power to get too intense?
Student 4: (Pause). What caused the power to get too intense? Pause. Maybe
electric shortages or high voltage in the house system, I’m not sure, jah,
pause.
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Researcher: Ok, what exactly is power?
Student 4: Pause, well I think power is electricity and power is, pause, the ability for
us humans to live, the means to produce light, to see in the dark, to to
make food, yah, basically means of living.
Researcher: Ok, and then you said: “the cut-off switch switches off the power before
anything harmful happens”, what do you think causes the components to
get hot?
Student 4: The components to get hot? Umm. (Long Pause). The electricity, I think it
is the electricity, the flow of electricity. When not a specific amount is given
to it, when more than a specific amount is given to it then it gets hot.
Researcher: What do you think happens when I keep adding plugs, like that one can
take five plugs, but because I want more things in, I put a double adaptor
in, with more plugs, what do you think happens then, when I keep adding
plugs to that multi-plug?
Student 4: Well you are using more energy (voice very soft).
Researcher: Using more energy? (Verifying what I heard).
Student 4: I think you are using more energy than what the plug can really … give.
Researcher: And how would you say are those components connected? Are they
connected in parallel or in series?
Student 4: Think series, series.
Researcher: In series?
280
Student 4: Series.
Researcher: If they are connected in series, what will they do to the total voltage that
the plug is giving them?
Student 4: I am not sure.
Researcher: Ok, one last question. The question about the car accident, where the one
car drives into the back of the other car at the robot, and the question
says: “when a heavy vehicle collides into a lighter car, the passengers in
the lighter car are more likely to get hurt”, and then you need to explain
why. In your worksheet you wrote that: “the heavier car has more weight,
thus resulting in the passengers in the lighter car having more injuries."
Tell me why do you think the weight of the car will cause more injuries?
Student 4: Umm, weight of the car, because, the weight of the car influences like the
force that the car exerts, so if a car is moving at a certain speed, and then
the lighter one is also moving at a certain speed too, then the, the, heavier
car tries to brake, it’s going to take longer for it to brake, because of all of
the weight on it than the smaller one, so then the heavier one is going to
exert more force than the smaller one, That’s why the smaller one has
more risk of getting injured than the heavier one. Force and the weight,
yah (very softly).
Researcher: Ok, what is the difference between weight and mass?
Student 4: Ok, weight and mass. Pause. Weight, pause I don’t know, don’t know, the
mass…
Researcher: Do you know what mass is?
281
Student 4: The mass of the truck. Pause. 9,8 I think.
Researcher: Ok, what is your mass, for example?
Student 4: The one I measure on the scale? Cause that’s weight. Mass, (pause).
Researcher: When you get on the scale, what is the unit?
Student 4: (Pause). Won’t it be kg?
Researcher: Kg, so would kg be the weight?
Student 4: Pause. Think weight.
Researcher: Weight?
Student 4: Weight.
Researcher: That is all I would like to ask you, are there any questions that you would
like to ask?
Student 4: Yes mam.
Researcher: What would you like to ask?
Student 4: It’s about, cause mam gave me this question paper, (he looks through the
worksheet), it’s about these questions about current and dc generator, in
class we don’t do much exercises on them.
Researcher: Exercises or experiments?
282
Student 4: Well experiments, the last time I did experiments on this was in grade 9,
what do you call, circuits and globes, and I don’t have, grade 9’s quite a
long time back compared to matric, it’s like three years back, and my
memory is kind of vague. So, could we like do some more, could as like in
chemistry when we do something we do an experiment to see what
happens, so that when we go and write it, the paper, we already know
what’s going to happen, how this reaction is going to be.
Researcher: It, is definitely true that we need to do more experiments, as a teacher
know the reason that we don’t, is time, we just run out of time, there is so
much that we still need to do, we always run out of time, so at the end of
the day, that is why we just try to get through the theory, even though we
know that you have to do the practical to be able to understand it, but
sometimes, you know, it’s the whole issue of time, so you don’t know what
is going to be the best , so in the end it is a judgment call, because you
need to do both, so you have to do the experiments, and you have to do
the theory, but then sometimes you think that because you have done the
experiments in grade 9 and now because you have to get the theory done,
and yes time is a very big issue. It’s unfortunately the problem, is the time.
N5: Interview with the fifth student on 13/08/2009 at 11h15-11h30
Researcher: This question asks: If R burns out, what happens to the voltmeter reading?
You said that: “When resistor R burns out, then the internal resistance will
decrease because there will be one less resistor working, so the voltmeter
reading will increase.” Explain to me why you think that when the R burns
out the internal resistance will decrease?
Student 5: Because then there is one less resistor. If there is less resistance, then the
current flows more.
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Researcher: Let’s move on to another question, there was a question about a cut-off
switch. In these multi-plugs there is a little cut-off switch, and the question
asks why the cut-off switch is that important, and you said: “the cut-off
switch prevents a power surge from damaging appliances and prevents
extra voltage from going through," what do you think would cause the
power to surge in the first place, to get too intense?
Student 5: Ah, pause. Lightning, or, pause. Or just if the power station is just, its
voltage is too high, or maybe if the like the transformer it is not functioning
or something.
Researcher: Ok, and what exactly is power, when there is too much power?
Student 5: Umm, pause, I usually see it as a, like too much voltage.
Researcher: Too much voltage?
Student 5: Ja.
Researcher: So the voltage increases?
Student 5: Mmm.
Researcher: Would you say those (researcher points to a multi-plug) plugs are
connected in series or parallel?
Student 5: Umm, pause. The plugs connected to the appliance?
Researcher: Yes, so basically the appliances, are they connected in series or in parallel
in there?
284
Student 5: Series.
Researcher: In series?
Student 5: Mm.
Researcher: Ok, last question, just one more. (Pause, while the researcher finds the
next question that the learner answered very expressively.) The collision
one, the car comes from the back and hits into the car at the robot, and
the question says in certain collisions linear momentum isn’t conserved,
when is it not conserved? And you wrote: "Momentum won’t be conserved
as the car’s shape will be permanently changed", explain why you think
the momentum isn’t conserved when that happened?
Student 5: ..Umm, because if it was conserved then the momentum after the collision
will still be equal to the momentum before the collision, and obviously
because there is change in form and heat and whatever, then obviously
momentum was lost.
Researcher: Ok, ah, you also wrote that momentum will be transferred to heat and
sound, like you said now, explain why you think momentum can be
transferred to heat and sound?
Student 5: Why?
.
Researcher: Auuh. Why do you think momentum can be transferred to heat and
sound?
Student 5: Umm.. I don’t really think it is the momentum I think it is the energy, the
kinetic energy.
285
Researcher: Ok, and then they asked: “When a heavy vehicle collides into a lighter car,
um, have I got your answer here ... yes, when the heavy car collides,
afterwards a traffic cop standing there says if a heavy car collides head-on
with a lighter car, the passengers in the lighter car are more likely to get
injured, from a scientific point of view why do you think this happens?
Student 5: Um…um well the heavy car has more mass so (long pause) um … and
also it won’t be, um like the lighter car has more, the chance of being like
hit to the side or something, because it’s lighter, while the heavier car is
more stable on the ground, because it is more heavier, and um,…, it’s
momentum should be actually higher because it has a higher mass, even
if they are travelling at the same speed, the truck still has more
momentum, so, ..
Researcher: ok, thank you very much, that’s it, all the questions, you did really well, do
you enjoy Science?
Student 5: Ja I do.
Researcher: Ok, obviously, you didn’t do as well as you normally do, because it only
was the explanation questions, and most kids do better in the sums,
surprisingly. Are you going to study something in Science next year?
Student 5: Nah.
Researcher: What are you going to do?
Student 5: BComm. Accounting.
Researcher: Aah, money, money, money, (laugh). Thank you very much.
286
N6: Interview with the sixth student on 13/08/2009 at 11h30-11h45
Researcher: Ok, so the first question I want to ask you about is this question about the
conducting wires, P and Q, so the question says you have two conducting
wires P and Q and you want to know which one is the better conductor. So
you put them in a circuit, you connect a ammeter near them and you
measure the current that is running through the two wires, and you
connect a voltmeter over the wire, to measure the potential difference
across the wires, and then you plot the data and this is the data that you
get (pointing at the graph on the worksheet), and from that data which
conductor is a better conductor, and why-y, how do you know which one is
a better conductor? Ok, you wrote: “wire P is a better conductor, because
it is at a higher potential difference than Wire Q.” Tell me more about why,
uhh, the higher potential difference would make it a better conductor. Why
do you think it works like that?
Student 6: Um... because, because of the high voltage the condu- um. I don’t really
have a reason for xx
Researcher: Why do you think you guessed that?
Student 6: Umm ... for some reason I think when something has the potential the high
potential difference it has the better conductor.
Researcher: Ok, what is potential difference?
Student 6: It’s the voltage of the umm … conductor or ...
Researcher: Ok, and what is voltage?
287
Student 6: Um, the measurement of umm xxx …aah …umm …can’t really think what
that is now um (pause)
Researcher: Ok, that’s fine. .. What do you think the current has got to do with the
conductivity?
Student 6: Uum that’s what the amount of... energy uh like flow of xxx ah ... what’s
the question again? (Smile)
Researcher: What is current, and what has it got to do with conductivity? Why do you
think they measured the current?
Student 6: I’m having such a blank now...
Researcher: It is there; somewhere, just think about it, what do you know about
current?
Student 6: … I know it has to do with the flow of electrons and all that xxx (Pause)
Researcher: Ok, so it’s got to do with the flow of electrons, so how would that affect the
conductivity?
Student 6: Um, the...actually if it has more currency it will be more conductive
because more electrons flowing -
Researcher: And which one -
Student 6: which would make it easier to -
Researcher: which one looks like it’s got more... current flowing through it?
288
Student 6: Um wire Q, that’s my answer but xxx (learner thinks about it)
Researcher: What do you think, now they have got both here, so they actually want you
to think about both of them, what do you think the gradient of this graph
would be?
Student 6: (long pause)
Researcher: Do you know how to work out the gradient?
Student 6: Yeah, that’s the difference in y over the difference in x.
Researcher: So what would it be for this graph?
Student 6: Um (pause) for the both?
Researcher: Yah, for either of them.
Student 6: Um (pause) I said wire Q’s gradient xx one…
Researcher: In terms of current and potential difference?
Student 6: Um, the current is more to the current (higher) and... wire P has more
potential difference so the (valence) is... lower or um nee I kan dit nie in
Engels sê nie.
Researcher: Jy kan dit in Afrikaans sê.
Student 6: Um, dit is minder (pause) um .. styg minder (pause)
Researcher: Ok
289
Student 6: (kan nie help met die woorde nie)
Researcher: Ok ...kom ons kyk na ander vraagie.. antwoord jy gewoonlik in Afrikaans
of Engels?
Student 6: Uum, ek antwoord in engels, maar ons het eintlik tot in graad 10 in
Afrikaans geantwoord, partykeer dan sit mens n .. -
Researcher: Jy weet in die eksamen kan jy in enige iets...
Student 6: Ek weet nie, ons het gevra daaroor toe het hul gese nee as ons in Engels
skryf dan moet ons in Engels skryf.
Researcher: As jy sukkel in die eksamen-
Student 6: So ek weet nie hoe waar is dit -
Researcher: Kan jy enige iets, jy kan deurmekaar ook skryf.
Student 6: Aag ek het nie so groot problem met die (Afrikaans) dit is net partykeer
wat xxx dan het ek nie tyd om als oor te vertaal nie.
Researcher: Maar die merkers sal dit merk, so jy kan dit in engels skryf en dan as jy nie
die woord kan sê nie kan jy deurmekaar skryf, dit (word gemerk.) (Pause
while researcher looks for the next question in the student’s worksheet.)
Ok, hier was die ander ene, ok, uuh, dit was die vraag oor die kar, dit se
as die swaar kar, ah, in n ligte kar in bots dan gaan die mense wat in die
ligte kar sit heel waarskynlik, um, seerder kry, ah, en hoekom is dit so, ah,
ok en toe se jy: “both cars will be moving at a higher speed increasing the
amount of force that will be experienced.” So according to that why do you
290
think if they are both going at a higher speed and are in a head-on
collision, and they both have a bigger force, why do you think the car, the
passengers in the light car will be hurt more?
Student 6: Um, (pause) well the die groter kar sal nogsteeds more force hê want die
massa en die spoed jah ..
Researcher: So dink jy hy gaan meer krag he?
Student 6: Ja di... altwee karre se force sal increase maar die groter vehicle se xxx
sal nogsteeds meer wees as die -
Researcher: Wat sal meer wees?
Student 6: Sy force?
Researcher: Sy impact force?
Student 6: Ja
Researcher: So sal hy die kleiner kar harder slaan as wat die ander kar hom slaan?
Student 6: Ja
Researcher: Ok,..hoekom dink jy so, hoekom sal hy harder slaan?
Student 6: Um.. wel dis groter oppervlakte eerstens wat … teenoor die kleiner kar
wat hy … meer area om te slaan en … as … die massa, as force massa
en accelerasie acceleration is, is sy massa dan meer is, gaan die force
ook meer wees, so (pause)
291
Researcher: En wat van die acceleration deel dan?
Student 6: (Pause) as .. as al twee karre … umm .. soos … word dit .. -
Researcher: Jy sê die swaarder kar gaan meer massa hê so sy krag gaan ook meer
wees, maar die krag is massa en versnelling, soo is jy seker dat sy
versnelling ook meer is?
Student 6: Oo, dit beteken nie dat sy versnelling gaan meer wees nie ,nie
noodwendig nie.
Researcher: Nie noodwendig nie, dan sal dit miskien die krag beinvloed?
Student 6: Nee, dit gaan net die krag beinvloed (dan sal die) krag dieselfde wees as
wanneer hy die stilstaande kar xxxx
Researcher: Ok, en dan ‘n ander ding nê, Newton se derde wet sê dat vir elke krag
wat uitgeoften word, is daar ‘n gelyke teenoorgestelde krag, so sou
Newton se derde wet hierso TEL, as die swaar kar die ligte kar slaan, vir
daai krag is daar 'n gelyke teenoorgestelde krag?
Student 6: …umm (pause) nee want daar .. of daar moet wees want dit maak nie
eintlik xxx maar ek kan eintlik dink waar..
Researcher: Hoekom sê jy daar moet wees, is dit omdat sy wet so sê?
Student 6: …Maar dit kan nie wees nie, want dit is nie geslote die (pause) die
(pause)
Researcher: Ok, so jy dink nie dit gaan daar werk nie?
292
Student 6: Ek dink nie dit gaan werk nie, want … dit gaan nie terug xxx dan gaan die
kar agter in xxx
Researcher: Ok, waar dink jy werk Newton se derde wet wel, wanneer is daar vir elke
krag ‘n gelyke teenoorgestelde krag?
Student 6: Wanneer daar niks anders is wat daarop in werk nie -
Researcher: Soos byvoorbeeld ek en hierdie tafel (researcher pushes her hand down
on the table)?
Student 6: Ja, dit gaan werk -
Researcher: Druk ons mekaar dieselfde hoeveelheid?
Student 6: Ja
Researcher: Ok, hoekom lyk die tafel se, jy weet ‘n tafel het geen misvorming, maar my
hand het, so die effek was nie dieselfde nie, al was die krag dieselfde nê.
Ok, dit is al wat ek wou vra oor daardie ene, nou nog eenietjie,
(researcher looks for the next question that the learner answered on the
worksheet) Wilma was hierso?
Student 6: Nee sy wag buite.
Researcher: Het julle klas nou?
Student 6: Ons onderwyser is afwesig.
Researcher: Daar is nog een vraagie wat ek jou wil vra. (Pause) Oh die lig, dit sê:
“when a laser emits red light and passes through a single slit a diffraction
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pattern can be seen on a screen some distance away” en die vraag is:
“what does the diffraction pattern look like? En jy het geskryf; “the
diffraction pattern consists of red bars of light with dark bars in between
continuously with a central", dan kon ek nie lees nie, ietsie, “of red light."
Wat het jy gesê is daardie central?
Student 6: The central maximum.
Researcher: Ok, the central maximum of light. Umm. Het jy al ‘n diffraction pattern
gesien?
Student 6: Ek weet ons het, maar ek kan rerig nie meer daardie werk onthou nie,
maar ons het daardie diffraction patterns en daardie goed gesien.
Researcher: Het jul die experiment gedoen.
Student 6: Ja ons het daardie slits gebruik xxx.
Researcher: En jy kan nie mooi onthou hoe het hy gelyk nie?
Student 6: Um, dit was uh, dit was ok daai band bande maar ek kan nie mooi onthou
of dit equal uit mekaar was, of was dit groter spasies en dan kleiner
geword het nie, dit is wat my deurmekaar maak.
Researcher: Ok, en dan as jy die enkel slit met ‘n double slit vervang um hoe lyk die
twee patrone, wat is dieselfde van hulle, kan jy onthou wat was dieselfde
van die twee?
Student 6: Ek dink in ons boeke… (ek kan glad nie onthou nie) smile
Researcher: Ok (smile) So jy kan nie mooi onthou nie, as jy daardie laser sou vervang
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met ‘n gewone lig, .. , sou jy dieselfde patrone sien?
Student 6: Um ja want al wat verskil is die wavelength so nee maar dan sal hy
verander (pause) um (pause)
Researcher: Wat is die verkil tussen ‘n gewone lig bulb en ‘n laser?
Student 6: Um, die wavelength verskil van die (twee)...dit is ..
Researcher: Ok, baie dankie.
N7: Interview with the seventh student on 13/08/2009 at 11h45-12h00
Researcher: I forgot to put the tape-recorder on.
Student 7: Uuu because by crumbling it’s going to go slower, it’s going to lose …
the... if the F = I/g or something (Laugh) I’m not sure…
Researcher: Ok, it’s fine.
Student 7: You are going to lose F so the I will also become (less) but that’s xxx (it
depends)…
Researcher: Ok.
Student 7: I don’t know.
Researcher: Ok, umm, what would you say.... what exactly is an elastic collision, what
is the difference between an elastic collision and an inelastic collision?
Student 7: Ek dink ... I get umm confused between when it is elastic and when it is
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closes the circuit (but) I think elastic is something when something like a
snooker ball almost no momentum is lost there because it is smooth
…and no outside forces … is there to kind of slow it down ..xx
Researcher: Ok, that’s fine and there is another part of the question, the b part of the
question that says: “If two cars collide head-on, there is a light car and a
heavy car colliding head-on then the passengers in the light car will be
less likely to get hurt” … and then you had to say why, why was it like that,
and you said: “ the heavier car will have more momentum so it will keep
going in the same direction but slower , when the lighter cars direction will
change because it’s passenger keeps going the same way so it’s
passengers will experience more force.” For how long do you think the
passengers will keep going the same way, so you said the heavier one is
going to hit then the light one is going to have to change direction it was
going this way (researcher points at the picture of the car on the
worksheet) so it is going to have to change direction, but the passengers
won’t they just keep going forward because of their momentum, for how
long do you think are they going to keep going forward?
Student 7: Just like a few split seconds and then they will be pulled back.
Researcher: Ok so and why will they experience more force?
Student 7: Because they will be moving…it won’t just be force from the front…they
will be moving…in the direction where the force is coming from, so like in
xxx
Researcher: Ok, so because they are going in the opposite direction they are going to
experience even more force.
Student 7: Mm.
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Researcher: Um, Newton’s third law says that for every force there is an equal but
opposite force, do you think that works in a head-on collision like that, will
the force that the heavy truck exerts on the light car, do you think the light
car exerts the same force ?
Student 7: Yes, but the heavier car has even more force.
Researcher: Ok, so the heavier car has even more force?
Student 7: xxx
Researcher: Ok, another question (researcher briefly looks for the next question that
the learner answered on the worksheet.) These multi-plugs (researcher
points at a multi-plug) they have a cut-off switch, why is the cut-off switch
so important? Um, you wrote: “it is important because when current flows
through a conductor, the conductor heats up, if the current is too high, the
wires will burn out.” What causes the current to become too high?
Student 7: The…you mean like if the electrons move it would xxx
Researcher: You said that when the current flows through the conductor the conductors
get hot, and if the current is TOO high then they get too... then the wires
will burn out and that is why you need a cut-off switch. So what would
cause the current to become too high in the first place?
Student 7: If you use too many appliances…in the one like sock-et
Researcher: Mmm. Then the current would get high higher?
Student 7: Yes.
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Researcher: Why do you think it works like that, why do you think the current gets
high? You are right it does get higher, but why?
Student 7: Because it needs to be more places at once.
Researcher: Ok, are those resistors, appliances connected in series or parallel when
you put them in a multi-plug like that?
Student 7: (Pause). Probably series.
Researcher: Why do you think series?
Student 7: (Pause) Because if the..the one appliance breaks the others will still keep
going even though…-
Researcher: So of the one appliance breaks the others can keep going, does that
mean they are in series?
Student 7: …Yes, because then there is no …the circuit isn’t broken there is still
somewhere for the electricity to go ..to the other appliances.
Researcher: Ok, another question, last one. (Researcher looks up next question that
the learner answered on the worksheet). It’s about the laser. The laser
emits a red light and it passes through a single slit and then you get a
diffraction pattern on a screen. What does that diffraction pattern look like?
Ok, you wrote that:”It consists of a bright central band of light with (clear
throat) bands of on both sides, it becomes smaller and dimmer the further
they are from the centre.” What do these bands look like, that become
smaller and dimmer, what do they look like, what colour are they?
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Student 7: Well it’s red and then it’s like black with no colour, and then the red will be
there again but it will be..it wouldn’t be as intense anymore it will be darker
red and darker darker xx
Researcher: Ok, and what do you mean by the bands become smaller?
Student 7: The middle band will be like the bigger piece and space where the red’s
shining and then there will be bigger bands next to it, and then the next
red band won’t be as wide as the middle one and then …(laugh) get
narrower, narrower…
Researcher: It becomes narrower and narrower?
Student 7: Mm
Researcher: Ok, um if they replace the single slit with a double slit, then the pattern
looks different in some ways and similar in some ways. What are the
similarities between the pattern with the single slit and the pattern with the
double slit, what is the same about them?
Student 7: They still have alternating bands of colour and black no colour.
Researcher: And what’s different about them?
Student 7: Um the double slit...the bands will stay the same length apart because of
the wavelength and the same length apart when they cross each other, so
the pattern will just go on …
Researcher: Ok and if you had to replace the laser with a normal light bulb, would you
see those patterns?
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Student 7 .Yes but the light bulb wouldn’t...there…some of the light would be lost
because it’s not like this … straight piece of light, it won’t be as bright, you
are not going to have as much light and it’s going to be a different colour.
Researcher: Ok, thank you, that’s all I wanted to ask. Thank you.
N8: Interview with the eighth student on 14/08/2009 at 11h00-11h15
Researcher: Ok, I am just going to ask you three questions about what you wrote in the
worksheet. The first question is: “A fully automatic camera has a built- in
light meter. When light enters the light meter it strikes a metal object that
releases electrons and creates a current.” And then the question was:
“What happens to the energy of the emitted photo-electrons if the incident
radiation is increased, while maintaining a constant wavelength?” Ok, and
you wrote: “The energy of the emitted photo-electrons increases, as the
intensity increases.” Why do you think that the photo-electrons’ energy,
because they are asking you what happens to the energy of the photo-
electrons when you increase the intensity of the light, why do you think
that the energy of the photo-electrons increases?
Student 8: Ok, honestly, that answer I did not know, so I was like if I write this maybe
I will get one mark or so. I didn’t understand the question, and I didn’t
know the answer at all.
Researcher: Ok, so you can’t think of a reason may be why you guessed that?
Student 8: No. (Laugh)
Researcher: Ok, um. Then there’s another part, ok, what do you think it actually means,
in the question they say: “The intensity of the light increases, but the
wavelength of the light stays the same.” What would you think it means
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when they say the wavelength of the radiation stays constant?
Student 8: Ok, ask the question again, please (laugh).
Researcher: The intensity of the light that hits the light-meter is more, but it’s
wavelength stays the same, what do you think that means, what does it
mean when the wavelength stays the same?
Student 8: (Pause)
Researcher: What is wavelength?
Student 8: (Pause) (I have no idea)
Researcher: If you had to take a guess, if you had to explain it to a friend …what would
you say wavelength is?
Student 8: (Laugh) I don’t know um... The wavelength would be something ok xxxx
(laugh). Inside the light bulb, is this the light?
Researcher: Ja, the light xx
Student 8: Ok, I think the wavelength is the ...amount of time it takes for a person to
see the light on the outside (pause) transmitted from the inside of the light.
(Pause)
Researcher: Ok, and then there was a B part, they said that um: “What would happen
to the number of photo-electrons emitted, if the intensity increased, and
why would it happen?” So you are shining light with a bigger intensity on
the light- meter, what happens to the number of photo-electrons emitted,
and you wrote that: “The number of photo-electrons would increase", um,
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which is right, but you need to explain why, why do you think that number
of photo-electrons will increase when you increase the radiation, why do
you think that it would increase?
Student 8: I just thought that if the radiation increases, then the what is it?
Researcher: Photo-electrons?
Student 8: Ja, the photo-electrons would, you know what, this whole question I just
guessed, so… no I didn’t guess actually, but I just thought that, my brain
just told me I should write that it increased because of the radiation
increasing .
Researcher: Ok, um have you seen a light-meter or a photo-electric cell?
Student 8: MmMm
Researcher: Neither of them, you have never seen a photo-electric cell?
Student 8: MmMm
Researcher: A picture in a book, in your science textbook is there a picture of a photo-
electric cell?
Student 8: Yes, there is.
Researcher: Can you remember what it looks like?
Student 8: No, (smile) (laugh)
Researcher: Can you remember when you did this section?
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Student 8: Last term, no no no no, first term, if I am not mistaken.
Researcher: The first term, ok, (pause) ok, where did you get most of your ideas on the
photo-electric effect, you can’t remember much about the photo-electric
effect, the experiment or anything?
Student 8: No, no, I can’t remember.
Researcher: Ok, thank you, let’s try another question. (Pause) The light one. Um,
“When a laser emits red light and it passes through a single slit then you
get a diffraction pattern on a screen. What does that diffraction pattern
look like?” Ok, um you said: “There will be central maximum, and the rest
of the light will spread out.” Tell me more about what you mean, because
you have got there’s a central maximum, but if I’ve never seen this, I have
no idea what a central maximum is, so I don’t know what it looks like, so
what does a central maximum look like?
Student 8: Ok, when the light goes through the slit, there’s a, a broad band right and
then, ok I can’t remember if it is a double slit or single slit that does this,
but there’s, ah..the bands are evenly spread out towards either of the
sides of the central maximum.
Researcher: So the central maximum is a band of light, what colour is it?
Student 8: It’s black. No mam, white...ja it’s white.
Researcher: White …and um how broad is the band, compared to the other bands, are
they all the same size or what?
Student 8: Well with, Ok, there’s two, there’s a double slit and there’s a xxx uugh a
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single slit sorry, and it depends on which slit you use to direct the light, but
now I remember there was either one with a broader central maximum
than the other one, and then there was aah they were evenly spaced out,
in the double slit I think, the the xx was evenly spread out.
Researcher: Ok, what was the difference between the single and the double slit?
Student 8: Um, I think it’s the way the, the bands are spread out. ..Ah the one has the
… -
Researcher: The double slit, how does the double slit look like?
Student 8: I’m just going to say both; I’m not going to put a name to either. The one
the central maximum, from the central maximum the other bands are
spread out, I think (pause) I think it was a bigger spread than the other
one, I think so, and then (pause) mm now I can’t even remember, but then
all that I remember is that the spaces weren’t even in the one and in the
other the spaces were even.
Researcher: And you don’t remember in which one?
Student 8: MmMm, I think it’s the double slit.
Researcher: The double slit they are even spaced?
Student 8: Even spaces, ya.
Researcher: Do they both have that central maximum?
Student 8: Yes.
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Researcher: And all of this pattern is it all just black and white, or what does it look like?
Student 8: It’s black and white.
Researcher: Not red?
Student 8: (Pause) (Smile) (Maybe it’s red.)
Researcher: Did you see it?
Student 8: Yes I did see it.
Researcher: You did the experiment?
Student 8: Yes we did the experiment.
Researcher: Ok, um, then they asked: “If you had to do the experiment without the
laser, if you didn’t have the laser, you used a normal light bulb to do the
experiment would you see the diffraction pattern?” that you normally see
with a light bulb?
Student 8: I don’t think so.
Researcher: Why do you say so?
Student 8: Because the light in a light bulb isn’t as strong as a laser, because a laser
shines directly, the light bulb just … the light bulb just … it’s just a general
light, and then the laser shines directly through.
Researcher: Do you know what the word for that is, for shining directly?
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Student 8: Umm, …,no. (laugh)
Researcher: It’s coherent.
Student 8: Ok, (smile)
Researcher: Ok, last question, umm it’s this one. The question with the two car’s that
bump into one another and they said: “During a, in certain collisions
momentum isn’t conserved, when is linear momentum not conserved?”
You (L8) wrote: “The linear momentum isn’t conserved when both cars
move forward after the collision and the one car moves even further
forward.” Explain why you think momentum isn’t conserved when that
happens?
Student 8: (Pause)
Researcher: Why is momentum not conserved when they both move forward and the
one moves even more forward?
Student 8: Isn’t ah conservation of momentum when a car after collision stops, isn’t
that xxx that’s what I understand, like both the cars, like if the one car is
coming and …
Researcher: The one was just standing still and the other one was coming from the
back.
Student 8: So I would, did I write that the second car …
Researcher: Ok, you just wrote, um, let’s just find it exactly here (researcher looks at
the learner’s worksheet answer) you wrote: “It may not be valid that linear
momentum is conserved because both cars move forward after the
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collision, and car A moves even further forward, meaning that the
momentum is not conserved and the circuit does non conservative forces
such as force.”
Student 8: Ok, ah, (pause) (What was?)
Researcher: Why do you think that if they both go forward after the collision,
momentum is conserved?
Student 8: Because ah, I understood from conserve aah conservation of momentum
was that the car after the collision stops, ug… wherever it lands up it just
stops, and that’s what I thought.
Researcher: Ok, um, you said here that um “in a circuit there may be non conservative
forces such as force", tell me more about these forces that would hinder,
you are saying that they are non-conservative forces that are going to
hinder the conservation of momentum, what are these forces that would
stop the conservation of momentum?
Student 8: Aah, did I say force here?
Researcher: Ja, you said the circuit has non-conservative forces such as force.
Student 8: Ok, …last term I think we learnt about non-conservative forces, but I think
I got this section mixed up with another section, so I think the force the
non-conservative forces, I learnt about another one and then I mixed them
up and then I just was confused mam, ya.
Researcher: Ok, so you are not sure.
Student 8: Ja, I am not sure.
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Researcher: Ok, are there any questions that you want to ask me?
Student 8: (Shakes head no)
Researcher: Ok, I am going to give your paper back to your teacher, I will give her a
photo-copy of that, and there is just one thing that I want to explain to you,
because I didn’t tell you anywhere where you were right or wrong or
anything and I am not going to, except this one thing I am very tempted to
tell you, because you said you got the idea that momentum is conserved
when they stopped afterward, in this situation you had the one car that
was standing still and you had the other car that was moving forward so
before the collision there was momentum in the forward direction because
of the one car that was going forward, so if momentum is conserved,
which means it stays the same, then it means that you must have some
type of momentum afterwards, because the one car was moving forward,
so there was momentum forward so that means afterwards there must be
momentum forward, and for it to be conserved it must be the exact
amount, so that’s why there must be some kind of movement afterwards
because ...if they stop during the collision then it wouldn’t be conservation
of momentum, because you had momentum before that means you must
have momentum afterwards. When they stop it means, if they stop after
the collision then it means that the momentum before the time had to be
zero, now how would that have happened, they wouldn’t have collided into
one another if they were standing still, the only way that their momentum
before the time could have been zero is if they were moving in the
opposite direction because then their momentums are in opposite
directions, and they cancel one another out in a head-on collision, and hey
they have to have the same momentum before, or them to cancel out
exactly and to stop. Sometimes you have head-on collisions and they
don’t stop, but that doesn’t mean that momentum wasn’t conserved, it just
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means that if they go that way then that one will have more momentum,
not necessarily faster, more momentum can be faster or heavier, -
Student 8: Ooh,
Researcher: because momentum depends on mass and the velocity.
Student 8: Ooh, ok. Thank you mam.
N9: Interview with the ninth student on 14/08/2009 at 11h15-11h30
Researcher: There it is (referring to the learners’ worksheet) the one that you signed.
Student 9: Ja
Researcher: Umm
Student 9: That’s me.
Researcher: This is you. Ok, let’s find where you wrote that, ok I’m not going to show
you your marks now; otherwise you are just going to be worried.
Student 9: No, I won’t be worried, (aagh who cares.)
Researcher: It’s just the explanation questions and most kids do worse in the
explanation questions. Ok, so that is why I am doing the explanation
questions. Umm, actually it’s weird you do better in the sums-
Student 9: Mmm
Researcher: -than in the explanation questions.
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Student 9: That’s because it’s straight forward, you know the formula and you just do
it.
Researcher: Ok, right the question says: “When a laser emits red light and passes
through a single slit, then you get a diffraction pattern-
Student 9: Jaa
Researcher: -what does a diffraction pattern look like?” Ok you wrote umm, now I am
looking at the wrong question-
Student 9: Jaa I remember answering that.
Researcher: (pause as researcher looks for the learners’ answer for the question from
the worksheet)
Student 9: Did you type out all our answers as well?
Researcher: I haven’t yet; I’ve still got to do that.
Student 9: Aah whew, it’s a big project.
Researcher: Ok, there’s the circuit (pointing to the circuit on the worksheet) and they
said: “If that resistor burns out, what will happen to that voltmeter
reading?” Ok, you wrote: “If that resistor burns out, the voltmeter reading
will increase-"
Student 9: Jaa
Researcher: -which is right, " because there will be less resistance in the circuit.”
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Student 9: Yes.
Researcher: So first tell me if that one burns out, why will there be less resistance in
the circuit?
Student 9: Because there’s one less resistor (smile).Ok (laugh).
Researcher: That sounds pretty obvious. Ok, if there’s one less resistor so the whole
resistance has dropped, why is that going to make the voltmeter reading
go up?
Student 9: Because, if there’s less resistance then obviously there’s more power that
goes through the (stream) instead of if there were two resistors then,
obviously it uses more of the volts so if you can say, I don’t remember all
of this work anymore (Laugh), but I kind of figured, you know, if there’s
more resistance then the voltmeter reading would be less, because the
stream has to do more work when it moves,..or the power..electricity has
to be xx
Researcher: Ok, what does a voltmeter read, what does it actually measure?
Student 9: I know the Afrikaans word.
Researcher: Ok, tell me.
Student 9: Stroomsterkte.
Researcher: It measures stroomsterkte, the voltmeter?
Student 9: Ja.
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Researcher: Ok, so stroomsterkte in volts?
Student 9: Ja.
Researcher: Ok-
Student 9: AAH, that’s the ammeter!
Researcher: Mm, ok, so what does the voltmeter read?
Student 9: Potential difference or something.
Researcher: Ok, potential difference, what is potential difference?
Student 9: I have no idea anymore. (Laugh)
Researcher: Not sure at all what it is?
Student 9: AAH, it’s something to do with the batteries or ..I don’t know um,…
Researcher: Not sure what the potential difference is?
Student 9: No.
Researcher: Because the voltmeter reading does go up, but it’s not because…
Student 9: Why does it go up then?
Researcher: I will tell you now now.
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Student 9: Ok.
Researcher: Let me see where there was another question that I wanted to ask you. I
think that what it, ok, let me just check your other questions because I will
come back to that one now. The other question was, these multi-plugs that
you get, (pointing to a multi-plug) they have got cut-off switches, those
little cut-off switches over there (pointing to the cut-off switch on the multi-
plug).
Student 9: I didn’t have an idea what a cut-off switch is.
Researcher: Here it is (pointing to the cut-off switch on the multi-plug) you can push
that thing then it cuts off.
Student 9: So there’s no electrical flow.
Researcher: Yes, and they said: "why is it so important?", so you wrote: “It enables us
to stop the circuit from flowing through that plug and it cuts-off the circuit."
(Learner starts laughing quietly).
Researcher: Why is it so funny? (Smile)
Student 9: (Smile).
Researcher: Why do you think the cut-off switch NEEDS to cut off the circuit in the first
place?
Student 9: If there’s a overload of plugs or … in the plug…
Researcher: Overload of plugs, what is an overload of plugs?
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Student 9: Well, too many plugs using too much energy, electricity.
Researcher: Ok, and what happens then?
Student 9: Then something can blow a fuse, you know and (pause)
Researcher: Ok, why would they use more electricity, what would they use more of …
when you put too many plugs in there?
Student 9: (Pause) Well I think..I don’t know … maybe if you use different.. machines
or things that use a lot of power, and so it has happened before in our
house that the plug just wanted to blow up, because it was too much
friction or.. I don’t know? Power.
Researcher: What do you mean by power?
Student 9: Electricity. (Smile)
Researcher: Electricity. What do you mean by electricity? (Smile)
Student 9: The flow of electrons (smile)?
Researcher: So the flow of electrons becomes more?
Student 9: Yes, it becomes too much.
Researcher: It becomes too much.
Student 9: Mm.
Researcher: How are they connected, would you say, it that series or parallel?
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Student 9: (Pause). I think it is series.
Researcher: Why?
Student 9: (Pause). I don’t know (Laughing) because they are in line there?
Researcher: Because they are in line?
Student 9: Ja.
Researcher: And that’s all I want to ask you, so let me go back and (researcher
switches off the tape-recorder and continues to explain the question the
learner asked previously, the one that the researcher said they would
come back to after the interview.)
N10: Interview with the tenth student on 17/08/2009 at 11h00-11h15
Researcher: I’m just going to ask you about three of the questions that you answered.
The first question that I am going to ask you about is the question about
the hydro-electric power station ... and uh in the hydro-electric power
station they say: “The water runs down and then about 85% of the waters
kinetic energy gets transformed into electricity, so what happens to the
other 15% that doesn’t get transformed into electricity?” So you wrote that:
“the other 15% is lost through other things such as heat, movement,
sound, etc.” Explain to me more about what you mean when you say the
energy is “lost”.
Student 10: When I say the energy is lost, I mean ... uh through when it was
transferred from the … what do you call it, xxx, yes, it was lost through,
they go through pipes right? Ja, and when they went through the pipes not
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the exact amount that was, the initial amount was not the one found at the
end, and the reason I came up with the fact, it could evaporate, it could be
lost through heat, vibrations, it could be lost through a lot of things, that’s
why I said etcetera, that’s what I understood by it.
Researcher: Ok, where would you say you got the idea from that energy is lost?
Student 10: Energy is lost, when we did xx, and let me think, when we did reactions,
that’s Chemistry, so I thought, ok, that happens when they ask you :”
where did the rest of the energy go?” and then you say electrons are lost
or they are gained, so I just took it from that..
Researcher: Umm … does this idea of lost energy match up with the law of
conservation of energy?
Student 10: (Pause.)
Researcher: Are you familiar with the law of conservation of energy?
Student 10: Yes. Energy not being destroyed or... ?
Researcher: Yes.
Student 10: But it can be transferred, yes it can be transferred, it does match up.
Researcher: And lost?
Student 10: Lost? No it doesn’t quite match up with it, lost, but the whole transferred to
from something else to another, like the initial amount to where it is lost
through heat…
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Researcher: Ok...ok let me find another one that you answered-
Student 10: It was probably transferred, ja, it can’t be lost.
Researcher: So you say it is transferred not lost?
Student 10: Yes it is transferred. It’s transferred not lost.
Researcher: (Cough) Ok, then this question, you have the two parallel plates um and
they say:” this is the way that a printer works” and basically the ink droplet
comes in, and the ink droplet has been negatively charged, and when it
comes between the parallel plates, it gets attracted upwards, so “what is
the charge on this bottom plate?”, so the ink droplet is negative, what is
the charge on plate B? You said um that: “Plate B is positively charged,
due to the fact that the negative and positively charged ink droplet will
work together to produce ink on the paper.”
Student 10: (Laugh)
Researcher: Tell me more about how this works. (Smile)
Student 10: Mam, that was much of a guess ... I seriously and honestly didn’t put any
applications into this question, I just … it was more of what I was thinking
...yes I I seriously, even now don’t understand why… that is so…
Researcher: Ok, so you’re not, you don’t know why you’re thinking that it’s positive,
why have you got the feeling that B is positive?
Student 10: That B is positive?...um I I have a … that if it’s negatively, uugh I have a, I
just guessed that if it’s negative then the plate at the bottom will be
positive, cause I just assumed that this line that’s the separation, I just
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took, like oh that’s positive and that’s negative, it was more of a guess, it
didn’t have any applications that we did, it was more of a guess.
Researcher: Ok, What do you know about how opposite charges react, if this was a
positive plate like you said, and that’s a negative, what do positive and
negative normally do, positive and negative charges?
Student 10: Usually uh they work together to produce whatever, and then negatively
and negatively, it’s the whole repelling and attracting.
Researcher: Ok, so would you say opposite charges attract or repel?
Student 10: They attract.
Researcher: They attract?
Student 10: Yes.
Researcher: So if this one was positive and the charge was negative, which way would
the droplet move?
Student 10: It would move this way?
Researcher: Which way, up or down?
Student 10: Down.
Researcher: And it hasn’t done that hey?
Student 10: Yes.
.
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Researcher: So what does that mean do you think?
Student 10: (Smile). It divides up.
Researcher: Why do you think it divides up, instead if they are attracting one another?
Student 10: Uuh, that means that it doesn’t necessarily work the way that charges, I
think that charges work.
Researcher: If B was negative and the ink droplet was negative then what would they
do, what would the two negatives do?
Student 10: They would repel and it think it wouldn’t, it would go straight or it wouldn’t
work at all I think.
Researcher: If they repel, which way would the ink droplet move?
Student 10: Umm, I will take a wild guess, I think it will go straight or go the other way.
Researcher: Ok, ok… last question. This one was about the light meter, a camera has
got a light meter in, to measure the intensity of the light, and the way it
works is that, you shine the light on it and then there’s a metal object that
releases electrons and creates a current, which makes the meter give you
a reading. Umm (cough) in the question they asked: “What happens if they
increase the intensity of light, without changing the wavelength of the light,
they just increase the intensity of the light, what happens to the energy of
the electrons that are emitted?” -
Student 10: If they increase the?
Researcher: If they increase the radiation, in other words the amount of light.
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Student 10: But they don’t increase the?
Researcher: They don’t change the wavelength, they just increase the radiation. What
is going to happen to the energy that the little photo-electrons have got
that are emitted.
Student 10: Isn’t it going to be more?
Researcher: Ok, you said, I think that is what you said, you said: “The energy of the
emitted photo-electrons will increase and then return to its original energy
level and will have a new born or gain electron during the energy transfer
of energy.” So explain to me why do you think that when they increase the
radiation the energy of the photo-electrons increases?
Student 10: Well I, I uh, remember the whole photo-electron when they say um,
something about when you increase … I think the energy or something,
and then another one is xx created on the way, I can only draw that, I am
more practical, I can draw that and explain like that, just like you increase
the radiation but the wavelength is the same, but it’s going to change the
photo-electrons, there is going to be more, that’s what I understand, I think
I can explain on paper.
Researcher: Ok, do you want to explain on paper?
Student 10: Remember the whole. (Learner starts drawing a diagram on the
worksheet)
Researcher: Is it working? (Referring to the pen)
Student 10: Yes it’s working. There was the whole (continues drawing) I can’t
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remember exactly, it looked like a capsule I think, and there was
something about, I think when energy increased? Or something, along the
way a new electron is, is born, and then they increase so that’s why I said,
ok I can’t remember, can’t really explain it, can’t really explain why…
Researcher: What do you mean by: “a new electron is born?”
Student 10: (Pause) There was this other one that I read, before I read this because
xxx photo-electrons, and I remember it saying something when you
increase the energy or something like that a new electron is formed, that’s
what I understood by it, that’s why I say it will increase, does it increase
the radiation?
Researcher: Ok, ok ...that’s all … have you seen a photo-electric cell or a light- meter?
Student 10: Yes but only on paper.
Researcher: Only on paper?
Student 10: Yes.
Researcher: Ok, so in your textbook basically or a picture somewhere?
Student 10: Yes a picture.
Researcher: Ok, that’s all, are there any questions that you want to ask me?
Student 10: Yes I want to ask you mam, um Science this year it’s tough, (smile)so
mam I was just since while you are interested, well I think you want to
help, yes, since well you’re going to help , I am suggesting that we should
go, you know going through papers it’s more like these days you just get
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the same questions and then, you like, kind of like store it in your head, we
don’t really sometimes understand what’s happening and what… what’s
going on we just store it, and oh I remember reading something about this
so I’m just going to say this, and its more about that, and it’s really bad so
that’s why I, cause I really understand xxx
Researcher: So you mean going through a lot of exam papers gets boring?
Student 10: It does.
Researcher: And then you don’t really understand it anyway?
Student 10: I only understand the chemistry this year, it’s nice, but the Physics part…
and it’s not only me (my friends …) I didn’t understand this… well.
Researcher: Ok… ok thank you. (The researcher then put the tape-recorder off and
attempted to give the learner advice, without interfering. The researcher
also informed the learner that her teacher would be returning their
worksheets with an extended memo to them.)
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Appendix O
Transcripts of teacher interviews
O1: Interview with the first teacher – the Head of the Department – on 14/08/2009
at 9h15-9h45
Researcher: Right, there are no right and wrong answers it’s just your opinions.
Teacher 1: Oh, ok.
Researcher: Ok, so the first question is: tell me in your experience with the learners in
your class, how common are learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 1: (Pause) Very common, I think um especially in the earlier grades, if I take
in my case with Life Sciences, if you take the grade 10 learners and you
have to work towards matric and you are teaching them different things,
like the grades 10’s you still battle because they really, the level of
understanding and the language ability is very poor at times, but then if
you work with them by the time they are in matric I am quite happy with
them, yah..
Researcher: Ok, How do you think learners develop misconceptions?
Teacher 1: (Pause) whew I still think that um there is a language thing involved
because they, they just do not sometimes understand what you are
explaining to them, because it’s not in their world, um, they don’t know,
you know we take it that they all have experience and that they all read
and that they all have general knowledge, and these days they have very
little general knowledge, and they’re also not interested to read or to look
at programs that will develop them, nothing like that, so I think
misconceptions, but maybe also if you do not teach properly, I have found
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that sometimes you will just explain something very quickly and then do an
exercise on it and the answers that you get tells you gosh they didn’t
understand a word you said, so you have to re-teach that, um, with time I
have seen that many teachers do that, I do go back and do it (smile). I
think it is a very, with both, but to me the learners, uugh, the interest level
is very low at times.
Researcher: From your point of view what would you say are the main sources of
learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 1: (Pause) Umph Gosh you give me difficult ones (smile)
Researcher: (Laugh)
Teacher 1: Main sources of learner’ misconceptions. (Pause) I would say um
…improper maybe preparation beforehand that you just fire away that you
teach them something that you did not really prepare the basic concepts
enough, In Science very often they come and they have no basic
concepts…and you fire away like with electricity in a certain and you just
do that, they have no idea really, you know they still think that it comes
from a pole, ...so um I would say teacher preparation before hand to really
find out what they know…and to prepare them ..ah to go back I think that
is one of your big things …um …um…ja… and then ja ..I can’t think of
anything else now ... xx sources, and of course the reading, ooh the
reading level that is a big problem with some of our learners they, they just
cannot read and they also cannot hear. You can explain something very
basically to them and you ask them: "repeat what I’ve just said to you" and
there’s just no ability to take in what you’ve said ...uuh... (Background may
be a big problem)…
Researcher: Um. How would you define a misconception?
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Teacher 1: A misconception. (Pause) Ah to me a misconception … not understanding
what exactly um a specific thing implies …or misunderstanding, having a
complete different picture of a certain concept, …, because I have often
found you know, you know what the concept is you know what the
definition is, but sometimes the interpretation is so different to yours and
they actually teach you about it and it is like wow I never thought you
could look at it that way. So a misconception I just think it is changing the
complete idea of what something is, or not understanding it completely.
(Pause)
Researcher: Ok, um. What strategies do you use or have you tried which may remedy
learner misconceptions?
Teacher 1: (Pause) Well everything. Uuh…ok…I’m still dreaming of my projector to
come in, because I’m sure if you can show them certain of these things it
will help a lot. I have tried everything, if I have a child that does not
understand, firstly you have the class where you teach, where you explain,
still no understanding I sit one to one with that child, I really do make time
to do that, even whilst they are busy with work in class I will sit with that
child and see if I can get them, still nothing then I will go home and think
about it and start with other sources, pictures..um practical things where I
take them to the practical you know show them, it links with this and this
and this, try and get them, no grasp yet, I’ve had it now with evolution with
some of the things, then I print out a lot of transparencies, because I still
don’t have my projector going, and then I show them this is where it starts
this is how it works and then hopefully from there we will have some of it
going (smile). But um you know with the resources available you try and
do and do as much as possible. I’ve got piles and piles of National
Geographic’s which I actually page through and show them pictures, I
really try and do a lot (Laugh softly).
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Researcher: Ok. Have you received any training or attended any course or meeting
where learner misconceptions um or strategies to remedy them have been
discussed?
Teacher 1: Umm, no not since I’ve been teaching. Um I have attended years
ago...separate courses on brain development …um…xxx a lot of those
types of things, I was very young then, but I attended and those are
helping me now I wouldn’t say specifically my teacher training or anything
for that matter, and then I also studied up to Honours in
Psychology…which helps me to understand the children and to
understand, to see in their eyes when they do not understand, to see in
the body language when they do not understand, and I do believe
unfortunately we do not have enough time, I do believe that the naughtier
they are and the more they move about, the less they just do not
understand what you are teaching them, so sometimes I will stop a class
and I will say, you don’t understand the work do you?, then they say no
we don’t, then I say let’s see if we can make a plan and show it to you in a
different way, but I think very often teachers just think they are very
naughty and you know that type of thing, so I would say that my
Psychology training, the fact that I was involved with ..um...a mother who
was ...wat is dit... a counsellor herself, advantaged me, and as far as
training goes with regard to misconceptions, no nothing.
Researcher: Ok, and at subject meetings do you ever get to discuss it there?
Teacher 1: No, at subject meetings we moderate and run away (Laugh)
Researcher: (Laugh) Ok, um. Have you come across any articles on learner’
misconceptions while reading?
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Teacher 1: Yes, I will say if you, if you are the type of person that will specifically go
into that, like ah …there’s very often articles in newspapers like the frontal
develop you know that frontal lobe of teenagers that is not fully developed
yet, their behaviour in class and everywhere in general, towards it, that is
if you are interested to read on that. Yes there is articles in magazines,
there are programmes on DSTV and the internet. If I sometimes have a
child, I will go and read on it, like a child will tell me: “My mother said I
suffer from this.” Then I will actually go and look it up and see how it
affects the child, I doubt if many others do it .…
Researcher: Ok-
Teacher 1: But it’s my interest. I like it. (Smile)
Researcher: Ok, um. In your opinion would practical work and experiments HAVE any
effect on learners’ misconceptions?
Teacher 1: Yes it would, if you had enough time…and enough resources um very
difficult if you work with a class of 35 um…and above …to actually really
ah always do these practical’s because they do get very excited, but I do
believe yes I’ve seen that ..they ah.. you have learners that have such a
poor knowledge on the stuff and if you do a practical …it does help them,
the practical today didn’t help (laugh) but then you should explain very
thoroughly why it didn’t work, but I have seen they ABSOLUTELY LOVE
PRACTICALS and in Technology, ooh they enjoy that, it’s just extremely
noisy, like the problem I had last year is whenever we would hammer
away, because we did not have a specific class for Technology, they run
upstairs from the classes downstairs and they say: “ you are making a
heck of a noise, can you stop!” so there’s a lot of complaints from teachers
around you, when you are busy with practical xx (Laugh) which is a big
problem, if I can have a class in the corner I will just hammer away, so that
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is limiting, but they LOVE to do practical’s, they really do and they
understand the work better and they’re more LESS disruptive.
Researcher: Umm, in this one question that the children did for me, it was a practical,
and the majority of, and they didn’t, and the majority of the kids got the
question right because they had to describe what they SAW, so if they
hadn’t seen it, ok they could have seen it in their textbook but they most
probably wouldn’t remember, but I guessed from the fact that so many
kids got it right that they had seen it, but there were some children that got
it wrong and when I asked them if they had seen it, you know, they said:
“yes, they did the experiment, this was what the experiment was like but
they can’t remember what it looked like.” Why do you think that
sometimes, why do you think it is that sometimes you do the experiment,
the kids do it, they remember doing it, but they can’t remember what they
saw or what the results were or what they were meant to learn, so in fact
sometimes it doesn’t actually help, why do you think that happens
sometimes?
Teacher 1: You know I’ve even done some of those myself um, were... if I think back
when I ... now I’m going to take it to my own…maybe that will help, when I
studied ah..further I didn’t have Science for matric so when I entered the
class like for the third week they did acid and base titrations …now if you
have never seen or you don’t really know what acid and bases is and that
type of thing …they taught us in class and everything was there but when
they did the practical to me it was so foreign …that I was just so
completely lost, and I stood there and I eventually asked the lecturer:
“what exactly are we doing?”, he gave me a terrible answer of: “You
should leave Science, because you will never amount to much”, and up to
this day I remember the class, I remember we did it, but I remember
absolutely NOTHING of what we did. Umm I do think you should have
some knowledge if you do a practical, because otherwise you just, and
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sometimes a learner just ...isn’t there yet, you do, because you now, ok
you say we are going to do this practical today and half the class or three
quarters don’t fully understand exactly what you are doing and you are
explaining to them time and time again, but I must admit there are some
learners that even after you have shown them so many times, they’re still
just not there, they do not understand why you are doing what you’re
doing. I don’t know?
Researcher: Ja, I know it is difficult. Do you think that language would have any effect
on learner misconceptions?
Teacher 1: Yes I do believe that very, yes I do, absolutely...because I have seen in
the past that with learners, I’ve had learners that came in like in grade 8
from schools, rural schools, where they, their English is so limited …and
it’s so difficult to get them to understand what you are doing, no language
definitely…
Researcher: Ok, and the language of Science terminology does that have an effect?
Teacher 1: Yes, yes and your ability to understand that language, ah, and if you are
good with language, if I take Life sciences, if you have a strong language
ability it’s easy to remember all those Latin ... words, and to you know... if
you do not have that ability you can eventually be in matric and you still
battle to spell it and to write it... very specific to children…
Researcher: Ok that all the questions that I have for you. Do you have any questions
for me? (Smile)
Teacher 1: No, I understand why you ask me all these questions, very difficult to put it
into words though, but thank you very nice to once again think, you should
always think on what you are doing.
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O2: Interview with the second teacher – the grade 12 teacher – on 17/08/2009 at
8h30-9h10
Researcher: Question number 1, ok, there are no right or wrong answers obviously, it’s
just your opinion ok, so tell me in your experience with the Science
learners in your class, how common are learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 2: I think quite common, and it seems to be increasing every year more and
more ja.
Researcher: Ok, why would you say it’s increasing, what do you think it is?
Teacher 2: If I compare my first matric group this is now my second, I think of the
grade 11’s now that are going to matric next year, um, I have to explain
something to the grade 11’s three times, where my first group three years
ago I had to explain it once and they immediately understood. (Pause.)
Researcher: Ok, …, ok, how do you think learners actually develop misconceptions?
Teacher 2: I think it comes from lower grades where they don’t um, they don’t learn
the correct words and what is expected when we say, explain versus
define versus um, state, things like that. I think that is the main issue, they
don’t, they read but they don’t understand what they are reading. Not
necessarily they don’t understand the work, they just don’t know what I
want them to say.
Researcher: Ok, from your point of view what would you say are the main causes of
learner misconceptions?
Teacher 2: (Pause.) The main sources I would think, reading problems, difficulty in
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reading and understanding, I would say that is the main problem and
then... then secondly I would think mathematical literacy, to be able to
understand Maths, that’s the second thing, so after they have understood
the question, they don’t know how to do the Maths. (I think those are the
main ones.)
Researcher: Um, how would you define a misconception?
Teacher 2: (Pause.) To… to read a question and not to understand it properly and
therefore your answer is incorrect versus the question, it is not necessarily
scientifically incorrect but it is not related to what the question actually
asks.
Researcher: Ok… um what strategies do you use or have you tried, which may remedy
learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 2: I always try to explain one concept at least in three different ways, and
then I also have, every week at least one extra class, where kids that feel
that they still don’t understand it can come back to me, and then I can
have a one on one talk with them, and I try also to put it in their own words
and in their context of what they understand, cell phones and what they
like, Mix-it and things like that..um and that’s the one way … I try to make
it funny, they remember if you put some humour into it, they remember it
better.
Researcher: Ok… um have you receive any training, or attended any courses or
meetings where learner misconceptions, or strategies for remediating
them, have been discussed?
Teacher 2: No… I have been to courses where the work has been discussed and how
you can do a practical or so, but never misconceptions.
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Researcher: So at your subject meetings it never really comes up?
Teacher 2: No.
Researcher: And have you marked matric papers?
Teacher 2: Um no I hope this year will be my first.
Researcher: Ok… um … Have you come across any articles on learner’
misconceptions, while reading about Science?
Teacher 2: Also no. (Pause) I know it is a discussed topic in the school at the
moment, that’s why they have this grade 8 program … um where all the
grade 8’s have a little, every register period they write a little, do an activity
or write a little test … to help them to learn certain words, because like it’s
not only a problem in Science, I think it is a overall problem for everybody,
everybody struggles with it, and that’s why they have, they have started
the program this year, from grade 8 to just up their level of language use
and understanding.
Researcher: Which subject do they do it in?
Teacher 2: In the register class, so it’s not a particular subject. In register class they
get a little exercise or a test, but it’s not related to a specific subject.
Broad…
Researcher: Ok… is it a school project
Teacher 2: Yes… they started at the beginning of this year and I hope that we will
have the results at the end of the year, to see whether it helped at all.
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Because many, many many, teachers complained that they found that
problem, specifically, so that’s why they started this program … and they
have to define certain words and explain, just to try and teach them what
is expected of them when a certain question is asked in a certain way.
Researcher: Ok. … Have you come across any misconceptions in Science textbooks?
Teacher 2: (Pause). Mm ... not that I can put my finger on, but I’m sure that there
would be, there would be I’m sure.
Researcher: Ok. … Um, what are the most common misconceptions that you have
come across in your grade 12 learners’ Physics papers, ones that come
up a lot?
Teacher 2: (Pause). The grade 12’s, let me just look at the topics (looks at textbook).
Um, oh the Physics.
Researcher: Ja.
Teacher 2: (Pause). I know they struggle with force and work and power um ..
electricity a little bit, especially because we only do electromagnetism and
they forget what they have learnt in grade 11 with the circuits and the thing
like that um, they don’t struggle with projectile motion that, they find that
quite easy … what else have we done ..um electromagnetism I would say
is a big one (pause).
Researcher: How do they do with energy?
Teacher 2: Ja that’s the work and power, momentum is ok, they are fine with
momentum and impulse, that they are alright with um but with energy,
work, power they struggle and electromagnetism.
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Researcher: Ok… um in your opinion would practical work and experiments have any
effect on learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 2: I think it would, they LOVE doing practical’s, they always want some type
of explosion though, they love doing practical’s, and then they also SEE it,
we don’t only talk about it, they SEE it, and I think the kids are visually
stimulated, they look at things over the TV and they’re visually stimulated,
so seeing it helps, I think it would have a HUGE impact.
Researcher: Sometimes we do experiment, and when we ask them questions later it’s
like as if they have never seen it, why do you think that sometimes it
doesn’t actually work?
Teacher 2: Because I think that um due to the big class ... and expensive equipment,
you can’t always let everybody do his own experiment and so it seems as
if the group is doing well... but I think it’s the clever kids or the kids that
understand more that do most of the work and then you have spectators
which only looks, who doesn’t participate, I think that’s the biggest
problem, if it were possible that everybody does their own experiment it
would be very easy to identify who actually understands what they are
doing and who does not. I think with group work the higher academic
performers, if you can say so, they want to do good, they kind of take over
as leaders,.. and the weaker pupils just look … what they are doing, so
you don’t know if they understand it or not, if you ask them they say: “Yes”
…
Researcher: Ok … do you think language has any effect on learner’ misconceptions?
Teacher 2: (Pause).
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Researcher: How do you find, what problems do your second language learners have?
Teacher 2: Well at this school all of them, it’s their second or even third language, um
and I really think the English, the English learners understand the words
better, and in Science you get, it’s not the normal English words, (we) talk
about Coulomb and... induction and all these fancy words, so to
understand that on top of maybe a language issue, where they only speak
English at school, but with their friends or at home another language, yes,
they definitely do have a disadvantage.
Researcher: Ok, and do you think that the Science terminology that you spoke about
now, how does that affect learner’ misconceptions, amongst all the
learners?
Teacher 2: After a while if you repeat it many times they get used to it, but … it is
necessary to repeat over and over, the units, the words, etc. I think in
grade 8 and 9, um there’s really not enough emphasis on using the correct
words, and even grade 10 I’m starting to get them used to the words, so
that when they get to grade 11 suddenly they are bombarded with all
these, these words, and they get confused. I think that maybe if we
start using it in grade 8 and 9 and 10 more often, it would help them when
they get to grade 11 and 12, but generally they cope.
Researcher: Ok…
Teacher 2: It is just necessary to repeat it and help them study it.
Researcher: Ok, ok, thank you that’s all, are there any questions that you wanted to
ask?
Teacher 2: Umm…
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Researcher: No questions?
Teacher 2: I would just be interested to find out (how the learners did.)
Researcher: (The researcher then switched off the tape-recorder and then gave the
grade 12 teacher copies of the student’s marked worksheets as well as
sufficient extended memorandums for herself and her students.)