比治山大学現代文化学部紀要,第 8 号, 2 ∞ 1 Bu l .HijiyamaUniv.No.8 , 2 ∞ l 85 Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classroom Damon E. Chapman & Jason Williams , City Universit y , Be llevue , Washington Abstract This paper analyzes current research on student autonomy as one method to improve and promote language learning in the ]apanese EFL c1 assroom.1t first discusses the problems of student learning in general , then defines theconceptofstudent autonomy , while reviewingthe general theoretical approaches to it. Steps to promote and implement actual student autonomy are then detailed and learning strategies in the EFL c1 assroom , as one area of focus in learner autonomy , are discussed. Thentherolesofteachersintheautonomousenvironmentarereviewed , stressingteacher responsibilities as well as thebenefits ofhanding over more control in the learning process to the students themselves. 要 t::::::. 目 本論文は,日本のEFL 授業において言語学習を改善し促進する手段としての「学生の自律性Jにつ いて,現行の諸研究を分析する o まず,学生の学習に関する諸問題について考察し,続いて,論理的 なアプローチ全般を視野に入れて「学生の自律性」についての基本概念を定義する o 次に,現実に 「学生の自律Jを促し,かっそれを形作るためのステップを詳細に記述し,さらに,学習者の自律性 に関する分野の中で関心が持たれている EFL 授業での学習方略について議論する D 最後に,自律的な 環境における教師の役割について概観する。なお,ここでは,学習過程において,より多くの主導性 を学生自身に委ねることの利点とならんで 教師の責任の重要性が強調されている O Intr ,倒uction As Willing (1 987)stated so succinctly ,“Every teacher has encountered students who , although intelligent and adequately exposed to apparently useful and meaningful material , nevertheless seem to learn very little"(p. 273). Never has this been more true than in recent years and there has been increased dissatisfaction with the level of academic ability on the part of university students in ]apan. Originating from virtually unlimited sources , apathy seems rampant. Sc holars ponder the reasons for this situationby asking ifitis a lack ofsufficientknowledge(either from the materials or the instructors)?Is it a lack of motivation(again , either on the part of the students , or the instructors)? Or could it be the lack of studen t' s ability to learn , whether in the c1 ass or independently?While the causes may be expansive , recent research has suggested it is a lack of ability or desire on the part of students to become actively involved in their learning(see Sc harle & Szabo , 2 ∞ 0).Active is the key word here. Students tend to give the teachersalmost totalcontrolover their learningmethods ,
14
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Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote
Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL
Classroom
Damon E. Chapman & Jason Williams, City University, Bellevue, Washington
Abstract
This paper analyzes current research on student autonomy as one method to improve and promote
language learning in the ]apanese EFL c1assroom. 1t first discusses the problems of student learning in
general, then defines the concept of student autonomy, while reviewing the general theoretical
approaches to it. Steps to promote and implement actual student autonomy are then detailed and
learning strategies in the EFL c1assroom, as one area of focus in learner autonomy, are discussed.
Then the roles of teachers in the autonomous environment are reviewed, stressing teacher
responsibilities as well as the benefits of handing over more control in the learning process to the
students themselves.
要 t::::::. 目
本論文は,日本のEFL授業において言語学習を改善し促進する手段としての「学生の自律性Jにつ
いて,現行の諸研究を分析するo まず,学生の学習に関する諸問題について考察し,続いて,論理的
なアプローチ全般を視野に入れて「学生の自律性」についての基本概念を定義する o 次に,現実に
「学生の自律Jを促し,かっそれを形作るためのステップを詳細に記述し,さらに,学習者の自律性
に関する分野の中で関心が持たれているEFL授業での学習方略について議論する D 最後に,自律的な
環境における教師の役割について概観する。なお,ここでは,学習過程において,より多くの主導性
を学生自身に委ねることの利点とならんで 教師の責任の重要性が強調されている O
Intr,倒uction
As Willing (1987) stated so succinctly,“Every teacher has encountered students who, although
intelligent and adequately exposed to apparently useful and meaningful material, nevertheless seem to
learn very little" (p. 273). Never has this been more true than in recent years and there has been
increased dissatisfaction with the level of academic ability on the part of university students in ]apan.
Originating from virtually unlimited sources, apathy seems rampant. Scholars ponder the reasons for
this situation by asking if it is a lack of sufficient knowledge (either from the materials or the
instructors)? Is it a lack of motivation (again, either on the part of the students, or the instructors)?
Or could it be the lack of student's ability to learn, whether in the c1ass or independently? While the
causes may be expansive, recent research has suggested it is a lack of ability or desire on the part of
students to become actively involved in their learning (see Scharle & Szabo, 2∞0). Active is the key
word here. Students tend to give the teachers almost total control over their learning methods,
86 Damon E. Chapman
especially in Asian cultures, and while not necessarily disinterested in the subject or learning in
general, seem hesitant in taking an active and demanding role in their own learning.
One source of the problem can be attributed to environment and learner attitude, but, for foreign
instructors, the problem may be related to culture. For example, ]apanese students rely heavily on the
teacher and view the teacher as being responsible for virtually all aspects of the learning process.
They are seldom pro-active, though it should not be assumed that this is a fault only of the students.
The culture in ]apan places a higher level of respect on the instructor than does many Western
cultures. Students in ]apan usually depend on the teacher to set goals and make decisions about
learning when, this paper will argue, they must come to realize (with the t回 cher'shelp) that 1白 rning
depends as much on them as it does on the instructor. With respect to language learning in ]apan,
another negative factor is the education system in general which tends to emphasize reading, grammar
and rote memorization over oral communication. Additionally, teachers may not be teaching the skills
necessary for students to become active and independent learners. Are instructors following specific,
planned and effective learning strategies? (Note the stress on learning strategies, as opposed to
teaching strategies). Pedagogical theory argues that students should learn to understand their place in
the learning process, inc1uding the ability to select and judge resources and materials for themselves.
Students, furthermore, must set appropriate goals and objectives. With so many potential root causes
of p∞r academic performance in c1assrooms, volumes of analysis could be written as to what the
causes are. This paper, on the other hand, wil11imit its focus to student autonomy.
Increasing student autonomy aims to overcome many of the problems mentioned above. The
ultimate goal of increased student autonomy is to have the students take more control and understand
their role in the success or failure of their learning strategies. To explain this simple concept, Willing
(1987) notes the following about learners in language c1assr∞ms:“Given the inevitable limitations on
time and resources for teaching specific language content, it is now c1ear that learners could benefit
greatly in the long run if a substantial proportion of the
Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote lncreased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 87
Learner Autonomy: A Definiti∞. General ThE拘ryand Programs for Its Promoti∞
This section will focus on general theory and steps in promoting autonomy as well as specific
programs designed to promote autonomy. (The reader should note that the terms ‘learner autonomy'
and ‘student autonomy' are synonymous, and should be considered as one in the same. Researchers
use either or both of these terms in their research.) The most commonly accepted definition of learner
autonomy is“the ability to take charge of one's own learning" (Holec, 1981, p. 3). A more thorough
interpretation of this definition pertaining to second language learning is given by Bergen (as cited by
Dam and Little, 1998):
Learner autonomy is characterized by the readiness to take charge of one's own learning
in the service of one's needs and purposes. This entails a capacity and willingness to act
independently and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person. An
autonomous learner is an active participant in the social process of learning, but also an
active interpreter of new information in terms of what he/she already and uniquely
knows (p. 127).
This definition suggests that the ability of learners to become autonomous is not only a matter of
capacity, but also of learner attitude and motivation. Furthermore, while learning is a social process,
this definition also suggests that the individual always retain his I her independence. In short, the
student must be proactive in both the inter-and intra -personallearning processes. Searle and Szabo
(2000) further this definition by adding that autonomy occurs when students accept the notion that
their own efforts are important and act accordingly, become willing to cooperate with other learners
and the teachers, consciously monitor their own progress, and make an effort to use available
opportunities to their benefit. Many researchers have proposed general theories and steps to bring
about this development.
Dam and Little (1998) describe promoting autonomy as a proce鉛 thatallows the learner to assume
control of more and more aspects of learning as time progre岱es.They propose a three-part lesson to
support this idea. The first step consists of teacher initiated and directed activities that promote
learner awareness of how the learner can influence learning. This inc1udes teaching the learning
process and specific learning strategies, establishing teacher and student roles and responsibilities, and
providing a learning envir
88 Damon E. Chapman
sharing information with the learners, maintaining consistent control of the learning process, and
delegating tasks and decisions. These are steps the teachers must take to make the transition for
dependence to independence a smooth one. Finally, they list the three stages of autonomy promotion
that must be followed. The first stage is raising awareness, where the students begin to look at their
old ways of learning as well as at new ones. This includes finding out about students' learning styles,
habits and attitudes, increasing confidence, introducing learning strategies, community building and
self-monitoring. The next stage is the changing of attitudes, where learners practice and make
habitual the items learned in stage one. This includes activities to sustain student interest and self-
confidence, having students practice learning strategies, and further developing group cohesion and
self-monitoring. The final stage is the transferring of roles from teacher to student, which entails the
handing over of roles traditionally held by the teacher. Steps in this stage include letting the students
handle classroom devices, allowing students to prepare and choose material, peer monitoring and
correction, and including the students in discussions about the learning process. If the prerequisites
are met, the teacher roles completed and the stages followed, learner autonomy will ultimately be
achieved. Scharle and Szabo also provide over 100 activities to be used in each stage of promoting
autonomy.
Murphey and Jacobs (2∞0) propose a related angle on learner autonomy in what they call Critical
Collaborative Autonomy. They propose that autonomy does not mean learning in isolation, but can be
developed more quickly if it is taught via guided cooperative learning in which the students work with
peers. Learning to be autonomous in groups not only accelerates acquisition of autonomy, they assert,
but it also changes individual and group attitudes. Students can more readily identify with each other,
and peers who show ability serve as positive role models (although noted later, in language classrooms
this can be achieved by pairing students with low-level communicative abilities up with students much
more fluent in the target language). This allows students to learn better from each other. They base
this idea on two key concepts:“positive interdependence" and “individual acco
Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL CIa田r∞m 89
Szabo (2000) is that most steps take place under the guise of students learning how to promote
individual autonomy via a student group with student -led initiatives, not teacher-led initiatives. When
summarized, the various theoretical approaches offer similar approaches toward the promotion and
implementation of learner autonomy, and can be summarized by the following five levels and
Level L伺merAction Con:飽nt Pr,∞錨S
1 Awaren白 S Learners are taught the Learners identify strategy implications pedagogical goals and content of tasks and identify their preferred content of the materials they use. learning styles / strategies.
2 Involvement Learners are involved in selecting Learners make choices frorn among a their personal goals from a range choice of options.
of choices.
3 Intervention Learners become engaged in Learners make modifications and modifying and adapting the adapt new tasks to their learning objectives and content of the program. learning program.
4 Cr,伺.tion Learners set their own personal Learnerscr回 tetheir own original goals and study objectives. asks and materials.
5 Tran配endence Learners move out of the context Learners, themselves, become 。fthe classroom and rnake instructors and researchers. connections between the content of the classroom and the world outside.
Figure 1: Lear間 rActions in t尚 Pr,∞lOti∞ofLearner Autonomv
accompanying actions seen in Figureれ (seeNunan, 1997b).
Promoting Learner Autonomy in the Lar唱uageClassr∞m
Given these general theories and approaches intended to promote learner autonomy, many
researchers has developed specific programs designed for use in the language classroom (cf. Benson &
Voller, 1997). One five component, autonomy-based course developed by Cotterall (1995) was offered
to language students at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand. The five components make up
an overall strategy for fostering autonomy and are centered on the ‘learners' understanding of how
language learning pr∞eeds, the language used to discuss the pr∞ess and records for charting it, the
support provided for the learners, and learners' access to resources and feedback" (p. 221). These
components include a learner-teacher dialogue, a language study theme, replication of authentic, real-
life communicative encounters, increased student self-assessment and, lastly, self-access to alternative
learning materials.
The first component, a learner-teacher dialogue, is meant to provide frequent opportunities for
students to ask teachers questions and receive feedback. The intention of the design is to aid the
students in understanding the language learning process. The next component is learning a language
study theme, which involves presenting concepts of language learning to the students in order to
90 Damon E. Chapman
encourage them to take some initiative in learning and to understand what they can and should do to
learn. The third component is making c1ass materials and tasks that replicate authentic encounters
and experiences. This is to aid the students in making a link between c1ass practice and real-world
needs, thus making the students appreciate learning more and become more involved in it. Students
could be active in creating the scenarios used for practicing the target language most appropriate to
them (university-age situations, etc.). The next component is a student record booklet to help them
develop self-assessment and reflection abilities, two of the key components in learner autonomy. The
final component is a self-access center that provides a selection of self-study material to the students
so that they have the means and materials to develop personalized learning and, therefore, increased
autonomy. In her work, Cotterall discovered that each of the five components promoted autonomy in
learners, mainly because each individual step provided a place for discussion about the learning
process. She also notes that student-teacher communication was the most important part of the
components because it allowed students themselves to become aware of what they were doing.
This research was further developed and Cotterall (2∞0) later presented five principles to guide the
design of English language courses. The principles are more detailed and explicit than the previous
components and each was specifically developed to foster autonomy. The five principles relate to
learner goals, a simplified model of the language learning process, authentic course tasks, the teaching
of language learning strategies and promotion of student reflection on learning. It was conc1uded that
the principles did promote autonomy in that they increased student motivation, taught students how to
solve their own problems, and let them assess their past and future learning experiences via reflection.
Students became independent learners because the principles supported instruction and provided
guidance to the students without taking away student decision mak白ι
Aret陥 Stu偽ntsWilli明?
Regardless of the perspective or theory followed, independent learning and learner autonomy are
only feasible when students have both the willingness and the ability to act independently (cf. Searle &
Szabo, 2000; Dam & Little, 1998). In order to help learners begin to grasp an understanding of their
own awareness, of their own motivation and, in turn, their disposition toward learning, students need to
practice student awareness. This was the first step noted above for successful implementation of
learner autonomy. While this paper makes no attempt to detail伺 chstep in implementing a leamer
autonomy program, the step of increasing self-awareness, also known as ‘dawning metacognition'
(Murphey & Jacobs, 2∞0) is being addre岱edbeαuse it is believed to be a prerequisite to any and
every autonomous approach. As Littlewood (1997) further notes,“students' willingness to act
independently depends on the level of their motivation and confidence; [and] students' ability to act
independently depends on the level of their knowledge and skills" (p. 82). Knowledge and ski1ls are
key parts of learning strategies that can be easily tested, while motivation and confidence may be
much more difficult to gauge.
Self-awareness can be described as grasping an understanding of learner abilities, study habits,
dispositions, attitudes, goals, etc. After all, if the student comes to c1ass or any learning environment
with a negative and / or reliant disposition, that must be one of the first obstac1es to over come. As
noted by Sheerin (1997),“it is important to distinguish between [the leamers'] disposition and ability
Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 91
because a learner may be disposed to be independent in an activity . . . but lack the technical ability" to
carry it out (p. 57). When that happens, the student could be characterized as an independent leamer
INDEPENDENCE
DTI:淑溜:TIONTO:Analyze one's own strengths / weaknesses, language needs Set achievable targets and overall objectives
Plan a program of work to achieve the objectives set
Exercise choice, select materials and activities
Work without supervision
Evaluate one's own progress
14
つL-qdA吐
FDFO
DEPENDENCE
7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
12.
ABILITYTO: Analyze one's own strengths / weaknesses, language needs
Set achievable targets and overall objectives
Plan a program of work to achieve the objectives set
Exercise choice, select materials and activities
Work without supervision
Evaluate one's own progress
Figure 2: Activities Involved in Inc給同町蜘tLeaming (ShE矧in,1997)
in intention but not in actual practice. Figure 2 gives several activities that may be used to measure
l回 rnerawareness. Viewing each activity on a continuum between dependence (on the teacher), and
independence, students can learn about their own motivation and disposition toward learning.
Learning student attitudesαn be done, in its simplest form, by asking the students direct1y. One
such questionnaire for this task was done by Willing (1989) and breaks down attitudes toward learning
styles into four areas:‘Communicative';‘Authority-Oriented'; 'Concrete'; and ‘Analytical.' Sample
statements indicative of the ‘Authority-Oriented' style are:
• Ilike the teacher to explain everything to us.
• 1 want to write everything in my notebook.
・ In English cJass, Ilike to learn by readinι • Ilike to learn English words by seeing them.
b. It's good for me to find out my own mistakes
wherever possible.
b. 1 want to find out for myself what 1 have to do
to learn better English.
b. 1 want to choose for myself what exercises
to do and what b∞ks to read, etc.
b. 1 think speaking activities in pairs or groups
are useful, even when the teacher isn't listening to my group.
b. Tests can't tell you everything. Y ou know
yourself百you'vebeen learning well.
a. 1 think it is the teacher's job to correct all my mistakes.
a. 1 want my teacher to tell me what 1 have to do to learn
better English.
a. My teacher should tell me what exercises to do and
what books to read, etc.
a. 1 don't think it's useful to do speaking activities in pairs
or groups if the teacher isn't listening to my group all
thetime.
a. The teacher should give us lots of tests and tell us how
well we've learned.
FゆJre3: A ttitudinal Statements on Ir由開花蜘tLeaming (see Sh随 rin,1997)
92 Darnon E. Chapman
Sheerin (1997) goes a step further and offers the following attitudinaJ statements that relate to factors
1 -6 in Figure 2. Students would ch∞se which statements from two choices that best apply to them (by
circ1ing 'a' or ‘b' in Figure #3 below) :
As previously noted, it is not the intention to detail every step in implementing learner autonomy in
this paper. But instructors must be aware that learner training (done by teachers to students in the
c1assroom) is not learner deveJopment. Learner development is cognitive and affective development
that reinforces self-awareness as a learner and a willingness and ability to manage one's own learning.
Utilizing self-awareness tactics like those mentioned above is a useful, if not required, first step.
Learner Autonomy in Asian Classr,α)f1lS
Advancing the very limited area of work done on learner autonomy in Asia, Lee (1998) developed
guidelines for a self -directed learning program that was offered outside of regular English language
c1asses at one Hong Kong university. Stemming from interests in self-awareness, it was found that
self-direction is a way of organizing learning so that it promotes autonomy. Several key factors are
needed in order to develop learners' self-direction, inc1uding student voluntariness, learner choice over
pace and materials, flexibility in allowing students to change their program, teacher and peer support,
and a self-access center. This approach differs from previous ones in that it specifiαlly notes learner
choice over the pace of learning. Who better understands the pace of language comprehension then
the learners themselves? After using the guidelines and addressing each factor during the course, it
was conc1uded that self-direction in and of itself does not guarantee learner success, but it does lead
towards greater student autonomy. It was also noted that the areas of strategy training, teacher
counseling, student choice and student collaboration need to be further addressed (Lee, 1998).
Embracing many of the ideas for implementing autonomy proposed by Murphey and Jacobs (20∞) ,
inc1uding socialization,“dawning metacognition," initiation and gradual expansion of student-made
decisions, and, lastly, practicing collaborative autonomy (see previous discussion), work done by
Brajcich (2000) focuses on the Japanese EFL c1assroom and gives several pragmatic tips. To aid in
student ref]ection and evaluation, it is suggested that students keep a diary in English of their learning
experiences. To increase motivation, Brajcich endorses giving students projects outside of c1ass (e.g.
English correspondence with pen pals, etc.). Giving students non -lesson activities to do in the
c1assroom is also encouraged, such as calling role and writing instructions on the board. In short, give
the students hands on practice. At the c1assroom level, he encourages the use of English only in c1ass,
to help the students feel comfortable in the target language. Stressing fluency over accuracy in
communication further helps make students less likely to worry about making mistakes in c1ass and, as
a result, more willing to participate.
In related research, a detailed university course was developed and im
Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Ste戸 toPromote Incrl回 sedLearner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr,∞m 93
interpersonal interaction. The students assume the role of planner, director and evaluator of learning,
and the teachers assume the role of facilitators of learning. Students choose materials from a
community bank and the c1ass environment is responsive to changes in students'“needs, preferences
and interests" Oohnson, et al., 1998, p. 82). Researchers are anticipating positive results from this
program when they are published in the near future.
Lar唱uageLearning Strategies
While there are numerous components necessary to promote autonomy, and this paper has
highlighted the need to take the first step (that of increasing learner self-awareness), little work on
other areas has been done, with one exception: language learning strategies. Learners can not be
expected to improve their own learning, and therefore increase learner autonomy, if they do not have a
c1ear understanding of what strategies cater to their individual study habits and needs. Language
learning strategies can generally be described as tools and steps that aid learners in comprehendinι
producing and recalling the target language. Numerous detailed strategies have been developed and
identified to improve language learning, as well as providing a categorization of such learning
strategies to aid instructors and learners find those which are most effective. The most commonly
accepted categories and strategies are those identified by Oxford (1990) in her Strategy 1nventory of
Language Learning (S1LL). The six general categories of learning strategies identified are: memory,
cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social.
These categories can be broken down into two general areas: direct and indirect learning strategies,
depending on their relationship to the target language. The first area is the “direct" language learning
strategies: those that directly involve the target language. These are the memory, cognitive and
compensation strategies. Such strategies require mental pr∞essing of the language, but the memory,
cognitive and compensation strategies each do this mental processing differently, and for different
purposes. 1n brief, memory strategies have a specific function: they help students store and retrieve
new information. This is done via very simple tasks, inc1uding a personal arrangement of items in a
c1ear order, or simply reviewing one's notes.“These principles all involve meaning. For the purpose of
learning a new language, the arrangement and associations must be personally meaningful to the
learner, and the material to be reviewed must have significance" (Oxford, 1990, p. 39).
Cognitive strategies allow the students to understand and produce the target language by many
different means. “...Cognitive strategies are unified by a common function: manipulation or
transformation of the target language by the learner' (Oxford, 1990, p. 43)
94 Damon E. Chapman
Therefore, metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices and which
provide a way for learners to c∞rdinate their own learning pr∞ess" (Oxford, 1990, p. 136).
Such strategies are labeled “indirect" beαuse they offer support and the ability to manage leaming
the target language without always directly involving the target language. The next category,
affective strategies, c1early demonstrates this. Strategies that help the learner regulate his / her
emotions, attitude and motivation serve this affective function. A learner with negative feelings or
attitudes will struggle much more than a learner with a motivated and positive outlook, which only
adds to the enjoyment of learning the language. Such strategies are c10sely related to social strategies,
which help students learn through interaction with others. As Oxford (1990) so c1early notes,
“Langauge is a form of social behavior; it is communication, and communication occurs between and
among people. Learning a language thus involves people, and appropriate social strategies are very
important in the process" (p. 144). With this general description of the known, categorized learning
strategies, it must be asked what research has been done in order to understand the connection
between such learning strategies and increased learner autonomy. Unfortunately, very little.
Research on the various effects of strategies on language learning inc1ude Nunan's (1997a)
investigation on the impact of strategy training on language students' motivation, knowledge of
learning strategies, the usage and perceived usefulness of strategies. The experimental group in the
study received training in 15 learning strategies and results showed that, overall, the experimental
group out-performed the control groups in motivation, knowledge of strategies and in perceived utility
of strategies. The author conc1uded that prior knowledge of and experience using strategies and the
amount of attention placed on each strategy in c1ass also affected the results. The report also noted
that learner training (teaching students how to study) does indeed make a difference in learning and
autonomy in the three previously mentioned areas (motivation, knowledge of learning strategies,
usage and perceived usefulness of strategies) .
La開 uageLearni開 Strategiesin Asian Classr,αxns
Working on language learning in ]apan, Mochizuki (1999) attempted to find the general kinds of
learning strategies that students use in learning English at the university level. Using Oxford's SILL
as a guide, he found that the students used compensation strategies most and affective strategies the
least. He also discovered that more proficient students use cognitive and metacognitive strategies
more frequently than less proficient students. He also tested and discovered that the students' major,
personal motivation, enjoyment of English learning and gender influenced students' choice of
strategies. While student self-evaluations were shown to be less than reliable, this study is beneficial in
that it shows what general categories of strategies learners in EFL in ]apan are using.
Robbins (1996) studied two different methods of direct language strategy instruction on students in
East Asia. Direct instruction involves teaching students the s関cificnames of strategies, using specific
strategies on an assigned task, and informing students of the value and purpose of the strategies. The
two models studied were the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) and the
Problem Solving Method. The CALLA method is designed to help students with academic, not social,
language use. It integrates learning strategies within content-based second language instruction.
There are five stages for both students and teachers to go through. Teachers must prepare the
Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 95
students by activating background knowledge, presenting the strategies, practicing the use of
strategies and giving feedback, evaluating strategy use and supporting strategy use by students.
Students must attend c1ass, participate in c1ass and apply the strategies with guidance. They must
then assess the strategies themselves and use the strategies independently (factors which promote
increased student autonomy) .
The Problem Solving Method stresses that students should not only know the strategies, but also
know “when, why and how" to use them (Robbins, 1996, p. 3). 1t c1assifies strategies to be used in four
basic thought processes: planning, monitoring, problem solving and evaluating. This method also
places emphasis on more than one option or strategy for solving a problem. 1n both cases, strategies
were introduced and taught to the students, strategy use and instruction was continued via specific
tasks (see the S1LL, in Oxford, 1990) and independent learning was supported as the teacher reduced
the prompting of strategies and allowed students to ch∞se the ones they preferred. The students
responded highly to the strategy instruction and to the cooperative learning aspects of each model.
The author terms the final outcome of the study as “cooperatively independent learners" (Robbins,