Structure of Indian Society

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

A Textbook for Class XII

(Semester III)

Author

Amit Kumar Sharma

Editor

Swapan Kumar Bhattacharyya

Published at the Publication Department by the Secretary, National Council ofEducational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016, andprinted at

First EditionFebruary 2003 Phalgun 1924

ReprintedFebruary 2003 Magha 1926

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Fundamental Duties

Fundamental Duties – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the NationalFlag and the National Anthem;

(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle forfreedom;

(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the peopleof India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; torenounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;

(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;

(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;

(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity sothat the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;

(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or,as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

Part IV A (Article 51 A)

CONTENTS

PUBLISHER’S NOTE iii

1. Unity in Diversity 1

2. Social Demography 13

3. Rural-Urban Divides and Linkages 24

4. Caste, Class and Tribe in India 35

5. Marriage, Family and Kinship in India 46

6. Religion in India 70

7. Education in India 86

8. Culture in India 96

9. Politics in India 107

10. Deprived Groups 119

11. Approaches to the Study of Indian Society 134

CONSTITUTION OF INDIAPart III (Articles 12 – 35)

(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptionsand reasonable restrictions)

guarantees these

Fundamental Rights

Right to Equality• before law and equal protection of laws;• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;• of opportunity in public employment;• by abolition of untouchability and titles.

Right to Freedom• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;• of protection of life and personal liberty;• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right against Exploitation• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.

Right to Freedom of Religion• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;• freedom to manage religious affairs;• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational

institutions wholly maintained by the State.

Cultural and Educational Rights• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

Right to Constitutional Remedies• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High

Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

Introduction

One feature that is most often noticedabout India is its unity in diversity.This overworked cliché has become apart of India’s self-identity. Indiais a country of subcontinentalproportions. From north to south, eastto west, people from diversebackgrounds have mixed andcultures have intermingled overcenturies. Nevertheless, there has beenan underlying continuity in identity.There are very few countries which havesuch an enormous cultural diversitythat India has to offer.

Beneath the bewildering diversity ofreligion, language and customs of thisvast country, the underlying unity isremarkable. The idea of unity is tracedback by scholars to ancient times. Theunderlying cultural unity wasstrengthened further with theadministrative unity brought aboutduring the British rule and with theconstruction of India as a modernindependent nation after theindependence. The enduring nature ofIndian unity has always beenfascinating. Indian unity is the productof certain historical factors that are

present in various fields of Indian sociallife. It appears as if the inhabitants fromthe Himalayas in the north toKanyakumari in the south, and Kutchhin the west to Arunachal in the east arewoven together into a beautifultapestry. In the process of its evolution,Indian society has acquired a culturecharacterised by stable patterns ofpluralism. However, the acceptance ofcultural pluralism does not detract usfrom the idea of promoting economic,political and social integration.

European Sociology conceptualisesunity in a society in terms of linguisticnationality or in terms of politicalsovereignty. Thus, the primary basis ofunity belongs to a nation. According tomany Indian sociologists, however,unity in India and the whole of SouthAsia, in fact, has been civilisational,going back to ancient times andcontinuing to the present day. Thus, atthe civilisational level there is unity inSouth Asia, but this South Asiancivilisation is divided today into manynations like India, Pakistan,Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal.In terms of social institutionslike the family, caste and lifestyles

CHAPTER 1

Unity in Diversity

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY2

there is a fundamental unity in thedifferent societies and nations ofSouth Asia.

An important source of unity intraditional India was rooted in theprocesses of cultural communicationand interaction. Sociologists haveidentified the role of traders, story-tellers, crafts-people and artists, forexample potters, musicians, dancers intraditional India, in building commoncultural traditions. The institutions ofpilgrimage, fairs and festivals provideyet another link for cultural unity. Inaddition to these agencies, the socialstructure and economy forged linkagesof reciprocity and interaction betweenregions, groups and cultural traditions.

Accommodation without assimila-tion has been the characteristic ofIndian civilisation. Accommodation isa social process by which differentelements of a society are integratedwithout losing their separate identity.Assimilation on the other hand is a typeof integration where the earlier identityof the elements is dissolved. In Indianhistory and culture, additions of newcomponents have not meant thediscarding of old ones. The accommo-dation of diversity has been theunderlying ideology and numeroussocial and cultural factors havecontributed to the enduring nature ofIndian unity. Order and stability wasmaintained not primarily by the statebut through social, cultural, moral andtechnological values and institutions ofIndian civilisation. Indian civilisationgave enough freedom for the practiceof any way of life although different

customary ways were ranked in ahierarchy. This created inequality andintegration as well .

THE FACTORS OF UNITY INDIVERSITY

We can discuss the following five factorsof unity in diversity of India:

1. Geographical and DemographicFactors

The first striking feature about Indiais its diversity because of India’sgeographical environment andnumerous population. It is difficult toimagine the vast territory that stretchesfrom north to south and east to westas one continuous territory. It isnearly fourteen times as large asGreat Britain and over ten times thesize of the entire British Isles. Thetemperature varies from extreme heatto extreme cold. The temperate, thetropical and the polar climates arefound in India. In terms of physicalfeatures of the population, there is adiversity in appearance, skin colour,eye colour, height and figure.

However, geography seems to haveplayed an important role inengendering Indian unity and the senseof Indianness. Shut off from the rest ofAsia by the inaccessible barriers of themighty Himalayas and with the seasand the ocean on all other sides, Indiais clearly marked out to be ageographical entity. Not only are herterritories thus sharply demarcatedfrom the rest of the world, but naturehas generously placed within her

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boundaries all resources that humanbeings need for developing a rich andcreative life. Thus, Indian geographyhas facilitated unity and continuity ofher history as a country. Attemptseither to divide the country or to expandit beyond its natural frontiers havemostly failed.

The vastness of the land influencedthe mind of Indians in two ways. Thegreat variety in landscape, climate andconditions of life prepared in the mind areadiness to accept differences. Besides,the vast spaces offered room for slowinfiltration by newcomers andallowed each locality unhamperedscope of development along its own lines.

The geographical unity of thecountry has had its effects on theeconomic life of the people. The size ofthe country and quality of the landpermitted gradual increase inpopulation and expansion ofcultivation. The fact that India hascontinually developed and maintainedan agricultural economy for almost fouror five thousand years explains in partthe depth and tenacity of her cultureand traditions. The primacy ofagricultural economy led to thedevelopment of common characteristicsand a common outlook.

The geographical unity of India iseasily missed in her vastness andvariety. A permanent and characte-ristically Indian expression of unity isfound in the network of shrines andsacred places spread throughout thecountry. The visit to holy places as animperative religious duty has madetravelling a habit for Indians. Similarly,

the multitude of monuments associatedwith different religious communitieswhich have adorned the land influencethe geographical consciousness of alarge number of people.

2. Religious Factors

India is a multi-religious country. Thereare seven major religious groups inIndia according to 1991 census. TheHindus constitute the majority ofIndian population, about 82 per cent.The Muslims constitute the secondlargest religious group (about 12.12per cent). The Christians (about 2.34per cent), the Sikhs (about 1.94 percent), the Buddhists (about 0.76 percent), the Jains (about 0.40 per cent)and others the Jews, the Zoroastriansor Parsis and the Animists (about 0.44per cent) may not be numerically big,but their contribution to India is assignificant as the other bigger groups.

Religion is both a factor of unity anddiversity in Indian society. All religiousgroups are differentiated internally. Casteor caste like status groups are found inHinduism, Islam, Christianity andSikhism. Within a homogeneous society,religion plays a highly integrative role butby the same token in a multi-religioussociety religion can become an issue ofcontention and lead to conflicts.Traditionally, different religious groupshave lived in India in more or less peacefulcoexistence. In recent years, however,harmony between religious groups,which in India we refer to as communalharmony, has been under strain.

There are two major aspects to anyreligion, the spiritual and the temporal.

UNITY IN DIVERSITY


The spiritual aspect of religion is quitesimilar in all religions. In every religionan emphasis is placed on the moralconduct and transcendence of theselfish ego. While this aspect of religionis a matter of personal devotion, thetemporal aspect of religion is alwaysrelated with the group identity andsolidarity is maintained by religiousrituals and community’s beliefs. At thetemporal level, different religiousgroups differ from each other.

In India, there has not been only agreat degree of religious toleranceamong the different religiouscommunities, but some religious placeshave acquired a character andpopularity that goes beyond a singlereligious community. Similarly, somereligious festivals are celebrated, at leastin a limited way, by many religiouscommunities. Places like Varanasi,Ujjain, Amritsar, Mathura, Bodhgaya,Vaishno Devi, Tirupati and AjmerSharif are some such religious centres.For instance, a large number of Hindusalso visit Ajmer Sharif, a Muslimpilgrimage place. Also, the economy ofthese religious centres often involvesshopkeepers and service providers fromother religions.

In the field of bhakti and devotionthe Hindu Saints and Muslim Sufishad many similarities and commona-lities. Some religious festivals likeDiwali, Dushehera and Holi have twoaspects, ritualistic and cultural. Theritualistic aspect is restricted to Hindusbut the cultural aspect is more or lesscelebrated by all the communities. Inthe same way, Christmas and Id-ul-fitr

are also celebrated at many places bydifferent religious communities. Kabir,Akbar, Dara Shikoh and MahatmaGandhi have been instrumental indeveloping common ethos among thedifferent religious communities in India.

Persian Sufism took a new shade ofcolour in India. Poets and religiousteachers — Ramanand and Kabir —tried to combine the best and condemnthe worst in Hinduism and Islam alike.At the courts of Oudh and Hyderabadthere grew aesthetic standards inpainting, in poetry, in love and in food,which drew on the courtly traditions ofRajasthan and Persia. Muslimsborrowed caste from Hindus, Hindustook purdah from Muslims.

Religion, however, is also a factor ofdiversity and animosity. The countrywas partitioned into India and Pakistan,primarily on religious and communallines. Even after partition thecommunal problem raised its headfrom time to time. Communalism,which breeds hatred and violenceagainst other religions, is the result offundamentalism. Fundamentalism isan attitude of some religious peoplewho emphasise the letter of religiousdogmas over the underlying spirit. It isa product of ignorance as well asdeliberate mischief by vested intereststo gain political power and economicbenefits by exploiting religioussentiments of the faithful people anddividing them along communal lines.

3. Cultural Factors

The story of Indian culture is one ofcontinuity, synthesis and enrichment.

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Culture is also a source of unity as wellas diversity like religion. Powerfulkingdoms and empires such as theMauryas and the Guptas did notaggressively intervene in social andcultural matters; leaving muchdiversity intact. Although Islam wasthe politically dominant religion inlarge parts of the country for severalcenturies it did not absorb Hinduism,or disturb the Hindu social structure.Nor did Hinduism, which wasdemographically and otherwisedominant seek to eliminate the beliefsand practices, characteristic of otherreligions. Various beliefs and practicesare pursued and maintained byHindus, Muslims and Christiansalike. Over the time Indian society hascome to be divided into innumerabletribes, castes, sub-castes, clans, sectsand communities each of which seekto maintain their own style of life andcode of conduct.

Many sociologists have recorded indetail the immense variety in the habits,practices and customs of the people indifferent geographical regions. Thedistribution of material traits such asdress, habitation, arts and crafts,endless variety of food and theirpreparation, makes India a livingexample of regional diversity.

The role played by Indian religion,philosophy, art and literature inbringing about unity is conspicuous.Social institutions like the caste systemand the joint family, which are foundthroughout the length and breadth ofthe country, are typically Indian. Thecelebration of festivals is observed all

over India in much the same manner.Likewise, similarities in art and cultureengraved on the temple and palace wallsall over India have generated thefeeling of oneness. Inspite of theirdistinctiveness the coexistence ofcultures is celebrated.

4. Political Factors

It is generally believed that India’scontinuity as a civilisation was socialand cultural rather than political. Orderand stability were maintained not bymeans of the state but through cultureand society. The vastness of thecountry’s extreme diversity of physicalfeatures, endless variety of races, castes,creeds and languages and dialects havemade it difficult to establish an all-Indian empire. This also accounts forthe fact that political unity is not thenormal characteristic of ancient andmedieval Indian history.

However, the idea of bringing thewhole country under one centralauthority has always been on the mindsof great kings and statesmen of India.It was with this purpose that the kingsof ancient India proclaimed the idea of‘Chakravarti’. Kings like ChandraguptaMaurya, Ashoka, Samudragupta andHarshvardhana had put this idea intopractice. The socio-political contri-butions of some Muslim rulers such asAkbar and Jehangir were also highlycommendable. Akbar’s Din-e-elahi andJehangir’s emphasis on justice deservespecial mention in this regard.

In a sense, India has never been awell-organised political unit under thegovernment of a single state. Even

UNITY IN DIVERSITY


British India was a part of India anddid not comprehend the whole of it,which was split up into about 600states, large and small but separate andindependent as autonomous entities.The British tried to establish politicalunification under a paramount powerwith regard to the defence, externalrelations, foreign policy and certaineconomic matters within the whole ofIndia. Such attempts, however, were notuncommon in earlier periods.

After the independence India wasunited politically and administrativelybut it was already divided between Indiaand Pakistan. After the independencethe unity of India is expressed in theinstitution of the nation. It is theproduct of the freedom movement aswell as the constitutional legacy of theBritish rule. There is political andadministrative unity today but there aredifferent political parties and diversepolitical ideologies. Therefore, politicsis both a factor of unity and diversity.

5. Linguistic Factors

India is a multilingual country.Language is another source of culturaldiversity as well as unity. It contributesto collective identities and even toconflicts. Eighteen languages arerecognised by Indian Constitution. Allmajor languages have regional anddialectical variations, for example, Hindihas Awadhi, Brij, Bhojpuri, Magadhi,Bundeli, Pahari, Malwi and severalother dialects. The situation is furthercomplicated since 179 languages and544 dialects are recognised in India.These languages and dialects are

divided into three linguistic families— Indo-Aryan, Dravidian andMundari. Indo-Aryan family oflanguages includes Sanskrit andother North Indian languages such asHindi, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi,Gujarati, Punjabi, Urdu, etc. and theirdialects. The Dravidian family oflanguages includes Tamil, Telugu,Kannada and Malaylam. The Mundarigroup of languages and dialects arefound among the tribal communitiesof India.

During the medieval period Persian,Arabic and Urdu became popularlanguages. Urdu developed in Indiawith Hindi around the same period asHindustani language. They havedifferent script but many similarities.Arabic and Persian played the role ofofficial and court languages replacingSanskrit and Pali.

In the post independence period,English replaced Urdu as the official andcourt language. After independence,Hindi was made the national languagebut English remained the language ofthe central government and of thecourts. English has also remained thelanguage of higher education andresearch in India after 1835. Theimportance given to English inIndependent India has also had animpact on Indian languages andliterature, as well as on social structureand divisions in Indian society. Thesocial and economic distinctionbetween an English speaking,prosperous elite and the masses whospeak the Indian vernacular languagesor dialects is quite pronounced.

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Linguistic diversity has posedadministrative and political problems.But language too has an underlyingrole in the unity in diversity of Indianculture. Although there is bewilderingdiversity in the languages and dialectsof India, fundamental unity is found inthe ideas and themes expressed in theselanguages. There is unity also at thelevel of grammatical structures.Sanskrit has deeply influenced mostlanguages of India with its vocabulary.Dravidian languages also have anumber of Sanskrit words today.Persian, Arabic and English words toohave become part of the Indianlanguages and dialects today. The spiritof accommodation, which uniteddifferent ethnic groups into one socialsystem, also expresses itself in theliteratures of India.

Language is also a factor ofdiversity and separatism. Linguisticseparatism has a strong emotionalappeal. Political mobilisations andconflicts have arisen between differentlinguistic groups. However, it isimportant to note that neitherpolitical mobilisation, nor linguisticantagonism flows naturally out oflinguistic diversities. These politicalmobilisations and antagonisms arethe product of modern historicalcircumstances.

After independence linguisticproblems of India were centred aroundthree issues:

1. The official languages issue,2. The demands for the linguistic

reorganisation of the provinces ofIndia whose boundaries duringthe British rule did not conform to

linguistic division; and3. The status of minority languages

within reorganised states.After much deliberations, Hindi wasmade the official language of India butEnglish was retained at least for atransition period. Earlier, thistransition period was supposed to lastfor fifteen years. In 1965, English wasgiven the status of an “associateadditional official language” of theunion and of inter -provincialcommunication. The major regionallanguages are used in their ownprovinces and recognised as other“national” languages through theirincorporation into the Eighth Scheduleof the Constitution. Hindi is the officiallanguage of the country but the“associate additional official language”English has retained its power, statusand glamour as well.

Elements of Unityin Traditional India

Due to cultural and economicinteraction and geographical mobilitythere has emerged an all-India style, aseries of inter-linkages and muchcommonality between different regionsof India. The elements of all-Indiastructure include the following:(1) India is characterised by

numerous local level traditions orfolk traditions as well as whatcould be deemed as the greaterclassical tradition. The latterwould be more widely spread overthe country but also confined tocertain dominant sections ofsociety.

UNITY IN DIVERSITY


(2) The Sanskrit — Brahmi at one endand Persian script at another forIndian and other subcontinentallanguages and literature.

(3) Common to each linguistic regionare specific agriculture casteswhich form the core of ruralcommunities, along with theircomplementary artisan andservice castes. These wereinvolved in a jajman – serviceprovider relation-ship. In theurban areas there werepredominantly, castes of banias(traders), crafts persons andcastes such as brahmans andkayasthas.

(4) In the institutions of administra-tion and defence both social andspatial mobility existed.Cosmopolitan recruitment also tookplace due to traditional culturalinstitutions such as gharanas ofmusic and dancing. There were also‘schools’ of medicine, shastricschools of learning, peethas, andakharas of devotional sects.

(5) Pilgrimage centres have also led to atype of unity at the all India level.Barriers of caste, class and othersocial taboos were almost absent atpilgrimage centres during severalcultural occasions. People fromdifferent regions were able to interactat the pilgrim centres with each otherleading to the establishment ofcultural bonds. Trans-sectarianpilgrim sites include Kashi, Haridwar,Rameshwaram, Dwarka, Badri-nath, Gaya, similarly Amritsar andAjmer Sharif also become pilgrimage

centre during medieval period.(6) Cultural identity is maintained by

a common metaphysical base,such as the idea of ethicalcompensation (Karmphal) and theidea of transcendence.

(7) Variants of all India epics andmythology, which emphasisecertain values and goals, are foundin all regions. Examples arepurusharth (achievement ideals),rinas (obligations), dana (sharing),Samskara (sacraments) at birth,death and marriage, vrata (theritual to earn merit) andprayaschita (penance orexpiation).

(8) Traditional personal laws andsocial customs of the Hindus wereapplicable in different regions. Thedayabhaga system of inheritancewas popular in Bengal whereas themitakshara prevailed over the restof the country, except in Keralaand Bengal.

(9) Most Indians believe in the ideasof heaven and hell and cherish theidea of moksha, salvation ornirvana liberation from the cycleof life and death. This conceptof moksha or nirvana is linkedwith the perception of the oneultimate Brahma.

Elements of Unityduring the Medieval India

In the middle ages when the worldwitnessed the most intensely foughtreligious wars in Europe and theMiddle East, India stood out asa country where many religions

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co-existed in relative social harmony.The role of the ruler like Akbar was alsovery important in this context.

Islam seems to have strengthenedthe de-ritualising and egalitarian trendsin Medieval Hinduism, while Hinduphilosophy seems to have strengthenedthe mystical spiritual strain in Muslimreligious thought. For example, theBhakti movement initiated by theNayanar Saints of South India foundstrength in the context of Islam andMuslim dominance in North India. In thesame way, the mystic and devotionalaspect of Islam was strengthened in thephilosophical milieu of Hinduism.Ramanand, Kabir, Nanak and DaraShikoh played a significant role in thespread of mutual understanding amongthe Hindu and the Muslim masses.

A unified culture in language,music and the arts was developedduring the medieval period. Hindi andUrdu are the product of this unifiedHindustani culture of medieval India.Both languages have common roots,common vocabulary but these arewritten in different scripts —Devanagari and Persian respectively.In music and arts, the Hindus and theMuslims had come together. NorthIndian (Hindustani) music wasnurtured at the king’s courts and in theHindu temples. Hindus sang at theMuslim courts and Muslims have sungbhajans at Hindu temples. Krishna,Radha and the gopis have provided thestaple theme for many of thecompositions sung by Hindu andMuslim masters alike.

In architecture the process of

blending Hindu and Muslim elementswas perfected during the medievalperiod. During the rule of Akbar,a synthesis of the Turko-Persianconceptions with Indian style wasattempted. In Jehangir’s time theHindu influence seems to have hadincreased. The tomb of Akbar atSikandra shows, in spite of its Muslimarches and domes, the general patternof Buddhist viharas or of the rathasof Mahablipuram. Jain influence isfound on the mosque of FathehpurSikri and Mount Abu. The Mughalarchitecture acquired new qualitieswhich neither the Persian nor the oldIndian styles had ever possessed.

Painting also developed a newstyle during this period through theblending of the Turko-Iranian with theold Indian style. Akbar founded anacademy of painting at his courtwhere Indian and Persian artistsworked together. Jehangir was notonly a patron of art but was himselfan artist, and during his time Mughalpainting reached its zenith.

Elements of Unity inthe Modern India

During the colonial rule different factorsled to significant changes in thestructure of Indian society. Thetraditional framework of unity in Indiancivilisation came under tremendousstress. Modern education introducedby the colonial rulers initiated aprocess of cultural westernisation.

The freedom movement (1857-1947)created new sources of unity in Indiansociety. Now, nationalism replaced

UNITY IN DIVERSITY


religion and culture as the cementingforce within Indian society. Despite thepartition in 1947, the experience offreedom movement is still the foundationof Indian unity in modern India.

After the independence the nationand its different organs have becomethe pillars of unity in India. Theconstitution built on the pre- existingunity of India has strengthened it stillfurther by emphasising the values ofequality, fraternity, secularism andjustice. In contemporary India thepillars of unity include the following:(1) The Indian Constitution is the

most fundamental source of unityin India today. Indians believe inthe basic framework of theConstitution.

(2) Indian Parliament is the nationallegislative organ of the Indiannation. Representatives are electedby the people and every adultcitizen (above 18 years) of Indiahas a right to vote. This representsthe people’s will in general.

(3) The Government of India isformally headed by the Presidentwho rules on the advice of a councilof ministers headed by the PrimeMinister.

(4) The Judiciary is the legal guardianof Indian people. The judiciary isan autonomous body at the local,regional and central levels. Itworks as the custodian of theIndian Constitution.

(5) The bureaucracy, the police andother educated professionals suchas engineers, scientists, doctors,academics and journalists have

played an important role ingoverning the country,maintaining law and order and incarrying out various developmentprojects and schemes of thegovernment. The military servicesdeserve special mention in view ofthe wars, insurgency and the inter-border tensions experiencedduring the last few decades, as alsoduring national calamities likefloods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.

(6) Modern means of communication,the network of railways, surfacetransport, civil aviation, post offices,telegraph, telephones, print media,radio and television have playedimportant roles in maintaining andstrengthening the national ethosand creating a “we” feeling amongIndians.

(7) Industrialisation, urbanisationand other economic factors haveled to the creation of the capitalistand the middle classes and havealso created mobility of labour andservices throughout the country.

Problems of Nation–Buildingand National Integration

The formation of consciousness ofidentity in terms of culture, custom,way of life and language, etc. gives riseto ethnicity and ethnic groups. Ethnicconflicts and ethnic self-consciousnessresult invariably from perceived or realexperiences of domination orsubordination of one group by anothereither politically, economically,culturally or socially. A caste group,tribe, linguistic, religious or cultural

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group may also act as an ethnic groupin its competitive quest for access toresources.

A large part of ethnic demandscan be resolved following a strategyof constructive reconciliation. Therewere and there are many ethnicdemands in post-independenceIndia. Attempts were made toreconcile some of the ethnic demandsof minority religious groups,scheduled castes, scheduled tribesand other backward classes in theIndian Constitution itself. There wasalso a demand for linguisticreorganisation of regional states.There have been the Dravidianmovement, ethnic assertions inKashmir, the North-East, Gorkhaland,Punjab and other places.

The Constitution offers two types ofpolicies for nation building in India,(a) positive discrimination in favour ofthe traditionally deprived and exploitedsections of society, and (b) a broadnational policy of social, economic andpolitical development based onprinciples of civic culture and judicial,

administrative and institutionalmodernisation.

The biggest challenge to effectivenation-building and nationalintegration comes from containingpoverty, economic polarisation, over-population and regional imbalances indevelopment. On the one hand,globalisation is opening up newopportunities for the educated and thewell-off who have the education, skillsand financial resources to compete inthe national and global marketplace.On the other hand, a large numberof rural and urban youth andfamilies continue to languish inpoverty, unemployment andunderemployment.

The impact at the cultural level isdiverse. On the one hand, we have listof channels focussing on religiousthemes and on the other hand, wehave western serials dubbed inIndian languages. The issue is notjust of western or non-westernsources of culture. But whether themedia encourages a critical or passiveattitude generally?

UNITY IN DIVERSITY

GLOSSARY

ACCRETION. An increase in the size of a society as a result of the addition of anew outside group.

ACCULTURATION.The process whereby one group of people becomes more likeanother group of people — without loosing their own identity — inbehaviour, customs, etc., usually because of living near them for along time.

DIVERSITY. Variety in kind, form, type, composition etc.


INTEGRATION. The social process by which different units of a society areintegrated viz., brought together to form a whole.

NATION. A community of people of mainly common descent, culture, history,language, etc. forming a state or inhabiting a territory.

PILGRIMAGE. A journey to a shrine or other holy places, or to a place celebratedor made special by its associations, undertaken in order to gain agreater sense of closeness to the religion, etc.

PLURALISM. The existence within a society of a variety of ethnic, cultural andreligious groups.

UNITY. To bring different elements within a society to form a single unit orwhole.

EXERCISES

1. Explain the geographical factors of unity in India.2. Explain the religious factors of unity.3. How is language a source of unity?4. Discuss the elements of unity in traditional India.5. Discuss the elements of unity in modern India.6. What are the policy measures taken by the Government of India to

promote national integration?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Ahmad, Imtiaz, Ghosh, P. S. and Reifeld, H., ed., Pluralism and Equality :Values in Indian Society and Politics, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2000.

2. Gore, M. S., Unity in Diversity : The Indian Experience in Nation-Building,Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2002.

3. Kabir, Humayun, Our Heritage, National Information and PublicationsLtd., Mumbai, 1946.

4. Malik, S. C., Understanding Indian Civilisation : A Framework of Enquiry,Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla, 1975.

5. Sharma, S. L. and Oommen, T. K., ed, Nation and National Identity inSouth Asia, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2000.

6. Singh, Yogendra, Social Change in India, Har-Anand Publications,New Delhi, 1993.

CHAPTER 2

Social Demography

MEANING OF SOCIALDEMOGRAPHY

The study of human population isknown by two terms: (1) populationstudies, and (2) demography. Popula-tion studies is commonly taken to meana study of population variables, suchas birth, death, migration, marriage,etc. and relationships betweenpopulation changes and othervariables, such as social, economic,political, biological, genetic, geographi-cal and the like. Demography, on theother hand, is taken to mean amathematical and statistical study ofsize, composition, distribution ofhuman population and changestherein. Both the terms are, however,used interchangeably as synonyms byvarious population analysts. But thelatter term has become more popularthan the former.

Etymologically speaking, the term‘demography’ was first used in 1885 byGuillard. Demography consists of tworoots — ‘demos’ and ‘graphy’. The firstroot refers to ‘people’ while the otherrefers to ‘descriptive science’. These tworoots combined together refer to asystematic, descriptive and scientific

study of the people. Thus, demographymeans a science of the logical andsystematic study of people and variousrelated aspects. Demography is thestudy of statistics of births, deaths, andmovement of people, age, rural-urbanstructures of population etc., asillustrating the demographic conditionsof population of communities. It is adiscipline concerned with the study of‘demographic processes’, on the onehand, and ‘demographic structures’ ofpopulation on the other.

Thus, two basic sub-divisions ofdemography are: demographicprocesses and demographic structures.The demographic processes consistmainly of fertility, mortality andmigration. Similarly, demographicstructures consist mainly of agecomposition of population, male-femalecomposition, size of population,territorial or regional composition andsocial composition of population. On theabove lines, demography is commonlyclassified as formal demography andsocial (or substantive) demography.Formal demography simply refers to amathematical study of such vital eventsas birth, death, migration, marriageand divorce. Social demography refers


to a study of relationship betweendemographic phenomena on the onehand and social and economicphenomena on the other.

The recent developments in the fieldof demography have marked a shiftfrom formal demography to social orsubstantive demography which takesinto account not only the demographiccomponents but also non-demographiccomponents, such as, economic, socialand cultural factors. The shift indemography has made this sciencemore relevant and meaningful becausedemographic changes can be explainednot only from the demographic anglebut also from socio-economic andcultural viewpoints. Social demographyas a new branch of knowledge exists atthe margin of demography andsociology.

The subject matter of socialdemography embraces not only twosub-divisions of demography (viz.,demographic processes and demo-graphic structures) but also the twosub-divisions of sociology (viz., socialprocesses and social structures). Thus,social demography comprises foursub-divisions, viz., (1) demographicprocesses (2) demographic structures(3) social processes, and (4) socialstructures.

Social demography is based onthe premise that social processes andsocial structures regulate demographicprocesses and demographic structures.This premise highlights the relevanceof sociology in demographic studies.Since demographic trends are sociallyconditioned, social determinants

need to be identified and examined.A student equipped with sociologicalknowledge tries to examine howdemographic variables are regulatedand determined by social factors. Forexample, for a newly born child, it isthe family that provides the socialcontext to the process of birth ofchildren. The family, its structures, itscultural ethos and its normative orderregulate the birth of the child and thefertility rate.

Social processes and socialstructures include a number of variablessuch as socialisation, communication,cultural transformation, values, beliefs,customs, mobility, education, family,structure, caste, class, occupations,kinship, ethnicity, forms of marriage, etc.All these processual and structuralcomponents, in which sociologists areinterested, directly or indirectly affectdemographic variables and are, in turn,affected by them. Thus, the relationshipbetween demographic and sociologicalvariables becomes reciprocal. Thisreciprocity and interdependence amongthem become the central focus of socialdemography.

Socio-demographic Profileof India

We have seen that social demographyis a complex subject because itcombines a number of demographicand social factors. In the context ofsocial demography, let us now brieflyexamine some of the salient features ofdemographic trends in India. India isthe second most populous country in

15SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY

the world. India’s population is roughlyaround 16% of the total population ofthe world while China’s population isabout 22%. But China has almostattained demographic stability, whichhas not yet been achieved in India,because the fertility rate has notstabilised significantly in the country.According to the Human DevelopmentReport 2002, prepared by UNDP, thetotal fertility rate in India was 5.4 perwoman during 1970-75. Whereasduring 1995-2000, the total fertilityrate was 3.3 per woman. The tablesgiven below indicate the trends ofpopulation in India in terms of selecteddemographic indicators:

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics ofIndia’s Population

Year CBR CDR IMR Migration(% istributionof migrants)

1971 37 13 129 30 1981 34 10 110 31 1991 20 9 85 27 2001 18 8 71 28

CBR – Crude Birth Rate per thousand populationCDR – Crude Death Rate per thousand populationIMR – Infant Mortality Rate per thousand live births.

Table 2: India’s Population and itsGrowth Rate

Year Total Decadal AveragePopu- Growth Annual Growthlation Rate (%) Rate (%)

1971 548 25 2.20 1981 683 25 2.22 1991 846 24 2.14 2001 1027 21 1.93

Table 3: Age Composition of Populationin India

Year 0-14 15 –59 60 and (%) (%) above (%)

1971 42 53 5 1981 40 54 6 1991 36 58 6 2001 35 59 7

Table 4: Male-Female Composition ofPopulation in India (in million)

Year Male Female

1971 284 264 1981 353 331 1991 438 406 2001 531 496

Table 5: Rural–Urban Composition ofPopulation in India

Year Rural Urban 1971 80 20 1981 78 22 1991 74 26

2001 72 28

Table 6: Level of Literacy in India

Year Size of educated population(total population as the base)

1971 341981 441991 522001 65

Table 7: Gender Composition of India’s Population

Year Gender Ratio (F/M)

1971 9301981 9341991 9272001 933

Source : Census of India, 2001.

Note : Figures of all the tables have been rounded

off to the nearest number.


These social and demographiccharacteristics of India’s populationindicate the following:1. The birth rate, the death rate and

the infant mortality rates ofpopulation in India have declinedbut they are still quite high ascompared to developed countries.

2. The growth rate of population hasdeclined over the years, but thesize of total population in Indiahas increased. India has crosseda population of more than onebillion now (see Tables 1 and 2).

3. The increase in the size ofpopulation in India can beattributed to a relatively faster rateof decline in mortality than fertility.A relatively faster rate of decline inmortality has obviously resultedin increase in life expectancy of thepeople of India. Simultaneously,it has also resulted in an increasein the size of the population. Thereare numerous socio-economicand cultural factors which areresponsible for the declining yetconstantly high birth-rate in India.

4. The age composition of thepopulation indicates that the sizeof the population at lower age-groups has become smallerbecause of decline in mortality andfertility. Yet the size is quitesignificant as compared with moredeveloped countries because ofthe progressive impact of highfertility (Table 3).

5. The age composition indicates animportant change in India’spopulation, that is, marked

increase in the size of the workingpopulation, which has a numberof socio-economic implications.

6. Another significant changenoticeable in India’s populationis that the size of elderlypopulation has increased. Thishas got a number of social,economic and health relatedimplications. Increases in the sizeof working population and in thesize of adult population too havecertain policy implications for thegovernment.

7. The gender composition andrural-urban distributions ofpopulation (Tables 4 and 5)indicate a relatively smallerproportion of female population,and continuing preponderance ofrural population in India’s totalpopulation. These twocharacteristics are related with thedecline in the gender ratio andslower process of migration andurbanisation.

8. The composition of literatepopulation in India indicates anincrease in the size of literatepopulation but there is nosignificant decadal change in thisregard. This raises a questionmark against the satisfactoryprogress of formal education inIndia.

9. The lower gender ratio (Table 7)and high infant mortality rate(Table 1) indicate comparativelylower status of women and poorhealth condition of India‘spopulation. All the above

17SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY

characteristics point towards apoor quality of life in general.

10. Like the process of ‘fertility’ and‘mortality’, migration is anotherdemographic process. It bringsabout changes in the size andstructure of population. Sincemigration causes change in theplace of residence, it is termed as‘spatial mobility’, which may belocal , regional, national or eveninternational.

The ‘spatial mobility’ atlocal level is mostly a process of‘short-term migration’, such as themovement of seasonal workers orof students going out for study orof a person going out to a hillresort. Such a movement,however, does not cause change inthe usual place of residence ofmovers. Therefore, such persons,in a real sense, are not considered‘migrants’. A person who moveswith the intention to change heror his place of usual residence ona permanent or semi-permanentbasis is regarded as ‘migrant’ inIndian census.

There are two majorstreams of migration: (1) Short-term migration, which consistsmainly of those seasonal migrantswho live at the place of destinationwith an intent to work for a whileand come back to the place oforigin after a short duration, and(2) long-term migration, whichconsists of those who cover a long-distance in search of work with anintent to change their place of

work on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. Both thesestreams form a part of ‘internalmigration’. The most importantamong them is, however, a long-term rural to urban migrationbecause it brings about significantsocio-cultural and economicchanges in the life of migrants.Since, migration is the cause andthe consequence of a number ofsocial, cultural and economicfactors, this process is consideredan important component of socialdemography.

Major Theoretical Approaches tothe Study of Population in India

If we look at the trends of populationgrowth in India, we find that the rate ofgrowth is still quite high. Since the sizeof population has gone beyond theavailable resources, scholars areconcerned to view the problems of over-population from different perspectives.To them, this problem is closely relatedwith the problem of underdevelopment.The dominant view is that populationgrowth in India is adversely affectingdevelopment and, therefore, populationhas to be controlled at the earliest. It isbecause of this reason that the NationalPopulation Policy (2000) aims atstabilising population at a levelconsistent with the requirements of thenational economy. The problems ofover -population and of under -development have been examined fromvarying perspectives. They may beclassified into four broad categories:


1. Demographic perspective2. Economic perspective3. Sociological perspective4. Historical perspective

1. Demographic Perspective: Thisperspective is concerned mainly withthe ideas of Malthus and New-Malthusian thinkers. Thomas RobertMalthus(1766-1834) was an economistwho looked at the problems ofpopulation from the demographicpoint of view. This perspective is basedon the empirical work conducted byMalthus and others mainly inEuropean countries. The main featuresof this perspective are the following :

Population has a natural tendencyto increase which is faster than the levelof subsistence because:(i) Mankind has an inherent

tendency to reproduce.(ii) The means of production, mainly

land, has limited capacity forproducing subsistence.

There is an antagonism between the‘power of population’ and the ‘power ofthe earth’. The former has the potentialto increase faster than the latter(subsistence). These are two unequalpowers.

This fact leads to the gap betweenthe growth of population on the onehand and the food production on theother. In the light of this finding,Malthus developed his principles ofpopulation growth as given below:(a) Population tends to increase

faster than food production. Ifunchecked, it increases in a‘geometric ratio’.

(b) Food production tends to increasein an ‘arithmetic’ ratio due todiminishing return from thesources of production, mainly theland.

(c) The disparity or gap between thetwo gives rise to shortage of foodand other necessities of life,poverty, misery, vices, unemploy-ment, surplus labour etc.

(d) Malthus has suggested measuresof solving problems resulting fromcontinuing population growth andmeans of subsistence. Theyare: (i) Positive checks; and(ii) Preventive checks. If thepopulation keeps on increasingnature itself imposes positivechecks such as war, epidemic,plague and famine which tend toshorten the human life. Thepreventive checks include moralrestraint like celibacy, delayedmarriage and other methods ofbirth control.

2. Economic Perspective: Marxianapproach as a Politico-economicperspective on population isperhaps the most important. Karl Marx(1818-1883) and the Marxist writers donot support the Malthusian perspectiveon the ground that certain economicconditions create the problem of over-population. Those conditions arecreated by the capitalist mode ofproduction, which lack a rationaldistribution of wages and resourcesand effective use of human productivity.

Such a process of capitalaccumulation creates different forms of

19SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY

surplus population and increasespoverty and underdevelopment. Thus,over-population is a consequence ofcapitalist economy. The main featuresof this perspective are the following:1. Growth of population is deter-

mined by economic conditions ofliving.

2. There is no universal law ofpopulation and food production.If there is any law, it is historicallydetermined in accordance with thechanges in the mode of productionbut it is not determined by theso-called ‘unequal powers’ ofpopulation and land.

3. In order to achieve optimum sizeof population and reduce populationgrowth, social reorganisation orcollectivisation of economy and therational distribution of resourcesand the expansion of infrastru-ctural facilities are needed.

4. The economic perspective does notsupport the notion of ‘diminishingreturn’ from any factor, mainly the‘land’. According to this perspe-ctive, the productive capacity ofland increases through theapplication of science andtechnology.

5. In this perspective, development isregarded as the best contraceptive.Development and over-populationare relative terms. They areinversely correlated and popula-tion declines as developmenttakes place.

3. Sociological Perspective: Underthis perspective various demographicprocesses and structures are viewed as

integral parts of the larger social system.This suggests that social institutionsand social processes determinedemographic processes. Thisperspective lays special emphasis onsocial determinism. The demographicprocesses and structures areconditioned by a number of socio-cultural factors and forces. Thisperspective does not single out anyfactor as the most important ordetermining factor. The main featuresof this perspective are as follows:1. The sociological approach has

shown the limitations of Malthusianand Marxist perspectives.

2. It is a holistic approach because ittakes into account the problem ofpopulation in its totality in whicha number of socio-economic andcultural factors interact withdemographic factors. For example,any change in the family structureis likely to generate correspondingchange in the fertility behaviourand composition of population.Therefore, certain institutionalpatterns become responsible forhigh or low growth rate ofpopulation.

3. According to this perspective theproblem of over-population is alsolinked with the traditional normsin favour of high fertility and largefamily size.

4. The sociological perspectiveprovides a promising frameworkof analyses because it does notignore the role of demographic andeconomic factors while givinggreater emphasis on socio-


cultural factors. It takes anintegrated and holistic view ofhuman population.

The sociological perspective seems tobe more appropriate for understandingthe Indian situation. India is, by andlarge, a semi-traditional society wheresocio-cultural factors have deep rootsin the organic structure of Indiansociety. If we examine the cultural ethosof Indian society, it seems that thepeople of this country have always beenin favour of a large family size. Childrenare regarded as social andcultural assets. Such a traditionalconsideration continues to influence thecultural basis of the large family size inIndia. Appropriate changes in oursocio–cultural system may facilitate theacceptance of small family norm. Torealise such changes, fast economicdevelopment is recommended by theproponents of this approach.

4. Historical Perspective: Thisperspective is also known as the three-stage model of demographic transition.This perspective gives a generalisedexplanation of socio-demographicchanges passing through three welldefined stages of transition from‘ancient’ to ‘medieval’ to the ‘modern’stage. These three stages indicate anevolutionary sequence of changes fromsimple to complex and from a high toa low fertility-mortality rate.

The main features of this perspectiveare as follows:1. It signifies a clear sequence of

evolutionary socio-economic anddemographic changes.

2. The changes follow an identical

pattern of change from simple tocomplex and from high to lowfertility-mortality rate.

However, the historical perspectivemakes generalisation on the basis oflimited empirical facts and thisevolutionary historical model ofdemographic changes is based on thewestern experiences to a large extent.Therefore, it may not be useful forlogical and precise generalisationsrelevant for Indian conditions.

POPULATION POLICY OF INDIA

We have seen earlier that thepopulation of India and China is quitelarge. If we combine Africa with Indiaand China, we find that the half of thetotal population of the world resides inthese three regions. India is the secondlargest country in terms of size ofpopulation. In spite of a consistent effortto control population growth, India’spopulation has crossed more than onebillon mark (1012.4 million, March2001). The projection of populationshows that India’s population mayreach 1178.9 million in March 2011and 1263.5 million in March 2016. Therealization of the adverse impact ofpopulation growth in India on herresources has given rise to continuousefforts to control population. The initialefforts were made in India in the firstfive-year plan to limit populationgrowth. However, family planningprogrammes gained momentum in1966 when a separate department offamily planning was established. It wasat this stage that the programmesbecame a combined package of child

21SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY

health, nutritional status of the childand social welfare services. Thereafter,an explicit National Population Policywas formulated during the year1975-76 consisting of rules aiming ata proper implementation of the targetsfor reducing the birth rate, growth ofpopulation and achieving economic,social and other demographic goals.The National Population Policy-1976proposed a comprehensive coverage ofall these aspects of life.

In pursuance of this, and in thelight of KAP (Knowledge, Attitudes andPractices) surveys, it was proposed thata programme of introducing populationeducation should be started in orderto create awareness of the problem ofpopulation in India among younglearners. The National Council ofEducational Research and Training(NCERT) was given the responsibility toformulate, and expand the programmeof population education at the schoollevel.

The realisation of the limitation offamily planning programmes gave riseto necessary changes in the scope of theprogramme. Thus the programme wasrenamed as family welfare programme,which includes all the principal areasof human welfare. Therefore, in 1983the emphasis was given in the familywelfare programmes on securing thesmall family norm. The idea of smallfamily norm has also been emphasisedin the National Population Policy-2000.The Population Policy-2000 proposedto take a holistic view of populationgrowth, social development andenvironmental protection. It reiterates

the earlier decision that populationmust stabilise. It aims at stabilisingpopulation growth at a level consistentwith the requirement of the nationaleconomy. Inspite of all these efforts,population growth could not bereduced drastically in India. Inpursuance of this long-term objective,a number of medium-term and short–term objectives were also formulated inthe Population Policy 2000. Thefollowing are the main objectives:1. To reduce crude birth rate, total

fertility rate, crude death rate andinfant mortality rate as well asmaternal mortality rate to thesustainable level of development.

2. To provide basic reproductive andchild health care services.

3. To make school educationcompulsory upto the age of 14years all over the country withgreater emphasis on the expansionof population education.

4. To enhance the age at marriageand more scrupulously enforce theChild Marriage Restraint Act, 1976.

5. To achieve the target of universalimmunisation programme forchildren.

6. To achieve universal access toinformation, counselling andservices related to measures forfertility reduction.

7. To control the spread of AcquiredImmuno Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS) and to prevent and controlvarious other communicablediseases.

8. To integrate reproductive andchild health care services into theIndian system of medicine.


9. To vigorously promote the idea ofsmall family norm to achieve thereplacement levels of Total FertilityRate (TFR).

10. To promote the idea of peoplecentered programme of populationand make it an integral part of theoverall process of socialdevelopment and transformation.

In earlier programmes related to thegrowth of population, greater emphasiswas given to control fertility but in themeasures suggested by the NPP-2000,

GLOSSARY

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION. A sequence of numbers in which each differs fromthe preceding one by a constant quality e.g. 1,2,3,4,5,..., etc.

CRUDE BIRTH RATE. Number of births in a year per thousand population.

CRUDE DEATH RATE. Number of deaths in a year per thousand population.

DEPENDENCY RATIO. Number of dependent population over working population.

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION. A programme of numbers with a constant ratio betweeneach number and the one before e.g. 2,4,8,16,32,...,etc.

INFANT MORTALITY RATE. Number of deaths of children within one year perthousand live births.

LIFE EXPECTANCY. Average years of life expected at any given age.

MALE-FEMALE RATIO. Number of females per thousand males.

MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE. Number of deaths of mothers at the time of deliveryper thousand live births.

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE. The total fertility rate is the number of children thatwould be born to a woman who lives to the end of her child-bearingyears and who bears children at each age in accordance withprevailing age-specific fertility rates (United Nations, WorldPopulation Prospects, the 1992 revision).

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICE. A campaign tilted KAP (knowledge, Attitudeand practice) started by Indian Governmant during the period of1960 –1970 to make family welfare programme successful.

there is a definite shift to a moreintegrated approach that includesremoval of poverty, and provision ofadequate facilities for economic andsocial upliftment. Indeed, overall socio-economic progress of the masses isconsidered an integral aspect of theprogramme of population stabilisation.It has been realised that socialdevelopment is the basic necessity tobe achieved in order to stabilisepopulation growth in consonance withthe level of subsistence.

23SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by demography?2. Explain the concepts of formal and informal demography.3. Why the dependency ratio is still high in our country?4. What are the characteristics of Malthusian perspective to population?5. What are the main characteristics of Marxian perspective of population?6. What are the main features of sociological perspective on population?7. What are the main features of historical perspective to population?8. What are the salient features of National Population Policy-2000?9. Explain the following terms:

(a) Male-Female Ratio.(b) Total Fertility Rate.(c) Maternal Mortality Rate.(d) Infant Mortality Rate.

10. What is migration? Explain the type and streams of migration.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bose, Ashish, Population in India’s Development (1947-2000), VikasPublications, New Delhi, 1947.

2. Davis, K., The Population of India and Pakistan, Russal and Russel,New York, 1952.

3. D’Souza, Victor S., Economic Development, Social Structure and PopulationGrowth, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1985.

4. Haq, Ehsanul, Changing Institutional Pattern and Fertility Decline in India,Journal of Social Change, Vol. II No. 384, 1981

5. Mamdani, M., The Myth of Population Control, Monthly Review Press,London, 1972.

6. Mandelbaum, D.G., Human Fertility in India, Berkeley University Press,1974.

7. Singh, J.P., ed, Studies in Social Demography, M.D. Publications,New Delhi, 1998.

Introduction

Every individual belongs not only to afamily but also to a community. Ideasof community begin with neighbour-hood and then extend to a social groupwith some degree of ‘we–feeling’. Acommunity is characterised by a senseof social completeness and territorialproximity.

Village habitations have been anenduring feature of all human societiesfrom the very dawn of humancivilisation. The rural community is akind of enlarged primary groupcharacterised by intimate face-to-faceinteraction, having a certain degree ofcommunity sentiment and a relativelyautonomous organisation. The urbancommunity is a loose organisation ofpeople living in a limited area, withrelatively high population density, andpossessing a relatively high degree ofinter-communication. Urban life is theproduct of complex social forces. Theyhave been produced by populationmomentum, immigration of ruralpeople, development of transportationand communication, boom of tradecentres and influences of industriali-sation. Robert Redfield, an American

anthropologist, was the first to make asystematic study of communities. Heopined that societies could be arrangedon a continuum based on theirincreasing or decreasing complexity,the simplest and the most complexoccupying the two polar points.

In modern society, one of the greatdistinctions is between rural and ur-ban region. The Western point of viewemphasises differences between cityand countryside, where usually thecity is considered superior than vil-lage. In Western societies traditionallyvillages were always economicallyweak, inferior in skills and expertiseand mostly dependent on cities. Vil-lages in pre-British India, on the otherhand, were relatively strong, autono-mous and full of skilled individuals inmany fields.

In India, urban centres are notifiedby different state governments usingdifferent criterias. These are knownas statutory towns and haveadministrative implications in terms ofgrants by central government’s UrbanDevelopment Ministry. These townshave distinct administrative bodies likemunicipality, notified area committeeor corporation.

CHAPTER 3

Rural–Urban Divides and Linkages

In addition to statutory towns,there are census towns also. Indiancensus classifies Indian territories intotwo broader groups—Rural and Urbancentres. This is an academicclassification without legal oradministrative implications. Thecensus accepts all statutory townsnotified by the directorate of the stategovernments. In addition, censusauthorities have developed their owncriteria to declare non-statutory orcensus towns. These criterias are:

(i) A minimum population of 5000 orabove,

(ii) At least 75 per cent of all adultmale working population engagedin non-agricultural pursuits,

(iii) A density of population of at leastfour hundred persons per squarekilometre.

Types of Settlements

The Census of India distinguishes threetypes of settlements based on the sizeand density of population — city, townand village.

(a) A settlement with a populationof 1,00,000 or more is called a city.

(b) A town should have a populationof 5,000 or more, while villagesare settlements with less than5,000 population.

(c) The local self-government systemof a city is called corporation —that of a town is calledmunicipality and a village has apanchayat.

The city and the town are groupedtogether under the category of urbanand the rest are designated as rural.

The criteria used to include a settlementin the urban category are size, density,occupational structure and pattern ofadministrative arrangement.

Rural Communities

The idea of the village has occupied animportant place in India. It has beenone of the core categories through whichIndia has been imagined and imagedin modern times. It has preservedIndian culture and has its own social,cultural, economic and politicalimportance. It has retained some of itsindividual features despite the passageof time.

Features of a Rural Community

Rural communities in India have theirown salient features, as distinct fromurban communities and centres. Thespecial features of villages in Indiainclude the following:

1. Agriculture: It is the dominantmode of occupation. Agricultureis not only a mode of production,but also a way of life. It influencesthe entire gamut of relationshipsin rural setting. Although a smallsection of the people earn theirlivelihood from non-agriculturaloccupations, their occupations areindirectly connected withagriculture. Agricultural economyis the main basis of villageeconomy.

2. Joint Family: One of the mostremarkable features of village lifein India is the existence of joint

RURAL-URBAN DIVIDES AND LINKAGES 25


families. Although joint families arealso found in urban areas, theirimportance as a social and cul-tural institution is greater in vil-lage communities.

3. Caste System: It has always beenthe foundation of Indian villagecommunity. Social interaction,ritual performance, occupations,and other things are affected to alarge extent by caste norms. It isthe main form of social stratificationin village life even today.

4. Jajmani System: It refers to asystem of social, cultural andeconomic ties between differentcaste families. Each village wasdivided into two broader groups— jajmans and service providercastes. The service providers wereusually paid in kind and/or cash.Extra remuneration wascustomarily paid on auspiciousoccasions and festivals. Thisrelation of jajmani ties wassupposed to bind various castefamilies into a hereditary andpermanent relationship. Landowning jajmans came from uppercastes like Brahmans, Rajputs,Patels, Patnaiks, Marathas,Reddys, Lingayats, Nayars etc.while the service provider castescame from middle and lower levelcastes like Nais, Kumhar, Lohar,Sonar, Barhi, Tamoli, Dhobi etc.

5. Calendar: In most villages peopleorganise their time according totraditional Indian calendars,which are intimately linked with

their socio-cultural and religiouslife. The English calendar may bekept in addition to the traditionalcalendars but it is rarely used indaily life.

6. Community Sentiment: This isusually very strong among themembers of a village, since therelationship among the membersis face-to-face, direct, intimate andpersonal.

7. Simplicity of Living: It is animportant feature of village life.Crimes and deviant behaviour liketheft, murder, misconduct etc. areminimal as there is close contactamong the villagers. They are god-fearing and tradition bound. Theyare not much affected by theglamour of urban communitiesand lead a simple life. Theirbehaviour and activities are strictlygoverned by rural customs, mores,folkways etc.

8. Poverty and Illiteracy: These co-exist in rural India since long.Uneconomic land holdings, barrenand fragmented lands result inpoor productivity. As a result, alarge percentage of villagers livebelow the poverty line and lackeven basic amenities. Basic civicamenities, medical facilities,transport and communicationfacilities are remotely available.Despite a number of governmentschemes and rural developmentefforts, poverty persists in ruralareas and productivity ofagriculture and other economic

27

activities in villages continues tobe low.

9. Less Intensity in Mobility andSocial Change: It is a strikingfeature of most village communitiesin India. Change of occupation isnot easily possible. Beingconservative in nature, orthodox intheir beliefs, values and traditions,most villagers are not quick toaccept change or reform. Thus, theprocesses of social mobility andsocial change in rural India havebeen rather slow.

10. Rigidity of Social Control thin: Theprimary institutions e.g., family,caste, religion etc., play asignificant role in exercisinginformal social control, which isvery strong and direct. Observanceof these informal rules becomesobligatory for members. There islittle chance of any violation, andany such deviation is severelycriticised and punished by thepeople through their villagePanchayats.

Urban Communities and Centres

There are different types of urbancommunities and centres. Despite thevariation of size certain features arecommonly found in most traditionalurban communities. Traditional citieswere usually walled; and the wallsemphasised the separation of the ur-ban community from the countryside.The central area, often including a largepublic space, was sometimes enclosedwithin a second inner wall, which

usually contained a market. The mainbuildings were nearly always religiousor political such as temples, mosques,churches, palaces and courts. Thedwellings of the ruling class or elitetended to be concentrated in or near thecentre, while the commoners lived to-wards the edges of the city. The centralsquare, where ceremonial gatheringstook place, accommodated the major-ity of the citizens.

The main factors which led to theexpansion of cities are populationincrease and migration of outsidersfrom other poorer countries.

David Pocock has asserted that inIndia there is no dichotomy between thevillage and the traditional city. Both areelements of the same civilisation. Thereis a lot of difference, however, betweenthe traditional Indian city and thecolonial Indian cities. Whereastraditional Indian cities are an aspectof Indian civilisation, colonial Indiancities are vehicles of Western or moderninfluence. Both types of cities maycoexist as two parts of the same urbanlocality, for example, old Delhi and NewDelhi. He systematically counters thepresumptions made by somesociologists that urbanisation in Indiameans breakdown of caste and jointfamily. He also says that in the Indiancontext, urbanisation is not equal towesternisation.

M.S.A. Rao, on the other hand,believes that Pocock has over- simplifiedthe similarity between the village andthe traditional city in India. There arestructural and functional differencesbetween institutions of villages and

RURAL-URBAN DIVIDES AND LINKAGES


traditional cities. For instance, while thejajmani (hereditary services) relationsare pronounced in villages, it is themahajan or ‘guild’ organisation that isprominent in traditional cities or towns.Secondly, although caste and kinshipare common to villages and traditionalIndian cities, there are significantorganisational differences. Thirdly, it isnecessary to emphasise thatcolonialism introduced a different kindof urbanism and urbanisation.This new colonial and modernurbanisation had an impact first ontraditional urbanism. As a result of thisinteraction between the two types ofurbanism, new forms of institutions,associations and behaviour patternshave come into existence. For instance,there may be continuity of joint familyorganisation in the rural and urbancontexts. There are differences,however, in terms of property relationsand interpersonal behaviour patternswithin the joint families in the urbancontexts. There are different types anddegrees of interactions between townsand villages.

Features of an Urban Communityand Centre

The salient features of urbancommunities and centres incontemporary India are, among others,the following:

1. Social Heterogeneity: Theconcentration of a large populationin a small area leads to socialheterogeneity. Density maximisesthe competition for space and for

comparative advantage and thusforces specialisation. The city hasalways been “the melting pot” of avariety of people and cultures. Ithas brought together people fromdifferent corners of the world, andhas not only tolerated butrewarded individual differences.

2. Social Control : In city individualsare free from close social control.The city usually promotes thesense of alienation and loneliness.Secondary associations operate aslegal entities and pressure groups.The larger the city, the greaterbecomes the problem of controland more complex the agencies ofsecondary regulation.

3. Voluntary Association: The size ofthe urban population, its closeproximity, diversity and easycontact, makes it the perfectsetting for voluntary associations.In the urban space nearly everykind of group acquires a voluntarycharacter. In such groupsmembership does not depend onkinship or other ascribedidentities. There are a variety ofclubs, associations and semi-autonomous neighbourhoods.

4. Individualism : The secondary andvoluntary character of urbanassociation, the multiplicity ofopportunities and the socialmobility all force the individual tomake her or his own decisions andto plan her or his life as a career.The competitiveness of the city life

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gives very little scope for the fam-ily care and commitments that arefound in traditional communities.As a result, self-interest andindividualism tends to grow inurban communities.

5. Social Mobility : City characterisesand promotes great socialmobility. The elaborate division oflabour found in the city coincideswith a system of stratification,which is based on achievement,rather than ascribed status. Theurban person can raise or lowerher or his status to a remarkabledegree during her or his lifetime.The competition for statusbecomes a perpetual preoccu-pation for city dwellers. Urbanstructure is managed by recruitinga heterogeneous population on thebasis of competence, efficiency andnovelty rather than birth. Itpromotes an open stratificationsystem characterised by classinequality.

6. Greater Inequality: Given thediversity of its population and theimpersonality of its contacts, acertain tolerance is foundregarding opinion and interest.City demands a certain amount ofexternal conformity on grounds ofdecency and convenience. Inurban spaces there is existence ofboth extreme poverty andaffluence. Urban slums and eliteclubs are notable examples ofgreater inequality in urbancommunities.

7. Spatial Segregation: The compe-tition for space in the heteroge-neous and dynamic city leads to acharacteristic segregation ofgroups and functions visible in thecity’s spatial pattern. The centre ofthe urban area is monopolised byfunctions of basic importance tothe whole city, such as finance andgovernment. Commercial centresthat cater to expensive tastes, forexample, big depart-mental stores,theatres, big hotels, qualityjewellery shops are located in thecentre. High-priced professionalservices such as diagnostic clin-ics, legal offices, banks, etc. arealso found in the central parts ofthe city.

Rural–Urban Divides and Linkages

A comparative analysis of rural andurban communities is essential beforediscussing contrasts between the two.But the rural-urban comparison is notso easy.

The first, important difficulty is thatthere is no way to demarcate where avillage ends and a city begins.Secondly, the difference between villageand city is one of degree rather than ofkind. Thirdly, various transformativefactors have been at work in bothvillages and cities. Fourthly, the veryconcept of village changes from onecountry to another. The perception of avillage in Asian regions may be entirelydifferent from that in Western regions.

Rural–urban differences have beensummarised by Sorokin andZimmerman in the following table:



Rural World

Totality of cultivators and theirfamilies. In the rural communitythere are usually a fewrepresentatives of several non-agricultural pursuits.

Predominance of nature overanthro-social environment.Direct relationship to nature.

Open farms or smallcommunities, “agriculturalism”and size of community arenegatively correlated.

In the same country and at thesame period the density is lowerthan in urban community.Generally density and ruralityare negatively correlated.

Compared to urban populations,rural communities are morehomogeneous in racial andpsychological traits (Negativecorrelation with heterogeneity).

Differentiation and stratificationare less in rural areas.

Territorial, occupational and otherforms of social mobility of thepopulation are comparatively lessintensive. Normally the migrationcurrent carries more individualsfrom the country to the city.

Urban World

Totality of people engagedprincipally in manufacturing,mechanical pursuits, trade,commerce, professions, governingand other non-agriculturaloccupations.

Greater isolation from nature.Predominance of human-madeenvironment over natural.

As a rule in the same country andat the same period, the size ofurban community is much largerthan the rural community. Inother words, urbanity and size ofcommunity are positivelycorrelated.

Greater than in ruralcommunities. Urbanity anddensity are positively correlated.

More heterogeneous than ruralcommunities (in the samecountry and at the same time.)Urbanity and heterogeneity arepositively correlated.

Differentiation and stratificationshow positive correlation withurbanity.

More intensive. Urbanity andmobility are positively correlated.Only in the periods of socialcatastrophe the migration fromthe city to the country is greaterthan from the country to the city.

Occupation

Environment

Size ofcommunity

Density ofpopulation

Heterogeneityandhomogeneityof thepopulation

Social differen-tiation andstratification

Mobility

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The main features of rural-urbandivides in Indian context can bediscussed under the followingheadings:

1. Social Organisation

In villages the joint family usually cor-responds with the joint household.This, however, is not the case in urbancentres. In cities, the members of a jointfamily usually prefer nuclear house-holds. The kinship networks may beused in political or economic spheresbut in the private lives of the membersthe family bond is usually weak.

Both the ideas of marriage assacrament and as a contract prevailamong different groups in the country.Modern ideas of choice in matter ofmarriage may be increasingly presentamong some sections. At the same timethe practice of honour killing of youngboys and girls getting into marriageoutside the community also exist incontemporay India.

In rural society ‘neighbourhood’ isbased on mutual help, community sen-

timent and “we” feeling. In most urbanareas, people are often not concerned withtheir next-door neighbour. There is lackof co-operation and sympathy due to riseof individualism, self-interest and com-petitiveness of a mechanical kind.

In rural life, social ranking is basedon caste. In urban life, on the other hand,castes may co-exist but it is the class dif-ferentiation that is pre-dominant.

2. Social Relationship and Inter-action

In rural society, relationships are gov-erned by primary groups. They arepersonal, informal and permanent.Competition is less intense as they arefearful and complacent about fate.

In urban society, individualrelationships are mostly formal andimpersonal. Community force is weakand there is great individual freedom.

3. Social Mobility

Occupational and social mobility in vil-lages is governed by the rigidity of thecaste system.

System ofinteraction

Less numerous contacts perperson. Narrower areas ofinteraction is found among itsmembers and the wholeaggregate. More prominent partis occupied by primarycontacts. Predominance ofpersonal and relatively durablerelations. Comparative simpli-city and sincerity of relations.“Individual is interacted as aperson.”

More numerous contacts. Widerareas of interaction perindividual and per aggregate.Predominance of secondarycontacts. Predominance ofimpersonal casual and short-lived relations. Greater com-plexity, manifoldedness, super-ficiality and standardisedformality of relations. Person isinteracted as a “number” and“address.”



Urban society emphasises achieve-ment rather than ascription of status.Greater vertical and horizontal mobil-ity promotes alternative opportunitieswithin the urban structures. Status isdetermined more by class rather thanby birth.

4. Social Control

In rural society, social control is exer-cised through informal means like folk-ways, mores, norms, taboos, ridiculeetc. Deviance is checked by threat ofcaste panchayats or village panchayat.

In the urban society, mere publicopinion, informal forces and moralmechanisms cannot ensure order.Urban Society is so complex that socialcontrol is devised by specialists,enacted by legislators, integrated bylaw courts and enforced by police.Social control in urban life is restorativemore than preventive.

5. Social Change

In villages, there is little innovation dueto lack of opportunities and speciali-sation. In urban centers, innovations,adaptations and imitations are moredue to wide exposure and opportu-nities. Such changes are promoted bythe government structures andsustained by urban institutions.

6. Cultural Life

There is cultural unity in villages.Common values and group norms arereinforced through festivals, rituals,age-old customs and traditions. Eventoday, Indian villages are agents of In-

dian culture and units of Indiancivilisation. They still operate with thetraditional Indian calendar. In urbansociety, on the other hand, culturalpatterns have undergone a qualitativechange. Cultural life is heterogeneous,individualistic, flexible and dynamic.

7. Economic Life

Agriculture is the predominant modeof occupation in rural areas. It alsoincludes agro-based cottage industriesand cattle breeding. Cash crops, food-processing and artisanal products alsogenerate occupations and income inrural India. However, the averageconsumption level of people is quite lowon account of low level of income andfrugal life style.

In urban society, technological de-velopments are the catalysts ofchange. There is better scope of em-ployment as there is literacy, mobil-ity, specialisation and division oflabour. Urbanites have often morethan one source of income. They areengaged more often in the industrialand service sectors. The urban em-phasis on techno-material aspects,influenced further by the forces ofwesternisation and modernisation haspromoted a culture in India whichmeasures the worth of a person on thebasis of her or his income and lifestylewith little regard to the sources of in-come. This, among other factors, hasgenerated pockets of black economyin urban centres.

Thus, it is clear that there are manydifferences between the rural and urbancommunities. But it has to be

33

remembered that they cannot be putinto watertight compartments. There iscontinuity as well as contrast betweenthe rural and urban communities.

S.C.Dubey has tried to present therural-urban divides and linkages incontemporary India. While India isknown as a land of villages, it also hasan ancient tradition of urban centres.If the village has been an arena of co-operation, it has also witnessedconflicts. Recognised as a unit ofdevelopment, the village now hasseveral formal statutory institutionslike the cities. Political parties have theiragents in both the villages as well as intowns. The village like the town is not acorporate group. It has an identity, fixedlimits (revenue and forests) and sharedresources like wells and tanks. It mayalso have temples, mosques, churches,and gurudwaras. Most jatis have somecraft or occupation linked to them. Butall members of the caste need not followthat craft or occupation. In addition,there are some occupations that are‘open’, i.e., they can be taken up by anyone irrespective of her or his jati.

There are regular economic, ritual,political and social transactionsbetween villagers and townspeople.

While jati panchayats do not exist inurban areas as they do in villagecommunities, new caste associationshave emerged in larger cities. Some ofthese caste associations are regional,and others are of an all-India character.Market relations have replaced Jajmanirelations in urban centres.

In the process of change, villages arebetter connected now with each otherand with urban areas. If traditionalvillages and traditional towns and citieswere complementary units of Indiancivilisation now contemporary villagesand urban centres are complementaryunits of the Indian state. In thetraditional Indian civilisation towns orcities were not superior centres incomparison to village communities. Bothhad different functions. The villagerepresented the perfection of Indianculture and the towns were eitheradministrative units or religious centresor commercial transaction points. Townswere instrumental organs to support,supply and maintain the needs of Indianculture perfected in the villages. This,however, is not the case with contemporaryIndian villages. Now, villages are thesuppliers of food, labourers and rawmaterials to urban centres.


GLOSSARY

COMMUNITY. It refers to a collectivity of people who occupied a geographicalarea, who essentially constituted a self-governing social unit withsome common values and sentiments. Examples are rural and urbancommunities.

INDIVIDUALISM. Any set of ideas emphasising the importance of the individualand the individual’s interests is called individualism.


MEGALOPOLIS. It refers to a great metropolis growing uncontrollably and nowto denote a very large, functionally interconnected system of citiesand suburbs.

METROPOLIS. It denotes large urban centres and surrounding suburbs, oftencapital cities.

SOCIAL MOBILITY. The movement between different positions within the systemof social stratification in any society is called social mobility.

STATUTORY TOWN. In India urban centres are notified by different stategovernments using different criteria. These are known as statutorytowns and have administrative implications in terms of grants bycentral government’s urban development ministry. These towns havedistrict administrative bodies like municipality, notified areacommittee or corporation.

URBANISM. It refers to patterns of social life — typical of urban population.These include a highly specialised division of labour, growth ofindividiualism in social relations, growth of voluntaryassociations, etc.

EXERCISES

1. Give the features of Rural Community.2. Highlight the features of an Urban Community.3. Compare and contrast “Rural–Urban Divides and Linkages”.4. What do you understand by jajmani system?5. How is “town” different from “city” ?6. What is the difference between “municipality” and “corporation”?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Desai, A.R., ed, Rural Sociology in India, Popular Prakashan,Mumbai, 1978.

2. Dubey, S.C., Indian Village, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1955.

3. Giddens, Anthony, Sociology, Polity Press, London, 1993.

4. Oommen, T.K., Alien Concepts and South Asian Reality, Sage Publications,New Delhi, 1995.

5. Rao, M.S.A., ed, Urban Sociology in India, Orient Longman,Hyderabad, 1974.

6. Shah, A.M., Exploring India’s Rural Past: A Gujarat Village in the EarlyNineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002.

Introduction

In every society some form of inequalityand differentiation exists. Socialdifferentiation separates people intodistinctive categories on the basis of age,kinship, sex, territorial proximity, etc.Social stratification in sociology denotesthe placement of individuals and groupsin different layers or strata on the basisof social differences in income,occupation, education and ascribedposition, etc.

India is one of the most stratifiedsocieties. Social, economic and culturaldifferentiation in India is represented bythe institutions of caste, class and tribe.Caste is primarily a social institutionwhereas class is primarily an economicinstitution. This, however, does notmean that caste is devoid of theeconomic dimension or class is withoutsocial aspects. It is, only a question ofprimacy. Caste represents primarilysocial differentiation while classrepresents primarily economicdifferentiation. Both of them result insocial and economic inequality and are,therefore, systems of stratification.

Tribe is not a form of socialstratification like caste and class.Rather, it is a form of social organisation

or social formation. Instead ofrepresenting a stratum, a triberepresents the whole society. In theIndian context, tribe is primarily alinguistic and cultural group.Therefore, tribal and non-tribalcontexts denote cultural differenti-ations. Of course, the deprivation ofvarious opportunities, which has beensuffered by the tribal people, hasbrought them into an area of socialstratification. Let us look at caste, classand tribe in detail.

CASTE SYSTEM

Caste is an English term, which isderived from the Portuguese word‘casta’ which means a group. Castes areascriptive groups, membership of whichis determined by birth. An individualis born into a caste, and this status ismore or less permanent. Initially,European scholars used caste as asynonym for the Indian concept,Varna, but later on it was also used forother terms like jati and up-jati. Mostsociologists today translate caste as jatiand not as varna.

Caste and varna in Sociologyrepresent two different orders of reality.Varna may be described as an abstract

CHAPTER 4

Caste, Class and Tribe in India


classification of people on the basis ofmythical origin. Caste, by contrast, is aconcrete empirical grouping based onsocial, ritual and occupational criteria.Caste or jati is a concrete, and generally,endogamous group with characteristicsof its own such as its hereditaryoccupation. Marriage rules, commensaltaboos, occupational rigidity and evenvillage politics operate at the jatilevel.M.N.Srinivas says that varnahas been the model to which theobserved differences of jatis are soughtto be fitted in.

In the varna order there was thescope for social mobility. Vishwamitra,a Kshatriya by birth, became aBrahman through achievements orpurushartha. There is hardly any suchpossibility for social mobility ofindividual from one caste to another inthe caste system. Further, the varnamodel had no room for the concept ofUntouchability, though the feature ofuntouchability proved a baneful aspectof the caste system.

Features of the Caste System

The salient features of the traditionalcaste system in India include thefollowing:

1. Segmental Division of Society:Society is divided into general socialgroups called castes. Each of thesecastes is a well developed socialgroup, the membership of which isbased on birth. The segmentaldivision of society refers to itsdivision into a number of groups,each of which has got a life of its

own and stood in a relationship ofhigher or lower status to othercastes. Mobility from one caste toanother is severely restricted. Thebehavioural pattern, food habits,manners of dialogue andinteraction differ from caste to caste.Every member of the caste identifiesherself/himself with her/his caste.Each caste has its own organisationknown as jati panchayat or ‘castecouncil’. Mutual obligation, helpand co-operation of the members ofa caste in their day-to-day activitiesmake each caste a social world byitself.

2. Hierarchy : According toG.S.Ghurye in each linguistic areathere are about 300 castes whichcan be graded and arranged into ahierarchy on the basis of their socialprecedence. At the top of thishierarchy is the Brahman caste andat the bottom is the untouchablecaste (shudra). In between there arethe intermediate castes. Thus,castes are supposed to be based onthe basis of superiority andinferiority and involve gradation onthe accepted scale of value andprestige of the caste hierarchy.

3. Restrictions on Commensality andSocial Intercourse: There arecertain rules regarding eating,drinking and social interactionwhich are to be followed by allcastes in order to avoid defilementor pollution and to uphold rules ofpurity. These rules are powerfullyenforced by the caste panchayats.

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The notions of karma, dharma andpurity and pollution have figuredprominently in both religious andlegal thought relating to the castesystem. There are many taboosregarding the acceptance ofkachcha (boiled) and pakka (fried)food by one caste from another.

4. Lack of Unrestricted Choice ofOccupation: Membership in a casteis hereditary and choice ofoccupation is not supposed to befree. Traditionally a caste is usuallyassociated with an occupation. Ithas made the system closed.Different castes depend on eachother for fulfilment of various socialand economic needs. Thus, thesystem has an organic character.

5. Restrictions on Marriage:Endogamous marriages are anessential feature of the castesystem. A person has to marrywithin one’s own caste.

6. Interdependence: Each caste isdependent on other castes withinthe jajmani system at the villagelevel. Their dependence is not onlyeconomic but also social, culturaland religious.

Functions of the Caste System

The caste system is credited to ensurethe continuity of the traditional socialorganisation of India. It succeeded inaccommodating multiple communitiesby ensuring each of them a monopolyof a specific means of livelihood. Thecaste system has handed down the

knowledge and skills of the hereditaryoccupation of a caste from onegeneration to another. It has, thus,helped the preservation of culture andensured productivity. Simultaneouslyit has led to interdependent interactionbetween different castes followingdifferent occupations in a village orcluster of villages, through jajmanirelationships. The notions of Karmaand Dharma sustained through thecaste system enforced traditional socio-religious control. Performance of ritesand rituals promoted cooperation of themembers of the caste and amongdifferent castes. On the other hand, thesuperior position of the higher castes,for example, Brahmans, had beenreinforced through it.

The importance of above functionstraditionally performed by caste has nodoubt declined today. In recent timescaste has proved to be an effective vehiclefor political mobilisation of the vast ruralmasses for participation in the electoralprocess sustaining Indian democracy.

Dysfunctions of the Caste System

The caste system creates obstacles to theunity of the country. It opposes nationalconsciousness by imposing socialrestrictions and ideas of purity andpollution. Untouchability is the cancerof society.

Caste hinders horizontal and verticalsocial mobility and may, thus, force anindividual to carry on the traditionaloccupation against her or his will andcapacity. This is a great hindrance tothe industrial development. This mayalso retard the development of human

CASTE, CLASS AND TRIBE IN INDIA


personality in some instances sinceefficiency and motivation is throttled bythe rigidity of the caste system. Thecaste system usually does not provideopportunity to enhance the status ofwomen in the public sphere.

Caste in Contemporary India

Being a member of a caste or sub-castedoes not have the same meaning incontemporary India. Caste sanctionshave also become weak and do notoperate with the same force in allsections of Indian society. There is,however, significant continuity in therealm of marriage. Endogamy is stillthe dominant mode in contemporaryIndia but inter-caste marriages are alsoacceptable today in some sections ofIndian society, particularly in theurban places. The political use of thecaste is increasing day-by-day in everyregion of India.

The structures and functions ofcaste system have weakened. Theritual injuctions and interdictionsrelating to food and physical contacthave almost vanished. The associationbetween caste and occupation is, moreor less, a thing of the past. The relationsof jajmani have been fully replaced bymarket relationships in urban areas.Even in villages jajmani relationshipsare maintained only at the ritual level.

Caste dominance no longer dependson ritual status. Factors like numericalstrength, economic strength, education,political network and internal cohesionwithin the class also determines thedominance of a caste in the villagetoday.

Caste system is making adequateadjustment with the changing times. Ithas retained its relevance by becomingmore resilient and accommodative.There are different social processes atwork. The most important of suchprocesses include Sanskritisation,Westernisation, industrialisation,urbanisation and constitutionallegislation.

CLASS SYSTEM

Social class is a type of socialstratification which is most evident inindustrial societies. But classes arefound in non-industrial societies also.Unlike the other types of strata, classesare neither defined by law norsanctioned by religion. Social class isgenerally defined as a stratum of peopleoccupying similar social position interms of wealth, income, occupationand factors like education. Classes arerelated to one another in terms ofinequality or hierarchy. Class is asystem of stratification in which aperson’s social status depends uponher or his achievement. It permits anindividual to strive for and attain achange in her or his status. Itencourages individuals to select theiroccupations. Membership of a class isnot inherited as in the case of the castesystem. Social status in the castesystem is ascribed to a person at themoment of her or his birth, whichshe/he bears for life. The boundariesbetween classes are never rigid.There are no formal restrictions oninter-marriage between people fromdifferent classes. Social mobility —

39

upward and downward movementwithin hierarchy or startification – ismuch more common in the class systemthan in other forms of stratificationsuch as caste system or caste. However,the individual may not achieve upwardsocial mobility in the class system atease under all the circumstances.Further, a social class is also a culturalgroup sharing a particular way of life.It is related, of course, to the life-chances available for the group.

Karl Marx talked about two classesin the capitalist society on the basis ofthe ownership or lack of ownership ofmeans of production, viz., thebourgeoisie and proletariat. Max Weberhad, however, suggested that there canbe more than two classes on the basisof social status and political power insociety. Cumulative inequality isthe characteristic of caste, whereasdispersed inequality is thecharacteristic of the class system.

Social class constitutes animportant segment of social structurein modern India. The social classes aswe see them today in India had theirorigin during the British rule. In pre-British India division of the people intoclasses did not get crystallised for tworeasons. First, the self-sufficient villagecommunities produced only that muchwhich the villagers needed. There washardly any surplus and, therefore, therewas little differentiation among thevillage population leading to clearlyformed classes. Secondly, even whenthere was a differentiation along thedimension of class, it wasovershadowed by the caste and jajmani

system. The class division, understoodin a broad sense, existed there betweenthe ruler and the ruled. There were alsothe classes of administrative officers ofvarious ranks of merchants, artisansand specialists of different kinds.

Classes in Rural India

The British colonial rule in Indiashattered the traditional rural economy.The interdependence of agriculture andvillage industries and of the peopleengaged in them was destroyed.Indian economy was subordinated toBritish commercial interests. All thisled to the emergence of a new classstructure.

The British rule in India introducednew types of land revenue settlements,viz., Zamindari settlement, theRaiyatwari settlement, and theMahalwari settlement. The Zamindarisystem gave rise to the new class ofZamindars who came to enjoyhereditary ownership of very large tractsof land. In the Raiyatwari system thecultivator was recognised as the ownerof his land, subject to the payment ofthe land revenue directly to the Britishgovernment. It created raiyat landlordsand raiyat peasants. The Mahalwarisettlement of land revenue was madeby the government with landlords orheads of families who collectivelyclaimed to be landlords of the village orthe estate (mahal).

Under all these settlements, the‘landlord’ or ‘owner cultivator’ had topay fixed amount of money to the stateor British Government irrespective of



crops produced. They in turn extractedthis money from the common tillers ofthe land. A new class of ‘moneylenders’arose. The peasantry was crushedunder the triple burden of thegovernment, the zamindar, and themoneylender. Apart from the landlordswho were tax-gatherers and non-cultivating owners of land, there werenow the ‘tenants’ who were the realcultivators but did not have security ofland tenure. The third stratum or class,viz., ‘agricultural labourers’, sufferedmost in the new system. Further thelandlords sublet their rights tocollect land revenue to others onprofitable terms. These in turn furthersublet their rights to others. Thusdeveloped a chain of ‘rent-receiving’‘intermediaries’ between the state andthe actual cultivators.

This complicated agrarian classstructure continued, though in amodified form, even after the departureof the British.

Rural industries and artisans werehard hit under the British system. TheBritish destroyed indigenous villageindustries and crafts in order to securea market for the goods imported fromBritain. Also, the domestic goods madewith simple techniques on a small scalecould not compete with British goods.For example, cotton spinners andweavers of the villages were almostwiped out as a result of the supply ofmill-made cloth from England. Theother village artisans too were badlyaffected by imports from England. Thusscores of artisans became labourersseeking work in agriculture in their

village or jobs outside the villages.After the independence various land

reform measures were introduced tochange agrarian structure in favour ofequality and equity and forencouraging productivity inagriculture.

The first step was the abolition ofthe Zamindari system. Its objectivewas to bring the cultivators into directrelation with state by eliminating theintermediaries who were allowed toretain land for their personal cultivationonly.

Secondly, the ‘tenancy reform’measures were taken by the state toprovide security of tenure andreduction of rent for the owner -cultivators and to facilitate acquisitionof ownership rights by them.

Thirdly, ‘ceilings’ were imposed onthe existing family holding as well ason future acquisitions. The state wouldacquire surplus land from the biglandowners and distribute the sameamong the small peasants, marginalpeasants and agricultural labourers.

The overall impact of land reformshas not, however, been satisfactory.Smaller tenants received much lessprotection and suffered more than thebigger ones. The dominance of thelandlords continues in a veiled form.The intermediate class of peasants have,however, benefited replacing the olderzamindars in political-economicmatters.

The process of green revolution andmechanical innovations in agriculturehas led to the growth of a new class ofprogressive farmers who now cultivate

41

their land under personal supervision.They do not lease it to their tenants. Inaddition, they lease in land from thepoor peasants who cannot afford costlyinputs required for cultivation. A gaphas been created between progressivefarmers who are owners and managersof very large holdings and marginal andsmall cultivators who are unable toobtain higher output because of theirsmall landholdings and their inabilityto bear the cost of modern farmingpractices. Majority of the smallpeasants and agricultural labourers arestill steeped in poverty, unemploymentand underemployment. Tension,therefore, continues in different partsof the countryside.

Classes in Urban India

During the British rule there was asudden and quick collapse of the urbanhandicrafts for which India was famousall over the world. The severity ofoppression and exploitation compelledthe urban craftspeople to abandon theirancestral professions and occupations.Also, Indian handicrafts could notcompete with machine-made cheapgoods from England.

Modern industries began in Indiaunder the British. But they werecontrolled by the foreign capital. A newclass of ‘capitalists’ comprisingindustrial, commercial and financialcapitalists emerged. They exploited the‘working class’ to maximise their profits.

Dominant capitalists in colonialIndia were of British origin. But Indiancapitalists gradually gainedconsiderable share in variousenterprises.

The traditional Indian businesscommunities initially thrived as tradersdependent on the British. They alsooperated as moneylenders. Gradually,they started investing theiraccumulated capital in the developingindigenous industries, e.g., textile andsugar mills. This industrial classsurvived and flourished in IndependentIndia.

There were two more classes inurban areas. One of these was the classof ‘petty traders’ and ‘shopkeepers’ whowere bound up with modern capitalisteconomy. Then, as a result of the newsystem of education andadministration, an educated ‘middleclass’ had emerged. It consisted ofprofessionals such as lawyers, doctors,engineers, technologists, professors andteachers, journalists, clerks, and otherwhite-collar workers. These classeshave flourished in Independent India.

The urban working class is dividedinto (a) workers in the ‘organised sector’and (b) workers in the ‘unorganisedsector’. Large scale operation in termsof capital and wage labour, moderntechnology, public and privateownership and regulated and protectedmarkets for labourers and output,skilled labour, etc., are features of theorganised sector. Small-scaleoperation, private or small ownership,labour -intensive and backwardtechnology, unskilled or semi-skilledlabour, unregulated market andunprotected labour characterise theunorganised sector. The conditions ofthe workers in the unorganised sectorare far worse than those of the workersin the organised sector.



The most important feature of theclass structure in modern India is thatall the classes have now come to live asintegral parts of a single nationaleconomy and under a single stateregime. The relative isolation of villageartisans no longer exists. The same istrue with the handicrafts people intown. Further, the new middle classesof urban India are increasinglyrecruiting new members from the betteroff sections of the villages. Theyconstitute the ‘elites’ of today’s India.The caste division among the workershas also weakened. But there is hardlyany articulation of class-consciousnessamong the workers. Every one seemsto aspire a position in the middle classwhich is getting more and morediversified.

Caste and Class

They represent two main forms of socialstratification. There is hierarchy bothin caste and class. Caste system isbased on a person’s birth, while classdoes not depend on birth. An individualin the class system remains either atthe higher or lower place of stratificationaccording to her or his wealth, incomeand position in a society. This is notpossible in the caste system.

In terms of mobility, class is moreopen. One changes one’s class positionby dint of one’s occupation, power andwealth. The caste system is usuallyconsidered closed. But M.N.Srinivasthinks that movement is alwayspossible through the process ofSanskritisation and Westernisation.

Andre Beteille has also noted somescope of mobility in the caste system.

In class structure, one chooses one’sown occupation suitable to one’s ability,temperament and efficiency. In castesystem, occupation of its members isnot so freely available for adoption.

TRIBE

The tribal population of Indiarepresents a distinctive feature in themosaic of Indian civilisation andculture. It should be noted at the sametime that in the Indian context, unlikethe situation of tribes in Australia andNorth America, there have been contactand interaction between the tribals andthe non-tribals. Interestingly enough,in India this contact and interaction hasnot resulted in the loss andsubmergence of tribal identity or in thephysical elimination of tribes as ithappened elsewhere. Tribes in Indiaare called Janjati, Vanyajati, Vanavasi,Adimjati, Adivasi etc.

According to D.N.Majumdar, a tribeis a collection of families or groups offamilies bearing common name,members of which occupy the sameterritory, speak the same language andobserve certain taboos regardingmarriage, profession or occupation andhave developed a well establishedsystem of reciprocity and mutuality ofobligations.

Distinctive Features of Tribes inIndia

Some of the distinctive features of tribesin India are:

43

1. Common name: Each tribe has adistinct name of its own.

2. Common territory: Tribesgenerally occupy commongeographical areas.

3. Common language: Members ofone tribe speak the same languageor dialect of a language.

4. Endogamy: Each tribe has thepractice of marrying memberswithin their own tribe.

5. Political organisation: All tribeshave their own politicalorganisation which includescouncil of elders.

6. Economy: They follow ancientoccupations such as gleaning,hunting and gathering of forestproducts. Most of the tribes areengaged in one or the other typeof agriculture.

7. Religion: Most tribes in India aretraditionally nature or totemworshippers.

8. Inter-personal relations: Membersof a tribe have strong feeling ofunity. They have a commondescent and are related to oneanother by blood relations.

9. Closeness to nature: Traditionallytribal societies had a closesymbiotic relationship with nature.

However, every tribe does not shareall of the above features.

In the social life of the tribals,generally kinship is the principal unit ofsocial organisation. Kinship determinesthe pattern of landownership, economicproduction and consumption amongthe tribal people.

In the subsistence economy very few

tribal groups are still hunters andgatherers but many of them are shiftingcultivators (Jhum), pastoral, nomads,and quite a few tribal groups areengaged in agriculture and artisans. Atthe turn of the nineteenth century largechunks of tribal territories came underplantations, mining and industrialdevelopment and many tribals becamewage labourers.Traditionally, however, tribals do notengage in trading or financialtransactions. A tribal society is largelyhomogeneous with little sense ofhierarchy and subordination. Amongthe tribes, production and consump-tion are household-based and unlikepeasants they are not usually a part ofthe wider economic, political and socialnetwork.

Tribe and Caste

Conceptually a tribe is a territorialgroup, while a caste is a social group.When a tribe loses its territorialcharacter, it takes the form of a caste.Due to isolation and negligible contactswith their more developed neighbours,tribals are comparatively less developedand less integrated in the nationalmainstream than the castes.

Usually each tribe has its ownlanguage but it is not the case with acaste. A tribe never imposes restrictionson its members regarding the choice ofoccupation but a caste usuallypromotes hereditary occupations andthe principle of birth.

There are, however, borderline casesof ‘tribal castes’ also. A tribe like theBhumis has been converted into a caste,



preserving its original name and manyof its characteristic customs, butmodifying its animistic practices.According to Max Weber, tribe becomescaste with the loss of its territorialattachment.

Caste and tribe emphasise andperpetuate collective identities instrikingly similar ways. A caste or tribemay change its name and also its modeof livelihood and yet retain its collectiveidentity.

The tribes have segmentary,egalitarian system and are not mutuallyinter-dependent like the castes whichshow a system of stratification andorganic solidarity. Members of a tribehave usually an equal access to landand other resources of the community.Equality or inequality varies from onetribe to another.

Politically tribal societies arerelatively simple and egalitarian.Lineage, clan and kinship tend tooverlap with their politicalorganisations. In tribal view humanbeings, cosmos and the supernaturalbeings are not separate entities.

Tribes in Contemporary India

The tribals had maintained anautonomous existence till theirterritories were opened up by the Britishfor strategic reasons. These reasonsinvolved exploitation of forest andmineral resources as well as regularsupply of cheap labour. Once the tribalswere exposed to the wider world, theyhad traumatic experience of losing theirland and right to forest and getting

forcibly incorporated into a systemabout which they knew little. Thetribals became vulnerable to variousforms of social, economic and culturalexploitation.

The tribals started differentmovements during the British regimeagainst alienation of their land andforest as well as threats to their culture.In independent India also they agitateto protect themselves againstdeprivation of jobs, training facilities,alienation of their rights to land andother resources due to the influx of thenon-tribal in the tribal territories. Manyof these movements put emphasis onrevitalisation of their traditionalcultures which seemed to be threatenedby the outsiders. The tribals foughtsporadically the colonial forces of theBritish to protect their autonomy. Intoday’s India the tribals suffer theadverse effects of imbalanceddevelopment. They assert their ethnicidentity to earn a greater share ofpolitical power to protect their culturaland economic interests. Equaldistribution of the benefits ofmodernisation and development is apositive remedy against the grievancesof the tribals. The constitutionalguarantees for the Scheduled Tribesdo not reach to the countless tribals.The new groups of tribal elites tend tomonopolise them. Individualism andinequality have crept into the tribal lifealso. It will have to be matched by apositive concern and effective steps forreaching the benefits of themodernisation and economicdevelopment to the poor tribal masses.

45

GLOSSARY

KACHCHA FOOD. Boiled food especially rice and chapati etc.

PAKKA FOOD. Fried food like poori, paratha.

RITUAL. An often repeated pattern of behaviour which is performed atappropriate times in all religious communities.

EXERCISES

1. Define caste. List the main features of the caste system.2. Distinguish between caste and class.3. What is the role of caste in contemporary India?4. Bring out the main features of class system in India.5. Differentiate between caste and class as two major forms of social

stratification.6. Define tribe. What are the features of tribes in India?7. How is tribe different from caste?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Dumont, Louis, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications,Vikas Publications, New Delhi, 1970.

2. Ghurye, G.S., Caste and Class in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, 1950.

3. Risley, Herbert, The People of India, Oriental Book Reprint Corporation,New Delhi, 1925/1969.

4. Singh, K.S., The People of India; National Series (Volumes on ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes), Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1993.

5. Singh, Yogendra, Social Stratification and Change in India, ManoharPublications, New Delhi, 1999.

6. Thapar, Romesh, ed, Tribe, Caste and Religion, Macmillan, New Delhi,1977.


Introduction

Marriage, family and kinship areperhaps the most studiedinstitutions in sociology. The termkinship is often used as a shorthandfor “kinship and marriage”. It isusual to distinguish betweenconsanguinity (relationship byblood) from affinity (relationship bymarriage). Thus, parents andchildren are consanguineous kins,whereas, husband and wife areaffines. Marriage is the foundation offamily and the family is the foundationof social life. The ties of family andmarriage give rise to kinship.

Indian society is divided into manyreligious and cultural groups.Therefore, there is a lot of diversity inmatters of marriage, family andkinship in India. Every religiousgroup has its own customs andprocedures of marriage. Marriage andkinship are aspects of regionalcultures. Therefore, it is not possibleto talk of marriage and kinship inIndia at the level of all India generality.Empirically India has diverse forms offamily structure. However a dominantview is that the norm of the Indianfamily is the joint family. Sociologists

have studied usually marriage andkinship life in India around the fourbroader ethnic groups of Hindus,Muslims, Christians and Tribals. Atthe level of family organisation,however, sociologists have found a lotof commonality at all India levelirrespective of ethnic divisions aboutmarriage and kinship.

Let us discuss marriage, family andkinship in India in some detail.

THE MARRIAGE

Marriage is one of the mostfundamental and ancient socialinstitutions. From times immemorial, ithas been maintaining order anddiscipline in human society. Its form,nature and process vary from societyto society. Irrespective of thesedifferences this institution has severaluniversally common elements andfunctions. According to EdwardWestermarck, Marriage is a “relation ofone or more men to one or more women,which is recognised by custom or lawand involves certain rights and dutiesboth in case of parties entering theunion and in case of the children bornof it.” In its essence, it refers to a set ofrules and regulations, which determines,

CHAPTER 5

Marriage, Family and Kinship in India

who will marry whom, how the marriageunion will be established under whatconditions and when marriage will takeplace, what will be the rights and dutiesof the persons entering into such unionand finally how the union will bedissolved. It fulfils the physical, social,psychological and spiritual aims andobjectives of both the wife and thehusband. Marriage is a sociallyrecognised and normatively prescribedrelationship between at least twopersons — one female and other male— that defines and estabilishes sexual,economic and other rights and dutieswhich each owes to the other. Marriagegives social and legal recognition towoman and man as wife and husbandand their relationship. The childrenborn out of marital relationship arerecognised as legitimate children insociety. In India different socio-religiousand cultural groups have their owntraditional concepts, norms andcustoms of marriage. Let us see someof the most notable forms:

Hindu Marriage in India

A distinction has to be made of the bookview and field view of marriage. Themarriage system of Hindu communityhas a uniqueness of its own whichmakes it distinct from othercommunities. Hindu marriage is notmerely a union between a female anda male which is sanctioned by society.Alongwith the social sanction, it has areligious and divine aspect. What ismore important in Hindu marriage isthat it is a sacred bond, a religious

sacrament. Its aim is not only to securephysical pleasure for the individualsbut also to advance their spiritualdevelopment. K.M. Kapadia says that—“Hindu marriage is a socially approvedunion of man and woman aiming atdharma, procreation, sexual pleasureand observance of certain obligations.”According to P.H.Prabhu the primaryobject of marriage is the continuity ofthe family life. Marriage binds the wifeand the husband into an indissolublebond which lasts beyond death.Sociologists have noted the relativestability of marriage relationship inIndia.

Aims of Hindu Marriage

Sociologists and Indologists havediscussed about the following aims ofHindu marriage in India.(1) As a sacrament Hindu marriage

aims to fulfil certain religiousobligations. During the course ofmarriage the wife and the husbandtake an oath to live together. Atraditional Hindu passes throughfour Ashramas or stages of lifecalled Brahamacharya (studentlife), Grihastha, (family life),Vanaprastha (retired life)and Sannyasa (renunciation).At the commencemnt ofeach such Ashrama, a Hinduundergoes a sacrament and takesa vow. As a result of this, onebecomes purified in body andmind. Marriage is a gateway toGrihastha Ashrama.

MARRIAGE, FAMILY AND KINSHIP IN INDIA 47


(2) It is very essential for a Hindu tobe married for the fulfilment ofreligious duties like dharma(practice of religion), praja(procreation) and rati (sexualpleasure). The foremost purpose ofHindu marriage is to practisedharma in accordance with‘varna’, ‘jati’ and ‘kula’ norms.

(3) The Hindus consider vivah ormarriage as one of the SarirSamskara or sacraments sanctifyingthe body. It is doubly essential for awoman because marriage is the onlysignificant samskara for her.

(4) A Hindu Grihastha is expected toperform daily fire sacrifies such asDeva Yajna, Bhut Yajna, andPitriyajna by daily chanting vedicmantras, offering ghee or clarifiedbutter in fire, giving some portionof food to different creatures,extending hospitality to guestsand by performing shraddha oroffering of pinda or rice balls toancestors respectively. Withoutthe active participation of his wife,a man cannot perform theseduties.

(5) Hindus believe in a concept ofthree religious debts or Rinas.These are Pitri Rina, Daiv Rinaand Guru Rina. Marriage isessential for repaying Pitri rinaand the individual repays it bybeing the father of a son. Role of awife is essential for the completionof Grihastha Dharma andperform religious rites. The wifeamong the Hindus is calledArdhangini.

Forms of Hindu Marriage

Hindu scriptures discribed eight formsof marriage. Which are as follows:

1. Bramha Vivah: This is the mostideal and the most sought aftermarriage among the Hindus. In thisform of marriage the father of thebride invites for marriage the mostsuitable groom, in terms of learningcapacity and character for hisdaughter who is given to the groomin kanyadaan. These days it iscalled samajik vivah or Kanyadaanvivah as well.

2. Daiva Vivah: The father of the brideofferes his daughter in the hand ofthe priest as Dakshina and Yajna,which has been officiated by him.It was considered as an ideal formof marriage in ancient times buthas become irrelevant today.

3. Arsha Vivah: This was thesanctioned procedure of marriagefor sages or renunciators, in casethey wanted to lead a family life.They used to gift a pair of cow anda bull to the father of a girl of theirchoice. In case the father of the girlwas in favour of this marriageproposal he accepted the gift andmarriage was arranged. Otherwise,the gift was respectfully returnedto the sage.

4. Prajapatya Vivah: This is amodified, less elaborate form ofBrahma vivah. The main differencelies in the rules of sapinda exogamy.

5. Asura Vivah: In this form of

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marriage, the bridegroom paysbride price to bride’s father or herkinsmen and marries the bride.Marriage by exchange is alsopermitted within this marriage.

6. Gandharva Vivah: It was thetraditional form of contemporarylove marriage. It was a sanctionedform of marriage in exceptionalcircumstances and among certainclasses but it was not consideredas an ideal in the tradition.

7. Rakshasa Vivah: This is that formof marriage which is knownmarriage by capture among thetribals. This type of marriage waswidely prevalent during the ancientage among the kings as the prizesof war or the machanism to improverelations with the defeated people.It was sanctioned but not an idealform of marriage.

8. Paisacha Vivah: This is the leastacceptable form of marriage. Theman cheats the girl and therebyforces her to marry him. The woman,having lost her chastity, has noother alternative but to marry him.Recognising this form of union asmarriage was an attempt to protectthe rights of the cheated woman. Italso gave legitimacy to the childrenborn of such unions.

Rules of Mate Selection

To maintain the purity and distinctiveidentity of groups in society, the Hindulaw-givers have laid down detailed rulesand regulations regarding the choice of

a partner for the marriage union. Theselaws are based on two principles i.e.,the endogamic rule and the exogamicrules.

(a) Endogamy

While selecting a mate, a person has tochoose from her or his own sub-casteand/or caste.

(i) Caste Endogamy: This ruleprescribes marriage within one’sown caste and prohibits themembers of a caste to marryoutside their own caste. Theviolation of this rule would resultinto severe social and economicpunishments by the ‘caste council’or ‘panchayat ’ amounting toisolation and denial of all sorts ofsocial help and co-operation.

(ii) Sub-caste Endogamy: Each casteis sub-divided into many smallgroups, the members of whichhave feelings of superiority over theothers. Each such unit is anendogamous group, directing itsmembers to choose their matesonly from that sub-caste. Forexample, Brahmanas are alsohaving some sub-castes likeSaraswat, Gaur, Kanyakubj, etc.All these groups are endogamousgroups.

(b) Exogamy

In exogamy a person is supposed tomarry outside one’s own group.Though endogamy and exogamy seemto be two contradictory rules, in Hindusociety both these rules are practised

MARRIAGE, FAMILY AND KINSHIP IN INDIA


simultaneously, of course, at differentlevels. There are two types ofexogamous rules in Hindu society:

(i) Sagotra Exogamy: Gotra (sagotraor same gotra) is a clan or familygroup, the members of which areforbidden to marry each other. Itis believed that sagotras orpersons with the same gotra haveoriginated from the same ancestorand are, therefore, related byblood. But, this rule has beenmade legally ineffective by theHindu Marriage Act, 1955.

(ii) Sapinda Exogamy: Sapindas aresupposed to be blood relatives.Sapindas are those who arerelated to one another inascending or descending order, byfive generations from the mother’sside and seven generations fromthe father’s side. One cannotselect life partner from one’s ownSapindas. Though the HinduMarriage Act, 1955 prohibitsSapinda marriage in general, itallows this in the form of cross-cousin marriages as a peculiarcustom of the South India.Sapinda exogamy indicates theprohibition placed on inter -marriage of sapindas. Sapindarepresents the relationshipbetween the living member anddead ancestors. The termsapinda (saman pind) means (1)Those who share the particles ofthe same body, and (2) People whoare united by offering pinda orballs to the same dead ancestor.

The Hindu law-givers differ in theirdefinitions of sagotra. The Hindumarriage act, however, does notallow marriage within fivegenerations on father’s side andthree generations on mother’s side.

Inter-Caste Marriage

It means the marriage between awoman and a man who belong to twodifferent castes. For example, when awoman of Brahman caste marries aman from the caste of, say, a weaverthat is known as an inter -castemarriage. According to the customsuch marriages are not preferred,although in the urban areas thiscustom is not strictly followed.

Other Rules of Marriage

(i) Hypergamy or Anuloma : Hyper-gamy is that form of marriage inwhich the ritual status of a man ishigher than that of his prospectivewife.

(ii) Hypogamy or Pratiloma : Hypogamyis that form of marriage in whichthe ritual status of a woman ishigher than that of her prospectivehusband.The inter-caste marriages have

however, been legalised by legislationssuch as Special Marriage Act 1954, HinduMarriage Act 1955, Hindu Marriage Laws(Amendment) Act 1976 etc.

Muslim Marriage in India

The Muslim marriage is called Nikah.Conceptually, Muslim marriage is a

51

social contract or civil contract. In India,however, marriage among Muslims isalso a religious affair. The Muslimmarriage can be terminated by divorce.The marriage as a relatively permanentbond between a woman and a manseems to be the common heritage ofIndian culture and Muslim marriagesin India are reported to be more stablethan in Arab world and other places.

There are two main sects among theMuslim community in India — theShias and the Sunnis. There aredifferences between rituals of differentsects but the defining features of allMuslim marriages (nikah) are the same.According to the Muslim Personal Lawmarriage is valid when four persons arepresent as witnesses. These fourpersons are:

(1) The groom(2) The bride(3) The kazi(4) Witnesses (two male or four

female witnesses).The bride and the groom are

formally asked by the kazi — in thepresence of the local community andthe chosen witnesses — about theirvoluntary consent to their marriage. Ifthey agree ‘voluntarily’ their marriagecontract is sanctioned. It is calledNikahnama. This contract includes theamount of Mehr or bride-wealth whichthe groom has to give to the bride aspart of the contract at the time of themarriage or later as agreed upon.

The marriage rite usually takes placeat the bride’s place in both among theHindus and the Muslims in India. Thereare many customs which are commonly

shared by the Hindus and the Muslimsin a particular region. For example,among the Mopala Muslims of Kerala, theHindu rite of Kalyanam is a necessarycomponent of traditional Nikah. Parallelcousin marriage — marriage of one withthe daughter/son of one’s father’s brother— has been the preferred marriage amongMuslims. Further, widow-remarriage isnot a problem among Muslims.

There are two types of Muslimmarriages — regular (Nikah) andirregular (Fasid). Irregular marriage(Mutah) can be converted into regular(Nikah) marriage. Irregular marriagesoccur in case of(1) Absence of witnesses at the time of

making and accepting the proposal,(2) Fifth marriage of a man with four

existing wives,(3) Marriage of a woman during the

period when she is undergoingiddat. The duration of iddat is threemonths for divorcee and four monthsand ten days for widow to assurethat the woman is not pregnant.

(4) Difference of religion between wifeand husband.

Christian Marriage in India

Christian Marriage in India has greatsimilarity with Hindu marriage. Like theHindus, the Christians also believe thatmarriage takes place because of thedivine will. It is, however, not a religiousduty as among the Hindus. It has got areligious aspect but it is primarily asocial institution among the IndianChristians.

The marriage partners are selectedeither by parents or by children



themselves. While selecting partners thefocus is on avoiding close relations, andgiving importance to social status of thefamily, character, education, physicalfitness etc. of the boy and the girl.Marriage rules among the Christiansand Hindus are quite similar. After theengagement ceremony the marriagecustom includes the following steps:(a) Producing a certificate of character,(b) Submitting an application for

marriage in the church, threeweeks before the due date ofmarriage,

(c) The church priest then invitesobjections against the proposedmarriage and when no objectionis received, marriage date is fixed;and

(d) The marriage ring — the secondring, different from engagementring — is exchanged in the Churchand the couple declares that theytake each other as wedded partnerin the presence of two witnessesand in the name of Lord Christ.

The ritual of marriage takes placein the church. A community feast isorganised after marriage among theChristians as among all other Indiancommunities irrespective of religiousidentity.

Christians do not permit polygamy.The Church like the Hindu traditiondoes not permit divorce, however,among christians divorce does occur.Christians in India are guided by theChurch customs as well as by the rulesof Indian Constitution.

According to the Church customsneither bride-wealth (Mehr) nor Dahej

is permissible in Christian marriagebut practice of dowry is on the rise,perhaps under the Hindu influence.Remarriage of widows and divorcee isnot only accepted but also encouraged.

Tribal Marriage in India

In India, there are some tribes whichallow pre-marital and extra-marital sexrelations on festive occasions. But, thisdoes not mean that the tribes have nomarriage rules. In fact, most of the tribesare strictly monogamous except onsome festive occasions when there is alaxity in sex morals. Even among themost primitive tribes like the Toda, theAndamanese, the Kadar, the Chenchu,we find the existence of strict marriagerules. Marital fidelity is found to beenforced in most of the tribes.Proscriptions, Prescriptions andPreferences in the choice of mates intribal societies are based on veryelaborate rules.

Preference in Mate Selection

The tribes of India are different from eachother on the basis of mate selection. Mostof the tribes of India prefer to selectmates in their own kin. Gonds andKhasis prefer a cross-cousin marriage.These preferential marriages may beviewed as a device to avoid bride – priceand to keep the property of thehousehold intact. For instance, theGonds call it Dudh Lautav (returningthe milk) implying thereby that thebride – price a person pays for his wifewill be returned when his daughtermarries her mother’s brother’s son. In

53

addition to cross-cousin marriage othertypes of preferential marriages are:

(a) Levirate: In this type, after the deathof husband, his wife marries theyounger brother of her deadhusband.

(b) Sororate: In this type, after the deathof wife, the husband marries thesister of his dead wife. In restrictedsororate, after the death of one’swife, the man marries the youngersister of his wife. In simultaneoussororate, the younger sister of one’swife automatically becomes his wife.

Types of Marriage

1. Monogamy: It is the ideal form ofmarriage. The union of one womanwith one man is called monogamy.During the lifetime, neither spousecan marry again. It is acceptedamong many Indian tribes. It ispronounced among the matrilinealtribes of Khasis and Garos ofNorth-East India.

2. Polygamy: In this form, one womancan marry two or more men, or oneman can marry two or morewomen. It is further divided into twotypes:

(i) Polygyny: A man is eligible to marrymore than one woman. It prevailsamong the Naga, the Baiga, theGond, the Toda.

(ii) Polyandry: One woman marriesmore than one man. This is againsub-divided into two types:

(a) Fraternal Polyandry: It is themarriage of one woman withseveral brothers of a family. Allthe brothers in a family have thesame woman as their wife. It isespecially found among theTodas of South India, Khasas ofJaunsar Bawar. The paternity ofchildren, born of this marriageis determined by a social festival.

(b) Non-fraternal Polyandry: In thismarriage one woman marriesmore than one man, who are notbrothers. They belong todifferent families and are notrelated by brotherly relations. Itis found among the Todas ofIndia. When a child is born, thenany one of the husbands ischosen as her or his father by aspecial ceremony.

Ways of Acquiring Mates among theTribal Communities

Tribal marriage is a social contract forsexual pleasure, production of childrenand mutual co-operation. It is not areligious sacrament like the Hindumarriage. There are mainly eight waysof acquiring mates:

1. Marriage by Probation: In thistype of marriage, a man is allowedto live with the woman at herparent’s house for a particularperiod of time. During the periodof probation, if they adjust witheach other, they marry, if not, theyseparate and the man has to paysome money to the parents of thewoman as compensation. If the



woman becomes pregnant duringthis probation period then thatman must marry that woman. Itis found among the Kuki tribe ofManipur.

2. Marriage by Capture: It is a typeof marriage in which without theconsent of a woman, a manmarries her forcibly. Excessivebride-price is the main factorresponsible for this type ofmarriage. Marriage by capture isof two types:(i) In physical capture a manadopts a procedure whereby hecarries away the woman by forceand marries her.(ii) In ceremonial capture a manadopts a procedure whereby hesurprises the woman by markingher forehead with Vermilion.Physical capture is found amongthe Naga, Ho, Bhil, Muria Gond,Badaga and Saora etc. Ceremonialcapture is found among theSanthal tribes.

3. Marriage by Trial: In some of thetribes of India, a man is requiredto prove his prowess and courageby braving the obstacles thrownin his way before procuring hiswife. This is found among manytribes including the Bhils of India.Among the Bhils, men and womenperform a folk dance around a treeor a pole during Holi festival. Acoconut with some gur is tied tothe top of the tree or pole. Womendance very near to the tree or poleand men dance around the circle

of the dancing women. Any manfrom the group has the right toreach the tree or pole. Women beatthat man venturing to perform thefeat with bamboo sticks and tearhis clothes. In spite of allresistance, if he reaches the treeand breaks the coconut and eatsgur, that man has the right tomarry any one of the girls whohave participated in the trial.

4. Marriage by Purchase: In this formof tribal marriage, the parents ofbridegroom pay something in cashor kind to the bride’s parents. Thismoney or material is known as thebride-price. A Garo man cannot geta bride if bride-price is not paid.The bride-price is said to be thecompensation to the bride’sparents which is generally fixed bythe tribal customs and traditions.Besides, the so-called bride-priceis only a contribution from thebridegroom’s family towards theexpenses of the marriage feast onwhich it is usually spent. Thesystem prevails among the Nagas,the Juangs and some of the tribesof Central India.

5. Marriage by Service: Certain tribalfamilies observe this custom.According to this custom, thebridegroom before marriage,simply goes to his prospectivefather-in-laws’ house and servesthere as a servant for a particularperiod of time. After the expiry ofthis period, if the father-in-law issatisfied with the work of the man,

55

he gives his daughter’s hand tohim. If he is dissatisfied then theman is banished from the house.During the period of service, theman cannot establish sexualrelations with the woman. Thetribes of India differ from oneanother regarding the modalitiesor the duration of service. Themembers of many tribes of Indiasuch as the Gond, Baiga, etc.practice this.

6. Marriage by Exchange: Accordingto this practice, two familiesexchange their daughter and son sothat neither side is required to paythe bride-price. Marriage byexchange is very common in Indiantribes. The Uralis of Kerala, theMuria Gonds and Baiga of Bastarand the Koya and the Saora ofAndhra Pradesh practice this.

7. Marriage by Elopement: It takesplace when a woman and a manlove each other and want to marry,but their parents refuse theirmatrimonial relation. In such cases,both of them escape from thevillage. After some period, theycome back to the village and thenthey are recognised as wife andhusband. It is known as RajiKhushi marriage among the Hotribe of Jharkhand.

8. Marriage by Intrusion: When a manhas intimate relations with awoman and promises to marry herbut always postpones the marriageceremony, the woman herself takesthe initiative and enters his hut and

occupies her place in one of itscorners. Sometimes, she is muchharassed, ill-treated and beaten bythe parents of the man. If the womanwithstands all this, she wins and theman is compelled by his neighboursto marry her. Among the Oraons itis known as Nirbolok and amongthe Ho as Anadar.

Marriage in Contemporary India

Marriage in India today is primarily ofmonogamous type. The age atmarriage is increasing among all thesocio-religious communities. Mostmarriages are settled by the parents butthe interests and opinions of theconcerned children are being taken intoaccount increasingly. Inter-caste andinter -community marriages aresomewhat increasing in urban areas.Dowry is spreading even among thosecommunities which did not practicedowry earlier. For example, dowry isincreasing among Muslim andChristian families and some of the tribalgroups as well. The traditional systemof Dahej was a voluntary form of giftgiving. The modern practice of dowry,instead, is negotiated and demandedeither in cash or in kind or both givenby the bride’s family to the groom’sfamily. The custom of dowry representsthe declining role of ‘community’ and‘collective ideals’ and increasingemphasis on individual and familyinterests in the short term. Theprevalence of dowry system seriouslyaffects the bond of love and affectionbetween the bride and her in-laws,particularly where her natal family is



forced to spend enormously on dowry.It creates endless sufferings for the bridewhose parents are unable to meet thegreed of the groom’s family. Legislationagainst dowry has been passed.Economic self-sufficiency of women andtheir sense of dignity as well asenlightenment of the prospectivegrooms is expected to minimise dowry.

The rate of divorce and separationis also increasing. Even in stablemarriage contexts, the conjugal bondis increasingly under stress. However,wives are gradually becoming aware oftheir rights and they have becomerelatively assertive. As a result conjugalrelationship is being redefined in tunewith the democratic ethos. It is notuncommon for husband to take partin the domestic work, especially whenthe wife is also working. In comparisonto other societies, however, stability ofmarriage as an institution is still intactin Indian society.

THE FAMILY

Family is a basic and universal unit ofhuman society. It performs functionsthat are necessary for the continuity,integration and development of sociallife. In most traditional societies familyhas been the unit of social, cultural,religious, economic and politicalactivities and organisations. In modernindustrial societies, the family performsprimarily the functions of reproduction,socialisation and provision of emotionalsatisfaction.

Sociologists talk about family in twosenses. It refers (i) to an empirical entityof a specific type, and (ii) to an analytical

concept. The empirical type of familyvaries from community to communityand region to region. As an analyticalconcept, family is a universal institution.It refers to groups composed of parentsand children. If parents live with theirimmature — economically andemotionally dependent, usuallyunmarried — children, it is callednuclear or elementary family. If parentslive with their mature children and theirspouses, it is called joint family. Familyas an analytical concept is primarilyconcerned with legitimate mating andsanctioned procreation in all humansocieties. In modern industrial andurban societies family provides the chiefprinciple of kin-group formation. Intraditional societies, however, the familyis dominated by principles of kinshiporganisation and ties of filiations orblood relationships.

The group formed around theprimacy of marriage is composed ofspouses and dependent children. It iscalled nuclear or conjugal family. It isupon the conjugal relation that thesolidarity of elementary family depends.The solidarity of joint family dependsprimarily on the mutual trust amongfamily members.

Sociologists also talk aboutpatrilineal and matrilineal families. Apatrilineal family is constituted by thechildren of the ‘father’ and children areknown by the name of the father. Aftermarriage the daughter goes to live withher husband and the spouse of the malechild comes to live with her husband’sfamily. Family property is primarilytransmitted from father to son. A

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matrilineal family is constituted by thedescendents of the ‘mother’ andchildren are known by the name of themother. After marriage the husbandmay go to live with his wife and herfamily or, in some societies, stay withhis sister. The family property istransmitted from the mother to thedaughter but it is usually managedby the mother’s brother. Themanagement right is transferred fromthe mother’s brother to the sister’sson. Patrilineal families may be eithernuclear or joint but matrilinealfamilies are mostly joint.

The Family In India

According to I.P.Desai the concept offamily as nuclear family is still not theIndian concept. To the Indian the familyis that which is the joint family inEnglish. Sociologists like A.M. Shahhave differentiated between joint familyand a residential household. In bothmodern and traditional India nuclearhouseholds did exist. Joint familyremained for most Indians the idealpattern of family life.

Contemporary sociologists havereported from different regions of Indiathat nuclear family or household ismerely a stage in the developmentalcycle of the joint family. Households inIndia develop into joint and nuclearstructures in a cyclical order. This islinked with the natural process of deathof the older generation and birth of thenew generation. This cycle is usuallycompleted within thirty years times anda new cycle begins after that. Iravati

Karve says that the joint family is agroup of people who generally liveunder one roof, eat the food cooked atone hearth, hold property in common,participate in common family worshipand are related to each other as someparticular type of kindred.

According to I.P.Desai, co-residenceand common kitchen are not asimportant elements of the joint familyas intra-family relationships. He hassuggested that there are five types offamily life in India:

1. Nuclear Family: The smallestfamily which consists of wife,husband and their unmarriedchildren.

2. Functional Joint Family: Whentwo families having bloodrelationship are living separatelybut function under one commonauthority, it is called functionaljoint family.

3. Functional and Substantial JointFamily: When a functional jointfamily is also joint in terms ofproperty it is called functional andsubstantial joint family.

4. Marginal Joint Family: When twogenerations of family members livetogether functionally andsubstantially it is called marginaljoint family.

5. Traditional Joint Family: Itconsists of three or moregenerations of people livingtogether in one household, ownproperty commonly andparticipate in the family rituals.

Joint and nuclear households andthe cultural norm of joint family have



existed side by side in India. Changesare now taking place both in thestructure of households and the degreeof sentiment of jointness.

Structural Features of JointHouseholds

1. Common Residence and Kitchen:The members live under one roof.The entire residence is divided intomany small rooms for the use ofdifferent brothers and theirfamilies. Jointness in living fostersa common bond among thedifferent members of the family.There is a single kitchen for thewhole household. Generally, thewife of the head of the house or anelderly woman remains in chargeof the common kitchen.

2. Large Size: It consists of a numberof people. It may even consist ofpeople of three or more generationsincluding at least grandparents,grandchildren, uncles, aunts,cousins and so on.

3. Common Property: The property ofthe family is held in common. Bothmovable and immovable propertyare owned jointly. Everyone worksaccording to one’s efficiency andearnings are pooled together in acommon fund. Wealth and goodsof joint family are produced andconsumed collectively. The head ofthe family, known as the ‘karta’remains in charge of it. Every malemember is legally a co-owner of thefamily property.

Functional Elements of JointHousehold in India

1. Common Rituals and Ceremonies:Every joint family has its own ritesand rituals in accordance with thecaste norms and religiousobligations. This common patternof worship is inherited fromgeneration to generation. Thisbrings unity and integration to thefamily. The common God theyworship i.e., the family diety isknown as kul devta.

2. Role of the Karta: In the household,the authority to take decisions andmaintain peace and discipline in thefamily lies in the hands of the Karta.All the earning members keep theirearnings with him and the entireproperty is kept under his control.Family ceremonies and celebra-tions are held under his guidanceand direction. He also settles thedisputes within the household.In nutshell, the Karta is the trusteeof the family and enjoysunquestionable authority.

3. Mutual Obligations: Members of thejoint family are bound together bymutual obligations. No one worksagainst the interests of the others.All members are responsible foreach other and are bound bymutual understanding, love,reciprocal relationships and co-operative spirit. These bonds andrelation-ships are said to be thesustaining force of the joint family.The individual’s interests are sub-

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ordinate to the interests of the familyas a whole.

4. Socialist System: It is a functionalunit based on socialistic norms.Everyone works for the welfare ofthe family as a whole. The rights andprivileges are distributed equallyamong the members. Each membercontributes according to her or hiscapacity and gets according to heror his needs.

Functions of the Joint Family

The Indian joint family system isconsidered the backbone of Indiansocial organisation. As a system ofsocial organisation it has beenprevalent for many centuries till today.It, evidently, follows that this ancientinstitution has performed somebeneficial functions for the society.Some positive functions of the jointfamily are the following:

Reproduction

The family functions as the usuallegitimate site of reproduction. Humanfertility and procreation are determinedto a large extent by the family. Theresponsibility of child raising is sharedwith the wider kin group. Consequently,numerous offsprings are viewed as apositive asset to the group, providingsecurity to the parents in their old age.

Socialisation

Following from the family’s role as thesite of reproduction, the family is thefirst and primary agency of

socialisation. The young are alwaysunder constant guidance anddiscipline. The family imparts thevalues of tolerance, co-operation,sacrifice and sympathy to its members.It involves the young in the care ofelders. It helps one to grow into amature, responsible full-fledged socialbeing. In the process of growing as anadult it emphasises among itsmembers inculcation of traditionalnorms associated with general roles asa female or male. The family is greatlyconcerned about children’s education,employment and marriage; and itplays a crucial role in the socialplacement of the younger generation.

Agency of Social Control

The joint family is a self-regulatingadministrative unit, operating underthe guidance of the Karta whoseauthority is questioned only in termsof exceptional use of power. It actsas an informal means of socialcontrol. The elder members in a jointfamily check the indiscipline andanti-social tendencies of its young.The family ensures that its membersgrow up as well behaved anddisciplined people.

Welfare

A major function of the family is that ofcare and nurture of the young, thehandicapped, the sick, and the aged. Ittakes special care of the infant and thepregnant or lactating mother. The jointfamily organisation is well adapted toprovide the maximum degree of



security to its members, especially soin the times of distress. The joint family,thus, creates a conducive and friendlysocial environment for its members. Italso provides opportunities forrecreation and participation in culturalfunctions.

Production, Distribution andConsumption

Crucial to the familial organisation ofproduction is the sexual division oflabour, both within the household itselfand outside. The women usually takecharge of the domestic and reproductivesphere. They may also contribute tohome-based industrial activities. Themen are employed in the public domainand contribute to the family’s earnings.However, this sexual division of labourhas come under criticism in recenttimes.

The joint family is a single unit ofconsumption. This implies aneconomically efficient arrangement aslarge amounts of consumablecommodities are purchased at lowprices, while non-consumablecommodities are shared among the largenumber of family members. Themembers pool in their earnings andexpenses are made depending on theneeds of the whole family.

Dysfunctions of the Joint Family

Despite the numerous advantages, thereare also dysfunctions and pathologicalaspects of the joint residential pattern ofthe family in India. Some of these, notedby sociologists, are as follows:

The joint household is a centre ofconflict with respect to petty issues.There is often lack of adjustments,accommodation and assimilationbetween the members. Differences andbitterness lead to internal contra-dictions and thus prepare the way fordissolution of the household.

The joint family stands in the wayof development of the individual’sautonomous personality. Since thefamily-head makes importantdecisions, there is less scope for takinginto consideration limitations ofindividual members or their likes anddislikes. Thus, independent thinkingis restrained and creative potential ofmembers is not fully tapped orexpanded.

Sometimes there is psychologicaldissatisfaction and misunderstandingas intimacy fails to develop betweennewly married couples. Under the jointfamily system, most of the time ofyoung married women may be spenton catering to the needs of all themembers. This sometimes leaves themwith little free time or opportunities toenjoy and sometimes even to look aftertheir health properly.

Since the joint family has both oldand young members, there is an inter-generational conflict. The old peoplestrictly abide by the traditional normsand beliefs and do not accept newcultural limits and trends. Thissometimes creates problems anddisrupts peace in the family. The youngoppose supposedly authoritarian,unfair, unjust behaviour andemphasise on individualism. There is

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difference in attitudes to socialcustoms.

Changes in the Joint Family

The following changes in the jointfamily or household have beenobserved by sociologists:

Structural Changes

The facts and values which nurtured,stabilised and sustained the jointfamily organisation are: (1) filialdevotion of sons; (2) the readiness ofthe economically viable members tostand by those other members of thejoint family who lack in the capacity tosupport themselves and their spousesand children economically; (3) lack ofstate organised system of socialsecurity for old women and men; and(4) a material incentive for organisingthe size of the land and the capital andthe labour required to utilise the sameprofitably.

The factors which are now leadingto the breaking-up of the jointhousehold are:

1. Differential earnings of brothers,generating tensions in thehousehold.

2. Disinclination of sons and theirwives to share the jointresponsibilities of the household.

3. Growth of individualism,especially among the young andthe westernised sections ofsociety.

4. The growing importance of theservice sector in the economy andexternal earning opportunities,

which are leading to nucleari-sation of the joint household.

Functional Changes

These can be examined at three levels:

1. Wife-Husband Relations: In thetraditional household, the wife hada sub-ordinate voice in decision-making. But in the contemporaryhousehold, the wife plays a moreactive role, often at par with herhusband. It requires mutualadjustment between the wife andthe husband as well as betweenwork and home.

2. Parent-Children Relations: In thetraditional family, while power andauthority was totally vested in theKarta and he was virtually all-powerful in decision-making abouteducation, occupation andmarriage of children in the family,this is not the case in thecontemporary household. Today,in most joint households allmembers are part of decision-making.

3. Relations between Daughter-in-law and Parents–in-law: Asignificant change has come aboutin their relationship. The educatedbahu does not observe purdah fromher father-in-law. The relationshipbetween the bahu and the mother-in-law is often less strained now.The mother-in-law is not a powerfulfigure but she remains a respectedkin like the father-in-law.



The Family in Contemporary India

Although the cultural norm of familyin most socio-religious-cultural groupsin India has been joint, nuclearhouseholds have existed since earliertimes at the empirical level. During themodern period different factors likeurbanisation, migration, industriali-sation, spread of western educationand the process of westernisation haveled to the development of a new type ofhousehold and family in India. Thesefactors have not led to the demise of thejoint family in the structural sense, buthave certainly strengthened the existingnuclear households and families. Tosome extent nuclear families have evenemerged as an alternative culturalnorm. The modern media has played asignificant role in the spread of the newcultural norm of the nuclear family.

Demographic factors, however, havestrengthened the institution of jointfamily and joint households. Censusdata and ethnographic studies haveshown that it is the older people ratherthan children who have contributed toan increase in the average size of theIndian household. For various reasons,life expectancy was so low in the pastthat it reduced the chances of forminga joint household and preserving it fora long time. This situation has changednow since medical facilities and otherfactors have significantly raised theaverage life expectancy.

A.M. Shah says that while theaverage size of household in urbanareas has been lower than in ruralareas, since 1951, it has been steadily

increasing in both. There is, however,one section of urban society,particularly in metropolitan cities,where the institution of nuclear familyand household is gaining popularacceptance. This is the middle andprofessional classes and westernisedupper caste sections in metropolitancities. This is a modern and rapidlygrowing section of Indian society. It hasbeen under the maximum impact of theideology of individualism. This sectionhas developed a liberal attitude towardsdaughters, whereby the absence of ason does not create over-anxiety.

The middle class professionals haveaccepted the small family norm.Consequently, this class has usuallyfollowed the one or two child norm. Thechildren after marriage may not livenecessarily in a joint household withtheir parents. The age at marriage inthis class is high and usually sons anddaughters-in-law have jobs in placesaway from the parents’ place ofresidence. They may continue to upholdthe norm of the joint family but do notlive together as an integrated householdunit for long.

Among the nuclear households thefollowing features are reported:(1) Small size of the household

facilitates greater freedom andindependence to the members.

(2) Sense of individual responsibilityis greater in such households incomparison to the jointhouseholds.

(3) In the urban context, nuclearhouseholds have becomeeconomically more viable for theprosperous middle classes.

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(4) Nuclear households are supposedto promote more adaptability tocope with crisis situations in thecontemporary context. Modernfacilities like insurance, bankingand medical clinics have made thetraditional security and careoffered by joint households lessattractive to the prosperousprofessional classes.

(5) From children’s point of view,however, nuclear households haveboth negative and positive aspects.The role of grandparents and othersenior relatives in child develop-ment is well recognised bypsychologists and social scientists.In nuclear households,sometimes, both the parents areworking outside. As a result,children feel a lot of loneliness andanxiety. They have to rely onservants, house-keepers, play-schools and other formal child-care agencies. In many instancesthis leads to emotional strain andemotionally vulnerable persona-lities, although in most caseschildren learn to cope and developan attitude of independence andindividualism.

A large number of Indians eventoday live in joint households and thenorm of joint family is more or lessintact. The cultural ethos of jointnessand the emotional bond between themembers is, however, under strain. Themoral authority of the family head orKarta has been undermined. Instead,family decisions are mostly the resultof negotiated procedures. The Indian

parliament has passed various Acts tosafeguard the interests of femalemembers in the family. Education hasalso empowered women and children.Therefore, joint family norms andcustoms are changing rapidly. The jointhouseholds are adapting to thechanging norms and customs. As areflection of these changes, in the lasttwo decades, the popular media suchas cinema and television programmeshave often dealt with the changing jointfamily and households in the moderncontext. On the whole, the institutionof joint family and household isundergoing adaptive changes.Resilience of Indian society and cultureis reflected in the institution of thefamily even today.

KINSHIP

In societies of almost all varieties,kinship provides the framework ofsocial relationship. Outside her or hisnuclear family she or he has secondaryrelatives and tertiary relatives. Eachindividual has primary relatives in thenuclear family to which she or hebelongs. Kinship is that part of culturewhich deals with notions of, or ideasabout ‘relatedness’ or relationshipthrough birth and through marriage.The kinship organisation refers to a setof persons recognised as relatives eitherby virtue of blood relationship or byvirtue of marriage relationship.

According to G. Duncan Mitchel,“when we use the term kinship we arereferring to people who are related byconsanguinity and affinity”. Consan-guinity is a relationship based on



supposedly common bloodrelationship. A consanguine is a relativewho was born in the family as well asone who was adopted in the familyconcerned. An affine is a relative bymarriage. For example, father–sonrelationship is consanguineousrelationship whereas wife–husbandrelationship is affinal relationship.

Kinship serves two important andrelated purposes, (i) it provides a wayof transmitting status and propertyfrom one generation to the next, and(ii) in some societies it serves toestablish and maintain effective socialgroups. Kinship is the product of tworelated institutions, family andmarriage, and it regulates the socialbehaviour relating to birth, physicalunion of woman and man and death.Kinship also indicates the expectations,rights and duties that kinsmen have toone another.

In most societies where kinshipconnections are important, the rules ofdescent affiliate individuals withdifferent sets of kin. Descent concernsthe tracing of relationships throughsucceeding generations, i.e., who hasdescended from whom. There areseveral ways of tracing descents.

Unilineal Descent or ‘one-line’descent is that form of descent in whicha relationship is emphasised throughone sex or line. It is of two types:

1. Patrilineal or Agnatic Descent is aform of unilineal descent tracedthrough males only. It is importantto remember that ego or the personcalculating descent may be eitherfemale or male. Females in a

patrilineal descent trace theirdescent through the line of theirfather’s as male members do.

2. Matrilineal or Uterine Descent is aform of descent traced throughfemales only. Both females andmales trace their descent in thisway.

3. There is also the form of Double orDuo lineal or Bilineal Descent. It isa form of unilineal descent whichcombines both patrilines andmatrilines. Descent is tracedseparately through female andthrough male lines for differentpurposes, e.g., inheritance ofimmovable property through oneline and inheritance of movableproperty through the other.Cognatic or Bilateral Descent is non

unilineal descent. Here descent is tracedthrough all progenitors, female andmale, through both the mother and thefather.

In India we generally find thepatrilineal and matrilineal descentsystems. Of the two, patrilineal descentsystem is more common. Patrilinealdescent is more prevalent in NorthIndia. Among the tribals, many tribessuch as Santhals or Mundas have thepatrilineal system. Interestingly thepolyandrous Todas too have apatrilineal system. Tribes such as theKhasis and Garos of North-East havethe matrilineal descent system. TheNayars of Kerala are a good example ofmatrilineal descent.

Unilineal descent groups often takethe form of lineages and clans. Lineage

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is a set of kin, whose members tracetheir descent from a common ancestorthrough known links. A clan is oftencomposed of related lineages. A clan isa set of kins who believe that they havedescended from a common ancestorbut cannot specify the genealogicallinks with her or him.

Marriage is usually not allowedbetween the members of a lineage.Marriage is not permitted also withinthe clan. The gotras of Indian societyare, for example, exogamous descentgroups — particularly in North India.

The members of a unilineal descentgroup may often come together forritual and ceremonial celebrations.Rules of inheritance tend to coordinatewith reckoning of descent in mostsocieties. In most parts of India till veryrecent times immovable property suchas land and housing has been inheritedonly by sons and in their absence bythe nearest male relatives. Recentlegislation has, however, establishedright of the daughter to her paternalproperty.

Kinship Terminology

A.R. Radcliffe Brown, the famousanthropologist, has observed thatkinship terms indicate, among otherthings, classification of ego’s rights andduties. Prior to him, L.H. Morgan,pointed out that kinship terms providesthe context and idiom for our socialrelationships. He talked of twosystems of kinship terminologies :(i) Classificatory, and (ii) Descriptive.

The Classificatory System useskinship terms that merge or equate

relatives who are genealogically distinctfrom one another. Here the same termis used for different kin.

The Descriptive System refers to akinship system in which a single termrefers to a particular relative and aspecific kind of relationship of the ego— the person from whom therelationship is calculated with her orhim. For example, mother’s brother isreferred to as mama, father’s brother aschacha etc. In most contemporarysocieties, both terms — descriptive andclassificatory — are used. Within thenuclear family only descriptive terms‘father’, ‘mother’, etc. are used.

The North Indian kinshipterminology is comparatively descri-ptive in the sense that it describeselementary relationships starting fromthe ego. In order to emphasise thepatrilineal descent, the terms in thesystem make a clear-cut distinctionbetween parallel and cross-cousins,e.g., bhatiji — one’s brother’sdaughter and bhanji — one’s sister’sdaughter.

Here, the distinction between cross-cousin and parallel-cousin may benoted. Persons who are respectivechildren of brother and his sister arecross-cousins. Thus, the cross-cousinsof ego are her or his father’s sister’s(phuphi’s) child and mother’s brother’s(mama’s) child. Parallel-cousins arepersons who are respective children ofsame-gender siblings. Thus, theparallel-cousins of ego are her or hisfather’s brother’s (chacha’s) child andmother’s sister’s (mausi’s) child. In theSouth Indian kinship terminology there



is relative stress on classificatoryterminology. Here the same term mamaincludes mother’s brother, father’ssister’s husband and wife’s father.

Kinship Terms and Usages SignifyingSocial Behaviour

Some of the usages, which have socialsanction and convention are considerednecessary for keeping order anddecorum in the society. Jokingrelationship is an example of it. Itindicates equality and mutual recipro-city between the two kin participatingin it. This is particularly true of thejoking relationship between a man andhis wife’s younger sister (jija-sali in theIndian context) or a woman and herhusband’s younger brother (bhabhi-devar in the Indian Context). After thepremature death of a husband, bhabhimay be married to devar. This practiceexists in North India among someagricultural caste groups. There areother types of joking relationships aswell. For instance, some communitieshave joking relationships betweengrandparents and grandchildren aswell.

As a contrast to the jokingrelationship is the behaviour orrelationship of avoidance between awoman and her husband’s father.Similarly, she has to avoid herhusband’s elder brother. The term forhusband’s father is shvasur and forhusband’s elder brother is Bhainsur.Bhainsur or Bhasur is a combinationof the Sanskrit word bhratri (brother)and shvasur (father-in-law), and is,therefore like father-in-law.

Teknonymy

In many rural communities in India,Teknonymy is a very common practice.It denotes the custom of naming theparent from the name of the child, forexample, the mother of Ramu (Ramu kimaa) or father of Sita (Sita ke Pitaji).One reason for this may be that a personbecomes a full member of the family, inwhich she or he is married, only afterthe birth of a child by whose name sheor he is addressed.

Kinship System in India

Kinship in India represents thediversities of marriage customs andpractices. It is not possible to talk ofkinship in India at the level of all Indiagenerality. Kinship as an organisationin India is mostly an aspect of theregional cultures. Iravati Karve hastalked about four regions (North,South, East and West) of kinship inIndia. Many others, however, talk abouttwo systems of kinship in India: theNorth Indian and the South Indian.The North Indian and the South IndianKinship systems are also known asAryan and Dravidian kinship systems.

Kinship Systems of North India andSouth India

In the Southern Zone one usually findsa preference for a marriage with certaincategories of close kin, in particular,with one or the other or both of the crosscousins but never parallel cousins oreven with the elder sister’s daughter. Onthe whole, the inter-marrying groupsare of comparable status. The marriage

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will involve groups which aregeographically quite proximate – evenfrom the same village – and the bridewill already be familiar with her in-laws.In South India, the existing bondsbetween kin groups are strengthenedby the new marriage relationship. Thecircle of kinship does not widen.

In North India, by contrast cross-cousin marriages are not permitted. Infact, in this region marriages are notencouraged between those who arealready closely related. A rule of villageexogamy also operates in most places.As a result brides are given to andtaken from villages or towns, often at aconsiderable distance. Here theemphasis is on extending the circles orboundaries of ‘kinships’ and not somuch on intensification of the existingbonds. The bride in North Indiankinship system comes to herhusband’s family as a stranger. Shemay sometimes become vulnerable tovarious types of unkind treatment fromher in-laws. In North India it is alsooften the case that marriages unitegroups whose social status isalready unequal, the bride-giversbeing of inferior status than the bride-takers (hypergamy). The marriagetransaction commonly takes place in

the form of dowry payment which maycreate problems for the bride.

Kinship in Contemporary India

Kinship ties are still important formajority of Indians. In times of crisismajority of Indians rely primarily ontheir kinship networks. When a kindies, all kinsmen and women rally tosupport the aggrieved family. When aperson migrates to another place, sheor he contacts the relatives by birthor by marriage. When she or herequires a job, she or he is given allthe possible help by her or hisrelatives. In a new place she or hestays initially with her or his kin orrelatives. When she or he is to bemarried, the marriage proposal comesby the mediation of the kinshipnetworks. In the same way, whenmarriage takes place in a family, themembers of the kinship group areobliged to give gifts to the bride or thegroom they are related to. In the lifeof the majority of Indians, kinship stillprovides the framework of social andcultural life. Caste, class, club andneighbourhood are also important butthe role of kinship are perhaps moredecisive than any one of these.

GLOSSARY

AFFINITY. A social relationship based on marriage gives rise to affinity or affinalrelationship. For example, a man and his wife’s brothers or sisters areaffines.



INTRA-GENERATIONAL CONFLICT. The conflict within the same generation is calledintra-generational conflict. For example, the conflict between brothersand sisters.

FRATERNAL. It refers to a brother, real or classificatory.

KINSHIP BEHAVIOUR. The performance of duty or obligation by kin members foreach other is called kinship behaviour. For example, gift given and takenby kin members on ritual occasions.

SAMSKARA. Samskara or sacrament is a cultural religious device of socialisationamong the Hindus.

EXERCISES

1. What is marriage? Discuss its various types.

2. Discuss the salient features of marriage among the Hindus.

3. Muslim Marriage is a contract. Explain this statement.

4. Write an essay on Christian Marriage in India.

5. What do you understand by the family?

6. What are the functions of joint family?

7. What are the dysfunctions of joint family?

8. Write down a short note on changes in the joint family.

9. What is Kinship? Discuss the functions of kinship in Indian society.

10. What is kinship behaviour? What are the social implications ofkinship behaviour?

11. Explain the following terms:(a) Affinity(b) Cognatic descent(c) Joking relationship(d) Teknonymy

12. Explain cross-cousin and parallel-cousin marriage in India.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Jain, Shobhita, Bharat Mein Parivar, Vivah aur Natedari (in Hindi) RawatPublications, Jaipur, 1996.

2. Karve, Iravati, Kinship Organisation in India, Asia Publishing House,Mumbai, 1968.

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3. Shah, A.M., The Household Dimension of the Family in India, Orient Longman,New Delhi, 1974.

4. Shah, A.M., The Family in India : Critical Essays, Orient Longman,New Delhi, 1998.

5. Uberoi, Patricia, ed., Family, Kinship And Marriage in India, Oxford Univer-sity Press, New Delhi, 1994.


Introduction

Religion is a very important institutionof society. It is considered a bulwark ofmorality, a source of public order andinner individual peace. Human beingslive in conditions of perpetualuncertainties. Human being’s capacityto control and affect the conditions ofher or his life is inherently limited. Thisgenerates a need to enter into arelationship with the supra empiricalaspects of reality, a need that is fulfilledby religion.

Although religion and dharma arenormally used interchangeably, theconnotations and meanings are notexactly the same. Whereas ‘religion’denotes beliefs and rituals, dharmadenotes social duties and thenormative order of the cosmos. Dharmais the orientation of the human actiontowards its fruits. It is the regulation ofsocial life by norms of conduct. In Indicpractices, dharma has implicationsthat go beyond religion, as normallyunderstood.

For Emile Durkheim, “A religion isa unified set of beliefs and practicesrelated to sacred things, that is to say,things set apart and forbidden, beliefs

and practices which unite into onesingle moral community called achurch to all those who adhere to them”.In other words, religion presupposes aclassification of all things into twoclasses or opposed groups, generallydesignated as sacred and profane.

Many sociologists also emphasiseanother aspect of religion: It serves as amechanism to help people solve theproblem of meaning of life, death,illness, failure, success, happiness etc.It, thus, provides an overall sense ofdirection and meaning to human life.

A religion has three aspects —rituals, beliefs, and organisation.Rituals deal with religious behaviour.Beliefs deal with the sources as well asthe patterns of faith. Organisation dealswith the mechanism by which religionsmanage the behaviour, expectations,status and role of the membersconcerned.

India is a multi-religious country.According to 1991 census of India,there are 82 per cent Hindus, 12.12 percent Muslims, 2.3 per cent Christians,1.94 per cent Sikhs, 0.76 per centBuddhists, 0.40 per cent Jains,and 0.44 per cent others. The lastcategory of others include Parsis or

CHAPTER 6

Religion in India

Zoroastrians, Jews and Animists groupsof tribal origins. In other words, almostevery major religious group isrepresented in India. Traditionally allthe groups have lived together respectingthe other’s beliefs and practices.

The different religions practised inIndia can be broadly classified into thefollowing two groups:

1. Religions of Indic Origin:Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism,and Sikhism. These are rooted inthe long religious tradition of India.

2. Semitic Religions: Judaism,Christianity and Islam. These arerooted in the prophetic traditionof Adam and Abraham.

No village or town in India is devoidof a religious monument—temple,mosque, church and Gurudwara etc.There are two aspects of religion inIndia, the individual aspect and thecollective aspect. It is the latter aspectwhich is emphasised in India.

Religion, Law and the State in India

Indian tolerance of beliefs andacceptance of diversity are proverbial.India is a multi-religious state in whichvarious faiths are entitled to theprotection of their religious laws to anextent. The Indian Constitutionrespects the religious laws of differentcommunities under the rubric ofpersonal law. ‘Personal law’ refers tothe system of religious rules, customsand practices related with family,marriage and succession, for differentreligious groups.

The Indian Constitution does not refer to religious pluralism as such, butits overall effect is often described as‘secular’. It gives equal importance toall religions and this accords well withthe traditions of pluralism in India.

Article 25(1) of the Indian Consti-tution grants the right to freely profess,practice and propagate one’s religion.It is guaranteed to all persons subjectto considerations of public order,morality and health.

Religion as a Way ofCommunity Life in India

In Indian society religion is, primarily,associated with communities ratherthan with individuals. The IndianConstitution as well as the Indiantraditions recognise the place ofindividual beliefs and individualattempts to search for the divine. Theindividual quest is consideredspirituality, whereas religion isconceptualised as a collective affair tolead a moral life.

Let us look at the major religiousgroups in India in brief.

THE HINDU COMMUNITY IN INDIA

A notable dimension of Hinduism is thebelief that God is pervasive and easilyaccessible to the people in one form orthe other. Hindu communities do notbelieve in one God. Hinduism as a wayof life is very accommodative regardingbeliefs and rituals.

There are no beliefs or rituals whichare common to all Hindus, and which

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mark them off from others. While thecaste system and joint family arefundamental to Hinduism, these arenot confined to Hindus alone. By andlarge, recruitment to Hinduism is bybirth into one of the many Hinducastes. Arya Samaj and other modernsects, however, are exceptions. Theyconvert new members into their ownvariety of Hinduism. In the course ofcenturies, other groups who came toIndia often assumed the character ofcastes and entered the Hindu foldgradually.

Although there is much diversity inHindu Dharma the three central tenetsof textual Hinduism at thephilosophical level are dharma, karmaand moksha. Dharma is the basic moralforce that holds the universe together.Karma is a theory which believes thatevery action of human being bears adefinite fruit and a person has to enjoythe fruit — good or bad — dependingupon the action performed. There is noescape from Karma. Mostly, a personenjoys the fruit of her or his Karmawithin this life. In case death intervenesin between, she or he is bound to takerebirth just to enjoy the fruit of her orhis previous Karma. This is called fateor Prarabda. Fate can be modified tosome extent by the present Karma. Inthis way the present conduct holds akey to future existence.

Moksha is liberation from karmicbondage — the cessation of cycles ofbirths and deaths. Even in present lifeone can attain liberation from worldlyattachment and achieve mental peace.

Varnashrama-dharma is the mostpopular example of Hindu socialorganisation. It is an ideal frameworkof a moral community and hasfunctioned as the reference point fromthe time of Rig Veda. It presents afunctional division of Hindu societyinto four categories — Brahmanas,Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.The Brahmana varna is a symbolicequivalent of intellectual professions —teachers, priests, astrologers andvaidyas. Kshatriyas are symbolicequivalents of kings, administrators,and managers. Vaishyas are symbolicequivalents of entrepreneurs, tradersand merchants. Shudras are the serviceprovider groups.

Such classifications are found inmany traditions and societies. Whatmakes the classification of varnaunique is the requisites — professionaland other — required to performdharma of the concerned varna.

Ashrama is the complementaryinstitution of varna. If varna tried topresent an ideal principle of socialorganisation, ashrama tried to presentan ideal principle of the organisation ofan individual’s life. This concept divideslife into four parts (i) brahmacharya orstudent life, (ii) grihastha or family life,(iii) vanaprastha or life of gradualwithdrawl as well as social service, and(iv) sanyasa or renunciation of theworld and transcending the limits ofhuman life.

The importance of ashrama isdependent on the concept ofPurushartha. It is believed that an idealHindu must give equal importance todharma (duties), artha (sources of

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livelihood), kama (desire of sex), andmoksha (liberation from all types ofbondage and attachment). In otherwords, Hindus believe that bothmaterial and spiritual aspects areimportant for a balanced life.

The classical texts mention sixteensamskaras for an ideal Hindu but onlythree sacraments are popular:1. Initiation sacrament (wearing thesacred thread), 2. Marriage sacrament,and 3. Death sacrament. Out of eventhese three life-cycle rituals, sacredthread is usually given to the malemembers of the Dwija or so-calledtwice-born castes only. UsuallyHindus do not bury the dead body ofadults.

There are three types of ritualswhich are performed in Hindu families:(a) Life-cycle rituals like initiation ritual,marriage ritual, death ritual etc.(b) Domestic rituals like RakshaBandhan or Bhai Duj (performed bysisters for brothers), Teej and KarvaChauth (performed by wives forhusbands), Jitia (performed by mothersfor sons), and some others. (c) Annualfestivals—Hindus celebrate annualfestivals like Diwali, Dushehara, Holi,Onam, Makar-Sankranti, Baisakhi etc.

Pilgrimage is also a definingfeature of community life in India.Most Hindus visit temples situated allover India, take dip in the sacredrivers, pay homage to their ancestorsin sacred places. Varanasi, Haridwar,Prayag, Madurai, Puri, Dwarka,Badri- Kedarnath, Shringeri, Tirupathi,Vaishnodevi and Kamarupa-Kamakhya etc., are some sacredplaces of the Hindus.

Most Hindus give donations andgifts to the needy as well as to thevirtuous. However, they believe thatphilanthropy or charity is virtuous onlywhen it is given secretly. Charity that ispublicly given or advertised is usuallylooked down upon.

The Religious Groupsand Sects of Indic Origin

Hinduism is divided into many sects.Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism,Lingayats, Kabirpanthis, Ravidas-panthis are among the most notablesects within Hinduism.

There have been inter-linkagesamong these religious groups and thewider Hindu society. Sikhs and someHindu castes in Punjab wereintermarrying among each other untilrecently. Buddhists and Hindus alsohave marital relationships. Jains andHindu Baniyas have very close socialand cultural links.

Buddhism and Jainism were theearly religious orders (Sampraday) ofIndia which devalued priestly powerand the constraints of caste andhierarchy. Buddhism madecompassion to all living entities —human beings, animals and plants —religiously significant. Jainismbelieves in Ahimsa (non-violence).

Subsequently, the bhakti(devotional) sects emerged in SouthIndia during sixth to eleventh century AD,and in North India during fourteenthto seventeenth century AD. These sectspropagated a liberalism which freedpeople from rituals and socialinhibitions and made them all equal

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before God. Kabir Panth, RavidasPanth, Nanak Panth, LingayatSampraday etc. are some of the famousdevotional sects of Indic origin.

In the wake of colonial rule, newreformist trends emerged in Indiansociety. The reformist movementsincluded Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,and Ramakrishna Mission, amongothers. In more recent times, theAnuvrat Andolan, Bhoodan move-ment and Swadhyay movement havegiven new dimensions to reform withinthe Hindu society.

THE MUSLIMCOMMUNITY IN INDIA

Islam first came to India in the lateseventh century AD when some Arabtraders migrated to the Malabar coast.The Muslim conquest of Sindh in eighthcentury AD led to the beginning ofconversion of Hindu castes and tribesinto Islam. Between eleventh andeighteenth centuries, India faced wavesof invasions by Turks, Afghans,Mughals and Persians. Thus, Islam inIndia is thirteen centuries old. TheMuslims from West Asia came asconquerors, settled down, got attunedto native ways and ruled India for sevencenturies. Those who came fromoutside, first as traders then asconquerors or as Sufi Saints, were farless in number than those Indians whoconverted to Islam. India has the thirdbiggest Muslim population in the worldtoday.

Islam says that there is one God andsubmission to Him results in peace.Islam simply means surrender to the

will of one God, called Allah in Arabic.To become a Muslim, it is sufficient tobear testimony and accept by heartbefore two Muslim witnesses that thereis no God except Allah and Mohammadis the messenger of Allah. The firsttestimony asserts the unity of the divineprinciple and the second testimonyestablishes Mohammad as the finalprophet of the supreme God.

The Islamic religion is composed ofdiverse schools and interpretations thatare deeply rooted and united in theprinciples of the Islamic revelation. AllMuslims agree that the Qur’an is theverbatim revelation of God and theyagree about its text and content.Muslims also believe in the reality of theafterlife. They are united in the mainrituals performed, ranging from theNamaz to Roza to making the Hajpilgrimage.

Muslims in India, as elsewhere, aredivided into two major sects, Sunnisand Shias. These two sects separatedfrom each other upon the death of theProphet on the question of succession.The Sunni Caliphs and the ShiiteImams have never accepted each other’sauthority.

In comparison to Shias, Sunnis arein majority in India. The Ahmadiyas, theDawoodi Bohras, the Ismali Khoja etc.are some other denominations ofMuslim Community in India. There arecaste-like groups in Indian Muslims, e.g.,Syed, Sheikh, Khan, Malik and Ansarietc. These become more significantduring matrimonial match making.

One of the key concepts in Islam isthat of the ummah or the totality of the

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people who are Muslims and composethe Islamic world. Ummah creates anIslamic brotherhood that goes beyonda single ethnic, racial and culturalgroup.

In the Islamic perspective,religion is not seen as a part of life ora special kind of activity along withart, thought, commerce, socialinteraction, politics, and the like.Rather, it is the matrix and worldviewwithin which these and all otherhuman activities, efforts andcreations take place or should takeplace. Islamic religion is a total wayof life. Islam does not accept thedichotomy between sacred andprofane or spiritual and secular.Islam asserts that nothing can belegitimate outside the realm ofreligion. The Qur’an, the Prophet, theHadith, the Shariat and the Tariquatare the foundations of Islam.

The Qur’an is the centralfoundation of Islam. It is supposed tocontain the revealed words of the God.The God revealed Qur’anic words toProphet Mohammad through theangel Gabriel. The text of Qur’an isconsidered divine not only in meaningbut also in structure.

Prophet Mohammad is the secondfoundation of Islam. He is the mostperfect human being, the perfectcreation of the God, the bestinterpreter of the God’s message aswell as its faithful transmitter. Islamis based on the Absolute Allah, andnot on the messenger, yet, the love ofthe Prophet lies at the heart of theIslamic piety. The love of the Prophetembraces all the dimensions of Islam,

affecting both those who follow theShariat and those who walk upon thespiritual path — the Tariquat, ofwhich he is the founder and guide.

The Hadith is the third importantfoundation of Islam. The Hadith is abook of sayings dictated by theProphet himself as well as recordingsof his sayings by his companions andfollowers. The Hadith deals withnearly every question from details oflegal significance to the most exaltedmoral and spiritual teachings. TheHadith is the indispensable guide forthe understanding of God’s word ascontained in the Qur’an.

The Shariat or the Divine Law ofIslam is the fourth importantfoundation of Islam. Muslimsconsider the Shariat to containconcrete embodiment of the will of theGod. The life of a Muslim from thecradle to the grave is governed by theShariat. The Shariat is sanctionedpath that women and men mustfollow in this life. The root of theShariat is found in the Qur’an, andthe God is considered as the ultimatelegislator.

The Tariquat or the spiritual pathis the fifth important foundation ofIslam. It represents the innerdimension of Islam. The Tariquat orthe spiritual path was perfected by theSufi orders in the Sunni sect as wellas by the Shia sect.

Haj is the supreme pilgrimage ofIslam and is made to the sacredbuilding of Kaba at Mecca. Muslimsbelieve that the God forgives a humanbeing’s sin if she or he performs thehaj with devotion and sincerity.

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Islamic Practices and Institutions

The basic rites of Islam include worshipof only one God (Toheed), the Canonicalprayers (Namaz), fasting (Roza), theobligatry offering for charity (Zakat) andpilgrimage (haj). Every Muslim issupposed to perform namaz five timesa day. The namaz must be performedin the direction of the Kaba in Mecca inSaudi Arabia.

Obligatory offerings are madeannually under Islamic law on certainkinds of property; and used forcharitable and religious purpose.

Muslim festivals come from the lifeof Mohammad and the history of Islam.The lunar Hijra calendar is followed bythe Muslims for all religious matters,weddings and celebrations. The Muslimnew year starts with the month ofMoharram.

Ramazan, the ninth month is theholiest of all the months. From dawn todusk, for one month, women and menfast during the hours of daylight as ameans of self-purification. On thetwenty-ninth or twenty-eighth day ofRamazan when the new moon is sightedin the evening, the festival of Eid-ul-fitris celebrated. Men go to the Eidgah forcongregational prayers after whichpeople visit and embrace one another.Muslims’ other important festivals areEid-ul-azha, Moharram, Shab-e-Baratetc. which are celebrated in India.

THE CHRISTIANCOMMUNITY IN INDIA

Jesus Christ as the “Prophet”, the NewTestament as the revealed book and the

Church as the religious organisation arethe foundation stones of Christianity.Jesus and his early disciples were allJews. The New Testament in the presentform was accepted in the churcharound the fifth century AD. In earlyyears the Old Testament or the HebrewBible or the Torah was their onlyscripture. Christianity and Islam arerooted in the Jewish or Hebrew traditionand affirm the revelation of Mosescontained in the Old Testament.

The three constituents of Christians’religious life include (i) Faith inJesus Christ as the son of God,(ii) Active service, and (iii) Love toneighbour.

Christianity came to India indifferent phases. According to theSyrian Christian tradition, ApostleThomas, one of Jesus’ original twelvedisciples, came to the vicinity ofCochin in 52 AD. There was a Christianchurch in India perhaps as early asthe end of the second century.‘Thomas’ or ‘Syrian’ Christians havenever shown any great desire toexpand beyond their own naturalfrontiers.

The second, a Roman Catholic phaseof India’s Christian history, began in the1250s, with the arrival of the firstmissionaries of the Franciscan andDominican orders. After 1500 AD,following the Portuguese occupation ofparts of Western India, there was freshinfusion of missionaries.

The third phase of Christian historyin India began in July 1706 with thearrival of the first Protestantmissionaries from Germany.

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The fourth phase of Christianexpansion started during the BritishRule in India. The English Baptistmissionary William Carey arrived inIndia in 1793. He inaugurated the mostconcentrated phase of ProtestantChristian activity in India. Between1757 and 1813 the East IndiaCompany was against Christianmissionaries but later its policychanged in favour of the Christianmissionaries.

During the British rule after 1833there were two dimensions of Christianactivity — (i) it was very active in andaround colleges and universities atKolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, (ii) itwas also active in rural and tribal areasespecially among the weaker sections.

During 1920s the fifth phase ofChristian activity began in India. TheAmerican organisation, Young Men’sChristian Association (YMCA), andAmerican Christians like Stanley Jonesand Katherine Mayo were influentialduring this phase.

The sixth phase of Christian activitybegan after 1947. The Church of SouthIndia was founded in 1947. Itcomprised fourteen dioceses and abouta million members spread over fourlanguage areas. Most notably it did notinvolve the Roman Catholics or theLutherans. The Church of North India,founded in 1970, tried to IndianiseChristianity at the organisational level.

Following the second VaticanCouncil in the mid of 1960s, the RomanCatholic church in India was liberatedfrom many of its earlier restrictions.Many experiments were made to

Hinduise the church’s liturgy by theintroduction of elements from thetemple and bhakti traditions.

The Indian Census mergesChristians into a single group, but theybelong to different denominations.Catholics form the largest group, nearly50 per cent of the total population.Another 40 per cent are Protestants,7 per cent are the Orthodox Christians(eastern orthodox church) and 3 percent belong to indigenous sects.

Catholics are organised accordingto a well-defined hierarchy and theyconsider the Pope as the supreme headin all religious affairs. Protestantismincludes many distinct persuasions andchurches. Orthodox groups, such asthe Syrian Christians, are affiliated tothe orthodox churches of EasternEurope or West Asia or to the churchesdependent on these.

At one point, even today, theboundaries between the Kerala Syriansand Hindus are blurred, as in the ritualsof house building or astrology. Theceremonies of marriage and birthamong the Syrian Christians alsomanifest many similarities with Hinducustom, particularly in the use of ritualsubstances such as sandalwood paste,milk, flowers, areca nut and rice. InTamil Nadu and Goa, Christianity isembedded in the indigenous socio-ritual order.

Pilgrimage: Whereas ProtestantChristians, with the exception of theAnglicans, do not go on pilgrimages,Catholics and the orthodox visit placesof pilgrimage on the occasion of

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festivals. Owing to their greaterChristian population places like Goa,Kerala and Tamil Nadu and cities likeChennai, Mumbai and Kolkata havemany places of pilgrimage.

The Roman Catholics in Indiaregard the Pope — the bishop of Rome— as their supreme religious leader.Indian Catholics are guided by twocardinals, one at Mumbai and theother at Ernakulam. There are over120 bishops in India. There are thirty-five religious orders of Christian priestsin India.

Ceremonies: Seven sacraments of theRoman Catholic Church have to beadministered by a priest or bishop.Baptism — the ritual process ofbecoming/making a Christian — isperformed when a child is a few daysold. Confirmation is performed when achild is seven years old among Catholicsand fifteen years old amongProtestants. She or he is taught themain tenets and obligations of theChristian faith for several months bythe priest. After this instruction one isready to be confirmed by the bishop.Marriage rites have to be solemnised bya priest in church.

The Christian masses have castes orcaste like groups. Joint family is adominant institution. They do not havea distinct style of life (except Anglo-Indians) and are usually absorbed intothe local regional linguistic communities.

JAINISM

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in

India. It is a form of Sanatan Dharma.It has 24 tirthankaras. The firsttirthankar was Risabhdev and thetwenty-fourth tirthankar was Mahavir.The Jains share some doctrines, ritualsand general religious beliefs with earlyBuddhists and Hindus but they have areligious system of their own. Mahaviris supposed to be senior contemporaryof Gautam Buddha. He was a greatsystem builder.

The Jain community is divided intotwo important sects, Svetambar (whiteclothed), and Digambar (unclothed).Another lesser known sect is calledSthanakvasi. The Sthanakvasisthink that tirthankaras need notbe represented in images. TheSvetambaras think that tirthankarasshould be represented in images withwhite robes. The Digambaras think thattirthankaras should be represented inimages without robes or clothes.

The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jin,which means the conqueror. Mahavir(599-527 BC) said that everything,animate or inanimate, has jiva (lifeforce). The goal of human endeavourshould be to exhaust karma and theway of deliverance is in the three gemsor rules of behaviour: right faith, rightknowledge and right conduct. Rightconduct includes non-violence,adherance to truth, chastity and therenunciation of worldly possession.

Jains believe in soul, theory ofkarma, the cycle of birth and death likethe Hindus. Jainism has, however, moresimilarities with Buddhism. Janismalongwith Buddhism belongs to the

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sharamanic forms of sanatan dharma.The shramanic traditions as a wholeemphasises the renunciation of worldlybelongings and pleasures. Their questis directed at achieving emancipationfrom worldly existence and the cycle ofbirth and death. Emancipation(Kaivalya) and renunciation (vairagyaor sanyasa) are the two themesaddressed principally.

For all Jains, fasting and austerityare considered essential for self-purification. They lay stress on mentaldisciplines to obtain self-control,concentration in contemplation andpurity of thought. Jainism alsostresses that personal spiritualdevelopment achieved throughpenance should be for the benefit ofthe community. The teaching ofMahavir is that altruism in individuallife can be the source of positive socialwelfare. The five fold discipline of non-violence, truth, honesty, sexual purityand indifference to material gain is notfor personal virtue alone but also aimsat the social good.

Jain festivals are meant for thespiritual development of the selfthrough the practice of austerities.Mahavir Jayanti is the most well knownfestival of Jains.

The Jains are among the richestcommunity in India. The majority ofJains are engaged in trade andcommercial activities.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism was one of the new religiousmovements that arose in India around

the sixth century B C. It is rooted in thetraditional Indian religion calledSanatan Dharma. It was foundedaround the teachings of GautamBuddha.

The Buddhist profession of faithis known as the ‘Triple Refuge’, or the‘Three Jewels’—the Buddha, theDhamma and the Sangha . TheBuddha is the enlightened teacher orthe prophet. The Dhamma is thedoctrine given by the Buddha and theSangha is the community of believersin the doctrine taught by theBuddha. One formally becomes aBuddhist by reciting the TripleRefuge three times—“I go for refugeto the Buddha; I go for refuge to theDhamma; I go for refuge to theSangha”.

Dhamma has four meanings (1) theabsolute truth, (2) right conduct,(3) doctrine, and (4) the ultimateconstituent of experience. The first threemeanings are found in Hinduism as wellbut the fourth meaning is specific toBuddhism.

The Buddhists believe in the fournoble truths preached by the Buddha.The first noble truth preached by theBuddha is that there is suffering. Thesecond noble truth says that there iscause of suffering (desire). The thirdnoble truth says that the cause ofsuffering can be removed. The fourthgreat truth supplies a detailedblueprint to remove the cause ofsuffering.

The Eightfold Path consists of rightview, right aspiration, right speech,right action, right livelihood, right effort,

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right mindfulness and right meditation.The Eightfold Path leads to Nirvan,which involves the cessation of allsufferings. The Four Noble Truths andthe Eightfold Path are meant to serveas provisional teaching.

Vinay Pitak (Book of Discipline),Sutta Pitak (Book of Sermons) andAbhidhamm Pitak (Book of Doctrine) arethe basic scriptures of Buddhism. Thereare four major forms of Buddhism:(i) Theravad (ii) Mahayan, (iii) Vajrayanor Tantra, and (iv) Zen. Different formsare predominant in different countriesor geographical areas.

The most important festival of theBuddhists in India is the Buddh Purnima.There are other festivals which arecelebrated by different sects anddenominations. Some Hindu festivals likeDiwali, Holi and Makar-Sankranti are alsocelebrated by many Buddhist families.

SIKHISM

Sikhism emerged as a devotional sectwithin the Indic religion around theteachings of Guru Nanak (1469– 539).The term Sikh has originated from theSanskrit word shishya, which meansdisciple. Nanak travelled all over India,and to Sri Lanka, Mecca and Medina.He sang his hymns wherever he went,spreading his message of love, purityand universal brotherhood.

There are ten gurus (religiousteachers) of Sikhs. Nanak was the firstguru and Govind Singh was the tenthguru. Arjun was the fifth guru whocompiled the Guru Granth Sahib (holybook of the Sikhs). The Guru Granth

contains hymns composed by thedevotional saints as well as the writingsof the Sikh gurus. Guru Arjun Devinfused great vigour into Sikhism. Hemade Amritsar his headquarters wherehe built a gurudwara (temple of theguru). From the time of sixth guruSikhism gradually became a militantorganisation, to protect religion.

Govind Singh (1675 – 1708), thetenth guru converted the Sikhs into amilitant community called the khalsa(the pure). He gave the Sikhs a distinctindividuality in 1699 by initiating fiveof his followers. He enjoined them,among other admonitions, never to cuttheir hair, always to wear a comb, a pairof short drawers, a bangle and a kirpan(dagger). These are called five ‘K’s —Kesha, Kangha, Kachha, Kada andKirpan. The Sikh community life iscentred around gurudwara (gateway ortemple of the guru). The central objectof worship in the gurudwara is theGranth Sahib.

The Sikhs are primarily divided intotwo broader groups (i) The SanataniSikhs, and (ii) The Khalsa Sikhs. TheSanatani Sikhs are the followers ofGuru Nanak and his son Srichand.

The Sanatani Sikhs do not stressthe separate religious identity of Sikhs,rather they consider themselves as anoffshoot of a broadly defined ‘Hinduism’.

The Khalsa Sikhs or Tat Khalsais based on the radical interpretationof the teachings of Guru Govind Singh.It claims to represent ‘true’ Sikhism,stripped of the popular customs ofHinduism. It separated Sikhism fromthe broader rubric of Hinduism. They

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emphasised that Sikhism is anindependent new religion based onthree foundations — Guru, Granth andGurudwara.

In 1925 the Gurudwara Act waspassed. It led to the emergence ofShiromani Gurudwara PrabandhakCommittee (SGPC) as the supreme bodyof Sikhs in Punjab. It manages thereligious affairs of Sikhs and theGurudwaras.

Sikhs still participate in some of thefestivals celebrated by the Hindus likeBasant Panchami, Holi and Diwali.Their own festivals include Baisakhiand the birthdays of Sikh Gurus likeNanak and Govind Singh and themartyrdom of Guru Arjun, Guru TegBahadur and the two sons of GovindSingh. They also celebrate the foundingof the Khalsa and Hola Mohalla.

Sikhs, too, are a prosperouscommunity in India. They are engagedin diverse professions in both villagesand cities. Although Sikhism does notbelieve in caste, there are caste likegroups among the Sikhs as well.

OTHER RELIGIOUS GROUPS

ZOROASTRIANS OR THE PARSIS

The word Parsi means Persians andrefers to those Persians who migratedto India from Iran in the tenth centuryAD. They had migrated to India fromtheir Iranian (Persian) homeland. TheParsi community recognises Zoroasteror Zarathustra as their Prophet.Therefore, they are also known asZoroastrians.

Zoroastrianism is one of the oldestProphetic religions of the world.Zoroaster lived in the North-east of Iranon the Asian steppes around 6,000 BC.He inherited much of the Indo-Iraniantradition so that Zoroastrianism andHinduism have something of a commonparentage. This results in a number ofsimilarities between the two, such asthe place of fire in ancient texts — theVedas of Hindus and the Avesta of theParsis — and certain purity laws andattitudes toward the priests.

The Prophet’s teachings arepreserved in hymn form in GathicAvestan language which has stronglinks with Vedic Sanskrit. Zoroastrian-ism was the state religion of Iran untilthe Muslim Arab invasion of the seventhcentury AD. By the ninth century, thepersecution of Zoroas-trians in Iranbecame unbearable which compalledthem to migrate at different places inIndia and other countries.

Most Parsis in India are citydwellers. They are settled in Mumbaiand different places in Gujarat. They areone of the most prosperouscommunities of India. Among theminority communities they are also oneof the most integrated communities tothe mainstream of modern India.Dadabhoy Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehtaand the family of Tatas have playedsignificant roles in the building ofmodern India. They have been pioneersin modern trades and industrialenterprises. They have also playedimportant roles in building variousinstitutions of Mumbai.

Parsis usually spend little time intheological study. To most Parsis, theirs

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religion is tied up with their identity.Their identity is maintained by theperformance of life-cycle rituals andobservances of moral practices in dailylife. The ideas of purity and pollution arevery important among the Parsis. Theirdaily prayer is called navjote. There areonly two religious duties for Parsis, thedaily prayers and the observance of theseasonal festivals, the gahambars.

Zoroastrianism was originally areligion of Nature Worship. Naturalobjects like fire, air, the sun, and waterwere considered sacred. Today they areprimarily fire worshippers. At Udwada,the centre of pilgrimage for Parsis, thereis one ‘permanently burning fire’shrine. There are two types of firetemples which are distinguished fromeach other by the grade of fire whichburns within them, one is called the‘Royal Bahram’ or victorious fire andthe other is called the ‘Dar -i- Mihr’ orthe ordinary fire.

The Parsis are known for theirphilanthrophy. The many sidedphilanthrophy of the Parsis hasestablished through their Panchayat,a remarkable social security system forthe community. Its members maketheir contributions to the localanjuman fund or community chestwhich constitutes the foundation of thesystem. The community has manytrusts and foundations, benefitingnon-Parsis as well. The Parsis have laidclaim to no territory and to no specialright for themselves. They emphasisethe moral and civic sense andphilanthropy over philosophicaldoctrines.

JUDAISM

The Jews or the followers of Judaismare perhaps the smallest religiouscommunity in India. According toIndian Census of 1991 there wereabout 5,000 Jews in India. They wereclassified by census authorities ofIndia along with Zoroastrians andAnimist tribals as part of amiscellaneous category called otherreligious groups.

The Jews in India comprise threemain communities—the Bene – Israel,Kerala Jews and Baghdadi Jews. SomeJews came to India before the beginningof the Christian era. The oldestcommunities have been the Bene-Israelwho are settled mainly in the Coastalareas of Maharashtra. The other groupssettled in Kerala near Cochin. The thirdgroup came from the Middle East(Baghdad) and settled in Mumbai,Kolkata, Pune, Surat and Chennai. Alarge number of them have migratedfrom India to Israel in 1948.

Judaism is the original Hebrew orSemitic religion. It is based on therevelation of Moses. The Hebrew Bibleor the Torah is their sacred religioustext. Their temple is known asSynagogue. Led by Abraham, theysettled in Israel, originally calledCanaan and later Palestine. In 63 BC

Palestine came under Roman Ruleand between 70 AD to 1948 the Jewslived in different places as scatteredgroups. In 1948 they re-establishedIsrael as their holy nation-state andJews came back to their homeland inlarge numbers from differentcountries.

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Jews in India began to integratethemselves increasingly with theirsurroundings. They adopted thecustoms, dress, characteristics and day-to-day practices of the people of theregion. They are a very homogeneousgroup and strictly adhere to theirreligious beliefs. Unlike Christianity andIslam, Judaism is not open for non-Jews.They do not convert.

ANIMISM

Most tribals who have not converted toHinduism, Islam or Christianity areclassified by sociologists as Animists orNature worshippers. There are strikingsimilarities between Animist tribals andfollowers of Folk Hinduism. Therefore,Indian census authorities have alwaysencountered difficulties. In 1991 census,Animist tribals are classified in thecategory of ‘Other Religious Groups’ butsome other tribals have been classifiedas Hindus. There is always ambiguity inthe classification of Hindu tribals andAnimist tribals. There are different typesof nature worshippers both among theHindus as well as among the tribals. Onething is common among all Animists thatthey do not have written texts. Theyusually believe that every animate objectof this world is inhabited by spirits andthey venerate all these.

Functions and Dysfunctions ofReligion

Religion is interconnected with the otherelements of society and culture incomplex ways. It plays the followingpositive functions vis-à-vis society and

individuals:(1) It provides support, consolation

and reconciliation to individualsin the times of uncertainty,disappointment and conflict ofgoals or norms.

(2) Religion offers a relationship tothe ‘other world’ through priestsand the ceremonies of worship.

(3) Religion provides divinity to thenorms and values of the society.

(4) Religion provides standards ofvalues in terms of which socialnorms may be critically examined.

(5) Religion involves the performanceof priestly functions byparticipation in religious ritualand worship.

Religion also plays correspondingdysfunctions:

(1) Religion may inhibit protest andact as a force for social changes,which might prove detrimental tothe welfare of society and itsmembers.

(2) Religion can lend authority tocertain rigid ideas and provincialattitudes, which may bedetrimental to the development ofknowledge, in general, andscience and technology, inparticular.

(3) Religious identification may provedivisive in a multi-religioussociety.

(4) Religion often develops among itsadherents, dependence uponreligious institutions rather thanhelping them to become matureand wise.

RELIGION IN INDIA


GLOSSARY

BAPTISM. The religious ceremony of initiating someone into Christian faith orgroup is called baptism.

DENOMINATION. It is an organisation which is mid-way between the Sect andthe Church.

HENOTHEISM. The belief in one particular God out of several, in a specific beliefsystem as the God of the particular tribe, group, houshold etc.

LITURGY. The standard form of service in a church is called liturgy.

MONASTICISM. The monastic system or way of life is called monasticism.Monastic means belonging to monasteries, monks or nuns.Monastery is the home of a community of monks or nuns.

MONOTHEISM. It is a belief in a single, transcendental God.

PANTHEISM. It is belief that God dwells in the world and human beings andnature are aspects of an all inclusive divinity.

RENUNCIATION. Renunciation is a formal, ritual process of self denial, becominga formal ascetic, leaving the world of the householder, abstainingfrom physical pleasure.

WORLDLY–ASCETICISM. Transcending the lust for selfish interest withouttaking the formal renunciation.

EXERCISES

1. What is religion?2. Write down the names of various religious groups of India.3. Write an essay with examples to show distinctions between the

Semitic and Indic religious groups.4. What is Dharma?5. Explain the concept of varnashram dharma.6. What do you understand by Purushartha?7. Explain the salient features of Hindu Community in India.8. Explain the salient features of Muslim Community life in India.9. Explain the salient features of Christian Community life in India.

10. What are the three constituents of the Christian spiritual life?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Derrett, D., Religion, Law and the State in India, Oxford University Press,New Delhi, 1999.

85

2. Gopal, Lallanji and Dubey, D. P. , ed, Pilgrimage Studies, Text and Context,The Society of Pilgrimage Studies, Allahabad, 1990.

3. Madan, T. N., ed, Religion in India , Oxford University Press, New Delhi,1992.

4. Srinivas, M.N., Caste in Modern India and Other Essays, Media Promotersand Publishers, Mumbai, 1962/1985.

5. Venugopal, C.N., Religion and Indian Society: A Sociological Perspective,Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 1998.

RELIGION IN INDIA

Introduction

Education is a process that developsthe personality and inherent capabilitiesof a child. It socialises her or him toplay adult roles in society and providesthe necessary knowledge and skills foran individual to be a responsible citizenand member of the society. As part ofthe socialisation process, it inculcatesamong new members the norms, valuesand cultural heritage of a society.Socialisation is a primary and informalprocess whereby an individual shapesher or his own behaviour in accordancewith the social expectations of others.

In Indian society there have beenwell-developed educational institutionsright from ancient times. Indian cultureis known for the guru-shishya traditionof learning. Great universities likeNalanda and Taxila were situated inancient India. During the eighteenthcentury there were places of learninglike Navadweep in Bengal, Varanasi inUttar Pradesh, Puri in Orissa andMadurai and Kanchi in Tamil Nadu.

In traditional India, there was adistinctive spiritual thrust associatedwith education. Education was meantto help the individual for the realisationof the ultimate and the absolute reality.

It involved the following areas anddisciplines:

(i) Critical Enquiry: philosophy,ethics, logic, mathematics,literature, grammar, etc.

(ii) Technical and Vocational Skillsand Knowledge: ayurveda(medicine), agriculture, vaastu-shastra (architecture), carpentry,pottery etc.

(iii) Inner Discipline, Spirituality,Moral Values and Religions :yoga, meditation etc.

The traditional pattern of educationprevailed in India for many centuries.In areas that came under Muslim rulefrom the eleventh century onwards, therulers sponsored education mainly ofa theological kind in the form ofMaktabs and Madrasas (educationalinstitution). The Muslim kings liberallyendowed such institutions with grantsbut for most of the time, they did notinterfere in the Hindu system ofeducation.

Primary Education in Pre-British India

We have a systematic account of theindigenous system of education duringthe eighteenth and the nineteenth

CHAPTER 7

Educamtion in India

century India. For example, accordingto the William Adams Report, 1835,there existed a large number of villageschools, particularly in Bengal andBihar around this time. Similarly,according to Thomas Munro, during1812-13, every village under theMadras Presidency had at least oneschool. In the Bombay Presidency alsoaround 1820, each village had at leastone school. These examples indicatethat over large parts of India, there wasa network of village schools.

These schools were known asPathshalas and Madrasas. Educationin these traditional institutions waspractical as well as holistic. Themedium of imparting knowledge forreading, writing and arithmetic waslocal languages. These schoolsemphasised moral wisdom andattempted to build the character ofstudents. In the higher classesstudents were also taught technicaland vocational skills. Theseinstitutions in fact were custodians ofthe culture of traditional communitiesin India. There was no school for theeducation of girls, though the richpeople used to educate their young girlchildren at home.

There were no printed books andonly the locally made slates and chalkswere the equipment the pupils needed.The hours of instruction and the daysof working were adjusted to localrequirements. There was no regularperiod of admission. A pupil could jointhe school at any time and leave it whenhe desired. Such schools were heldsometimes in the home of a teacher or

a patron or a temple or a mosque. Theteachers for these schools, like theirstudents, came from all classes,including the lower classes, as Adam’sanalysis of castes shows. The teacherswere paid either in cash or in kind.These schools had shown wonderfuladaptability to the local environmentand existed for centuries through avariety of economic conditions. Butduring the period of British rule, thetraditional system of education becameunsustainable and graduallydisintegrated.

Higher Education in Pre-British India

The traditional elementary as well ashigher education had alwaysemphasised the classical and thespiritual aspects. The education systemalso dealt with literary, philosophicaland religious aspects. The classicallanguages, like Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil,Arabic and Persian were used forinstruction in higher education. Thescriptures, grammar, logic, codes of law,mathematics, philosophy, traditionalsciences and literature were among thesubjects taught. The students oftenstayed with the guru or teacher duringthe years of learning. The course ofstudies extended for many years andthe hours of study were long and severe.There were also larger centres of highereducation in various religious placeslike Navadweep, Tirhut, Vikramshilaand Mithila, Kashi, Puri, Tanjore,Madurai, Kanchi and Trivandrum.Higher education was primarilyrestricted to the upper castes. Thesewere conducted by learned pandits,

EDUCATION IN INDIA 87


who were liberally patronised by therulers and the aristocracy.

The Muslim seats of higher learningwere located at places like Jaipur,Lucknow, Patna and Jaunpur. Thesewere meant chiefly for the training ofreligion and law. Besides the scripturesand law, instruction was given inliterature, grammar, logic, rhetoric,philosophy and arithmetic. Hinduscould also attend these seminariesmeant primarily for the Muslims. Theseinstitutions were the higher seminariesof learning meant for the training ofexperts.

Education in British India

The entry of East India Company in theearly seventeenth century, brought farreaching changes in Indian society. TheBritish rule in India laid the foundationof modern education in India. Duringthe modern period — both the Britishand the post-Independence period —education has been concerned primarilywith the secular, scientific, technical andmanagerial skills.

Some of the Britishers likeHastings, Jones, Wilkins and Wilsonwere great admirers of the classicaltraditions of India and under theirinfluence the East India Companybecame a patron of oriental learning.This gave a new lease of life totraditional classical learning in Indiaalthough the traditional elementaryeducation was crumbling down in theabsence of the British patronage. TheBritish were initially attracted to theclassical aspect of Indian culture andeducation. The British established the

Calcutta madrasa in 1781. WarrenHastings, the Governor General ofBengal, promoted the classical study ofIndian culture and institutions. He wasinstrumental in attracting reputedscholars of Islamic theology, law,mathematics and grammar to thismadrasa. He also encouraged scholarslike Charles Wilkins to publish Indianclassics written in Sanskrit and Persian.William Jones founded the AsiaticSociety of Bengal in 1784. The aim wasto discover, edit and publish rareSanskrit manuscripts. The British hadestablished institutions of oriental aswell as modern European learning.

There was, however, another groupof British intellectuals who were notadmirers of oriental learning and Indianculture. They, under the leadership ofCharles Grant, James Mill andMacaulay were able to plead the caseof European education throughEnglish language in place of Indianeducation and culture. During theperiod 1790 to 1835, there was aheated debate between the Indians andthe British about the education policyof the British East India Company. Agroup of middle class Indians was alsoin favour of European educationthrough English language. This groupled by Raja Rammohan Roystrengthened the hands of Bentick andMacaulay and a new education policywas announced in 1835. Between 1824and 1830, the teaching of English hadalready been initiated in orientalinstitutions at Kolkata, Delhi andVaranasi. A decision was taken to stopthe use of government funds for the

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promotion of oriental education andinstead promote European literatureand science through English education.

After 1835 new educationalinstitutions were established by theBritish. New universities at Kolkata,Mumbai, Chennai and Delhi becamethe centres of modern learning.Rabindranath Tagore criticised thesystem of education under the BritishRaj in 1893 and pleaded for Bengali asthe medium of instruction. The BengalNational College was established in1906.

During this period, some prominentIndians also started two types ofeducational institutions: (i) Traditionalinstitutions like Deoband andLucknow seminaries; GurukulKangari, Kashi Vidyapeeth, GujaratVidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia,reflecting their own educationalaspirations during the British rule; and(ii) Modern institutions like AligarhMuslim University (AMU), BanarasHindu University (BHU), Vishva-Bhartiat Shantiniketan etc.

During the British rule, mainstreamIndian education was graduallytransformed to suit the interests of theBritish and the emerging middle class.This education initially led to thewesternisation of Indian society butlater on it also became instrumental inspreading modern nationalist thoughtsand activities. It also led to varioussocio-religious reform efforts, such asBrahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Rama-krishna Mission, the Aligarh andAhmadia movements.

Thus, education during British rulewas a complex phenomenon. It

represented different, often contra-dictory, streams of thought andcultures. It weakened the economicinstitutions and destroyed the socialbalance of traditional India. It, however,also played a significant role in themaking of modern India.

In Pre-Independence India, threeschools of thought pertaining toeducation were visible:

1. The nationalist and revivalistschool which rejected everythingthat was foreign and not enshrinedin the ancient heritage of India.

2. The second school of thought,aimed at indigenisation ofeducation, was not againstmodern learning of foreign origin.Their principal objective was tomake education nationalistic andmore relevant to Indianconditions. The AMU and theBHU are some of the examples ofthis school.

3. The third school of thought,supported by the British, focusedon setting up educationalinstitutions of the British model.Examples of such institutions werethe universities of Calcutta,Bombay, Madras and Delhi.English education was primarilyhelpful in acquiring governmentjobs. It did not promote masseducation but provided an entryinto an exclusive elite club tomiddle class Indians.

Education in Independent India

Mahatma Gandhi disliked the inherentelitism and the irrelevance of English

EDUCATION IN INDIA


education within the Indian context. Hefelt that English education washampering integral development of thechild and it had created a cleavagebetween the culture of the English-educated few and the uneducated many.It had made one a stranger in one’s ownland. Gandhiji condemned thiseducation as ‘intellectual dissipation.’

Gandhiji formulated a newblueprint for education in theindependent India, called Nai Talim orBasic education. The emphasis herewas on practical ways of acquiringknowledge. Basic Education wasneeded because Gandhiji wanted eachvillage, community, as well as thecountry as a whole to be self-sufficientand self-reliant. Through Nai TalimGandhiji wanted to impart socially andeconomically productive skills such asspinning, weaving, carpentry, pottery,animal husbandry to the students.

For him, handicraft was the mediumthat would enable the learner to relateideas to practice as well as arousestudent’s curiosity and enthusiasm inlearning. He wanted the ‘lessons’ to berooted in the learner’s vocation. Hewanted free/compulsory education forseven years, mother-tongue as themedium of instruction, educationcentred around some form of manual/productive work and a self- supportingeducation. However, the Gandhianagenda did not succeed, and attemptsto operationalise this model ofeducation have not been successfulas yet.

Tagore was also critical of colonialeducation. Its alien character, its

remoteness from the rhythm ofeveryday life, and English as themedium of instruction were notacceptable to him. The idea of a schoolas a ‘factory’ was not appealing to him.Instead he pleaded for a child-centredholistic education patterned on theancient gurukuls.

Unlike Gandhi and Tagore, India’sfirst Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehruwas in favour of modern education. Hewanted to make education in free Indiaa potent vehicle for industrial,technological, scientific anddemocratic development. He set up theRadhakrishnan Commission oneducation. The Central concern of thisCommission (1948) was to formulateways and means to achieve theobjectives of the Constitution througheducation. The Commission aimed atphilosophical, scientific and technicaldimensions of development. Toachieve the values enshrined in theConstitution, this Commission put greatemphasis on democratic values, scienceand technology. It also recommendedsetting up rural universities to meet theneeds of rural reconstruction. It gavegreater emphasis on higher education.

The Government set up anotherCommission under the chairmanshipof D.S. Kothari. It is known asEducation and National Developmentin India or Kothari Commission(1964-66). It deals with all the levels ofeducation and examines their roles innational development. It stressed theneed of scientific education for modernIndia, in order to augment productivity,

91

self-sufficiency, economic growth andto generate opportunities foremployment. The Kothari Commissionrecommended that (i) science should betaught in such a way that it enables thelearner to understand its basicprinciples; (ii) to develop problem-solving analytical skills and the abilityto apply scientific principles to theproblems of the material environmentand social living; and (iii) it shouldpromote the spirit of enquiry andexperimentation.

The National Education Policy,1986 stressed the necessity ofpromoting technical and managementeducation for the growth of theindustry and the economy. It alsoemphasised the importance ofcomputer education. Thus, educationin Independent India is primarilyoriented towards science andtechnology.

The other significant aspect ofeducation in contemporary Indiaincludes preservation, promotion anddissemination of Indian culture. Indianeducation has tried to promote anattitude which is receptive to bothWestern modernity and Indian culturetradition. The National EducationPolicy, 1986 stressed that educationcan and must bring about the finesynthesis between change-orientedtendencies represented by moderntechnologies and the country’scontinuity of cultural tradition.

The attempt has been to combinethe best of all traditions in thateducational system in order to have avirbrant democratic and plural society.

This is critical for education andsignificant for the making of citizens.

Elementary Education

Education is recognised as afundamental right of all citizens ofIndia. According to the 83rd

Amendment of the Indian Constitution(1997), elementary education is afundamental right of all childrenbetween 6-14 years.

At present, India spends 3.6 percent of its GNP (Gross NationalProduct) on education, which ismuch lower than many countries. Inthe post-Independence years, therehas been an enormous increase in thenumber of institutions, teachers andstudents in elementary education.The number of schools in the countryhas increased four times from2,31,000 in 1950-51 to 9,30,000 in1998-99. At the Primary Stage, 94per cent of the country’s ruralpopulation have schooling facilitieslocated within a distance of one kilo-meter. However, the high drop-outrate of children is still a matter ofgreat concern.

The participation of scheduledcastes and tribes as well as women ineducation has increased significantly.Nevertheless, in nearly 40 per cent ofour districts, the female literacy is lessthan 30 per cent. In nearly one in fourdistricts, the female literacy among theScheduled Castes and the ScheduledTribes is less than 10 per cent. Out ofthe children joining schools, more thanone-third drop out before completing

EDUCATION IN INDIA


eight years of elementary education.Among those who remain in school, halfof them ‘barely’ attain the educationalstandards expected of them. Manychildren do not attend school regularly.Thus, despite government commit-ments and efforts in the last fewdecades, we are still far from the goal ofuniversal literacy.

Article 45 of the Constitution ofIndia provides that the state shallendeavour to provide free andcompulsory education for all childrenuntil the age of 14 years. Article 30declares that all minorities, whetherbased on religion or language, shouldhave the right to establish andadminister educational institutions oftheir choice. Article 46 says that thestate shall promote with special care theeducational and economic interests ofthe weaker sections, the ScheduledCastes and Tribes; and shall protectthem from social injustice and all formsof exploitation. Our literacy rate hasincreased from about 18.33 per cent in1951 to 65.38 per cent in 2001.

The Directive Principles of IndianConstitution lay down that ‘within thelimits of its economic capacity’, the stateshall attempt to ‘make effectiveprovision for securing the right toeducation’. Accordingly, primaryeducation is free in government schoolsand schools run by local bodies in allparts of the country.

Before 1976, education was theexclusive responsibility of states. Sincethen, education became a jointresponsibility of the Centre and theStates. The National Policy on

Education, 1986 and the Programmeof Action, 1992 envisage free andcompulsory education of good qualityfor all children upto the age of 14 years.

Education and Social Inequality inIndependent India

Educational institutions are highlystratified in India. State supportedschools cater to the needs of the masseswhile elite private schools cater to theneeds of the upper and upper middleclasses. The government spends lessmoney on school education than onhigher education. Students from eliteprivate schools occupy the majority ofseats in institutes of higher learning.Therefore, the Indian elite hasdeveloped a vested interest ininfluencing government decisionsabout higher education.

The government has failed tosufficiently vocationalise highereducation. The inability or reluctanceto upgrade technical education andopen more vocational institutes is alsorelated with the system of rewards andemployment prospects. Even today, thesystem of rewards and employmentopportunities is based on formal bookknowledge and not primarily onapplied skills, local knowledge and theuse of hands.Schools in India are funded from threesources:

1. Government departments2. Municipalities and other local

bodies3. Private enterprise.

The government sponsors a fifth of the

93

country’s schools, the local bodies alittle less than half and private initiativeaccounts for one third of schools at alllevels. However, almost 90 per cent ofthe private schools receive governmentaid and have to abide by someregulations on the appointment ofteachers, the structure of fees, thenumber of teaching hours, types ofextra and co-curricular activities andso on.

Private participation in educationhas resulted in a variety of Englishmedium institutions such as the elitepublic schools, the Anglo-Indianschools (mission and convent schools)and others run by big trusts and localelites.

National Education Policy,1986

The National Policy on Education, 1986provides scope for equal access toeducation to all irrespective of class,caste, creed or gender. It envisages acommon educational structure like10+2+3 and a common core curriculumthroughout the country. It also soughtto remove disparities by catering to theneeds of women, scheduled castes,scheduled tribes, the handicapped andcertain minority groups.

This policy emphasised that thegovernment will try to eradicateilliteracy, particularly in the 15-35 yearage group. The document alsounderlined the need to link adulteducation with national goals ofdevelopment. The new thrust in nationaleducation after 1986 has been on:

1. Universal enrolment upto 14 yearswith improved quality of education.

2. Free and compulsory education toall children up to 14 years of age.

3. To provide quality education,special schools under the nameof Navodaya Vidyalay wereopened in different parts of thecountry.

4. Vocational education as a distinctstream to prepare students foridentified occupations spanningseveral areas of activity.

5. Autonomous colleges (mostlyprivate) and autonomous depart-ments within universities on aselective basis.

6. Indira Gandhi National OpenUniversity and the National OpenSchool have come up to take careof non-formal and flexible forms ofeducation.

7. Gradually, an attempt is beingmade to delink degrees from jobsin the era of liberalisation andglobalisation.

8. The National Literacy Mission toachieve total literacy in the agegroup of 15 to 35 years . The TotalLiteracy Campaign is the principalstrategy adopted for eradication ofilliteracy in the country.

9. Application of available communi-cation technologies to promoteschool education at all levels andin all areas. This has been triedwith mixed success.

10. Teacher education to providequality training to secondaryschool teachers to update theirprofessional skills.

11. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan to provideuseful and relevant education for

EDUCATION IN INDIA


all children in the age group of 6to 14 years by 2010. By 2007and 2010 all children areexpected to complete respectively5 and 8 years of elementaryschooling.

Education in contemporary India is asource of modernisation, social changeand national development. From theeconomic point of view education isuseful in promoting life enhancing skillsamong young people. From the culturalpoint of view contemporary educationis oriented to promoting values of anurban, industrial, secular, democraticconsumer society. It is one of the factorsof change in traditional values, beliefs,

customs and traditions. Thus, whileeducation has contributed to thebuilding of modern India, it has alsobeen a significant factor in theperpetuation of the elite, the pervasiveinequality in Indian society and in thealienation of the elite from the masses.

As a result, we have an educationsystem which creates literate degree-holders devoid of sufficient technical skilland productive power on the one streamand on the other, we have a small groupof professionals, technologist andmanagers who have achievedinternational standards in their chosenfield but who are not much interestedin the welfare of the nation or the masses.

GLOSSARY

EDUCATION. The formal process of giving intellectual, moral, physical and socialinstructions to a child for her or his allround development.

GURUKUL. Traditional Hindu centre of holistic education.

MADRASA. Traditional Muslim centre of higher education.

MAKTAB. Traditional Muslim centre of primary education.

PATHSHALA. Traditional Hindu centre of primary education.

MADRASA/MAKTAB. Centre of Islamic education.

EXERCISES

1. Give an account of the educational pattern in Pre-British India.2. What were the salient features of the education system in British

India?3. What are the salient features of the system of education in

Independent India?4. Write a brief note on the elementary system of education in India.5. What are the problems of the system of education in Independent India?6. What are the basic features of the National Education Policy 1986 of India?

95

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Beteille, Andre, ed, Equality and Inequality, Oxford University Press,New Delhi, 1984.

2. Ghosh, Suresh Chandra, The History of Education in Modern India, 1757-1986, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 1995.

3. Haq, Ehsanul, School, Family & Media, Rawat Publications,Jaipur, 1995.

4. Kumar, Krishan, Political Agenda of Education, Sage Publications,New Delhi, 1991.

5. Pathak, Avijit, Social Implications of Schooling, Rainbow Publications,New Delhi, 2002.

6. Shukla, Suresh Chandra and Kaul, Rekha, ed, Education, Developmentand Underdevelopment, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1998.

EDUCATION IN INDIA

Introduction

Culture refers to the patterns of thoughtand behaviour of people. It includesvalues, beliefs, rules of conduct, patternsof social, political and economicorganisation. These are passed on fromone generation to the next by formal aswell as informal processes.

Culture consists of the ways inwhich we think and act as members ofa society. Thus, all the achievements ofgroup life are collectively called culture.In popular parlance, the materialaspects of culture, such as scientificand technological achievements areseen as distinct from culture which isleft with the non-material, higherachievements of group life (art, music,literature, philosophy, religion andscience).

In sociology, however, culture is thatwhich is created by women and menbe it material or non-material. Cultureis the product of such an organisationand expresses itself through languageand art, philosophy and religion. It alsoexpresses itself through social habits,customs, economic organisations andpolitical institutions.

Culture is a comprehensive termand it includes the following:

1. Patterns and modes of behaviour.2. Techniques and technologies for

production, social organisation,institutions for the promotion ofthe arts and the sciences,education, health and otherservices.

3. Basic postures, values, beliefs,worldviews that are represented inart, music, literature, philosophyand religion.

Culture has two types: (i) material,and (ii) non-material. The first includestechnologies, instruments, materialgoods, consumer goods, householddesign and architecture, modes ofproduction, trade, commerce, welfareand other social activities. The latterincludes norms, values, beliefs, myths,legends, literature, ritual, art forms andother intellectual-literary activities. Thematerial and non-material aspects ofany culture are usually interdependenton each other. Sometimes, however,material culture may change quicklybut the non-material may take longertime to change.

According to Indologists, Indianculture stands not only for a traditionalsocial code but also for a spiritualfoundation of life.

CHAPTER 8

Culture in India

Broadly speaking we can talk aboutthree major elements of Indian culture(i) Classical, or Great tradition, (ii) Folkor little tradition, and (iii) Tribal.

This, however, is primarily aconceptual classification. Any of thesecultural elements are not representedin their pure form in Indian society. TheFolk and the Classical elements oftenexist in closer proximity and mostlythese elements are complementary toeach other. In the same way, tribal andfolk elements are mostly similar andsometimes it is rather difficult to saywhere one ends and the other begins.This classification provides onlyworkable conceptual tools throughwhich ideal and typical characteristicsof Indian culture could be delineatedand studied. It does not depict anyempirical cultural classification ofIndian society. There have beeninnumerable cultural variations indifferent regions and historical epochs.

The Classical/Elite/Great Tradition

The classical tradition of Indianculture embraces within its fold thevarious disciplines, languages and thearts. For example, Dharmashastra(metaphysics), Neetishastra (ethics),Jyotishshastra (astronomy andastrology), Darshanashastra (philo-sophy), Sangeetshastra (music),Natyashastra (dramatics), Vyakarana-shastra (grammar), Ayurved (medicine),Vaastu and Shilp (architecture).

This tradition has been variouslyreferred to as the Shastric, the Great,or the elite. The tradition has evolved

over time but on the whole its continuityhas been maintained. The notableattribute of the classical culture is thehigh degree of sophistication andsystematisation. Proficiency in anyaspect of the classical culture requiresspecial training and practice over a longperiod. This is called sadhana or riyaz.This applies equally to the arts as wellas to the various branches ofknowledge.

The classical elements of Indianculture show remarkable creativity invarious directions. It also includes anuncanny deftness in adapting andintegrating within itself the elementsderived from the folk and the tribaltraditions. This process was facilitatedby a high degree of tolerance found inthe Indian culture. Indian cultureusually imposed some norms of idealbehaviour but it also allowed a lot offreedom in matters of belief. Thisallowed, for example, the integration ofwidely divergent religious beliefs andrituals into a harmonious whole. Thisaccounts to a large extent for thecontinuity of classical tradition in Indianculture.

The Folk / Little Tradition

The majority of Indian population hasbeen the bearer of the folk tradition. Thistradition is mostly oral and does notdepend directly on books.

Folk culture and tribal cultureshare many common elements. Thereare, however, significant differences aswell. Cultural tradition of a tribe isusually a self-contained whole, whereas

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the folk tradition is complementary tothe classical tradition within the overallcivilisation. There is a circularmovement from classical to folk and folkto classical in India and each borrowselements from the other. The borrowedelements are reworked and refinedbefore integration. For example, manyfolk melodies have been reworked andincluded among the classical ragas.

In folk culture there is greatvariation of dialect/language,expression and form, but there is,however, fundamental unity of ideas,themes and values. Although, thelinguistic expressions are varied, thespirit and the basic form in most aspectsof culture is ‘fundamentally’ the same.For example, each village seems to haveits own Gods, but the systems of beliefsand rituals are basically the samealmost throughout India. For example,the serpent God (Nag) and the Goddessof small pox (Shitala) are worshippedin villages throughout India but theirproper names may differ.

Folk literature, folk songs, epicpoems, tales, proverbs, riddles andmagical formula have very widepopularity cutting across manylinguistic regions. There are linguisticdifferences but the substance remainsmore or less the same. Similarly, thefolk version of mythology of differentregions usually has similar patterns ofnarration. Regional variations are foundnot only in folk culture but also inclassical culture.

Thus, the folk culture too has awider universalistic aspect. It is neitherconfined to small area nor is it

parochial in nature. The folk does notform a community either small orisolated. The folk culture is a part ofcivilisation.

The folk culture is not confined tovillages even though the bulk of thevillagers are bearers of the folk tradition.In the towns also people are generallythe bearers of the folk tradition. Thus,the folk tradition has had a very widecoverage.

The bearers of the folk and theclassical cultural traditions may live inclose proximity, sometimes within thesame family. Sometimes the sameindividual is a carrier of both thetraditions. Both the traditions share acommon worldview, but these arebased on the same fundamental valuesand subscribe to common metaphysicalideas. The major difference between thetwo traditions lies in the degree ofsophistication, systematisation,specialised training and practice.

The folk arts, crafts and techniquesof folk culture are usually learnt in theordinary course of life throughparticipation in the ongoing events andday-to-day activities. Classicaltraditions, on the other hand, are learntas specialised training under theprofessional guidance of a well-knownexpert. This does not mean, however,that folk ideas or artistic expressionsare raw products. The folk forms, suchas the songs or dances, have traditionalpatterns, which have evolved over a longperiod of time. The underlyingprinciples in these folk forms are,however, not always clearly perceived,abstracted and systematised.

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Tribal Cultural Tradition

Tribal cultures are relatively insulatedand autonomous. A tribal culture mayhave borrowed from other cultures butthis borrowing is occasional andincidental. Therefore, tribal cultures arequalitatively different from the folk andclassical cultures. Sometimes, a tribalculture may come so close to theclassical or the folk culture that itbecomes dependent on it. It becomes apart of the folk or, under exceptionalcircumstances, of the classicaltraditions.

Tribal communities have fourcharacteristics: (i) small in size,(ii) homogeneity, (iii) distinctiveness,and (iv) an all-pervasive self-sufficiency.Tribal cultures have many characteri-stics of little communities. A communityis characterised by common territoryand shared sentiments.

There are many tribal cultures inIndia. Tribes are scattered all aroundthe vast land of India and many of themdo not have much cultural give andtake with each other. Different tribesshow great diversity in the economic,technological, institutional andreligious patterns. The specialisedpursuit of knowledge and arts isusually not found among the tribes.

The classical, folk and tribalrepresent three types of culturalstreams, which have co-existed in Indiafor a long period of time. Historically,there has hardly been a clash offundamental interests between thesedifferent streams of Indian culture. Thetribal culture may or may not share themainstream beliefs and values,

nevertheless, there has not been anyconflict between the tribal and the non-tribal cultures in India.

Religion and Culture in India

Indian culture has been very tolerantof diversities. The classical, folk andtribal streams of culture have beenpresent within the major religiousgroups in India. A.K.Coomarswamyhas claimed that the pattern ofinteraction between the classical andthe folk is more or less the same in allreligious traditions in India.

In India Hindu, Buddha and Jaintraditions were complementary to eachother. Not only the rulers but also thecommon people accommodatedreligious diversity without feeling anyloss of freedom. The spirit ofaccommodation is still widespread inIndia in spite of political aberrations.This accommodation and tolerance arediscernible in the gathering at holyrivers, sacred complexes and far-flungmonastries. India has sheltered notonly different religions but also differentsects within these religions. Hindus,Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, Muslims,Christians, Parsis and Jews alongwiththe various sects within these religionshave lived together peacefully. Differentsects expressed different viewpointswhile sharing a common heritage. Theygave rise to different patterns of reformin Indian society. They modified themeanings of original texts in order todevelop a more pragmatic outlook.

During the medieval period Akbarwas a promoter of communal amity andcommon cultural understanding.

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Shivaji had Muslim bodyguards andsome of his commanders were alsoMuslims. Muhammad Ghori hadissued gold coins that bore the imageof the Hindu Goddess Lakshmi. DaraShikoh was a great promoter of Indianphilosophy and literature.

Ananda Coomaraswamy has notedthat in the sphere of art, strikingsimilarities have marked the architec-ture and sculpture of different temples,monuments and courts. Indian art is asymbolic form centred around sacredthemes and broad ideals. According toCoomaraswamy, the art belonging toHindu, Muslim and Christian traditionsin India are rooted in similar sacredsources and have sharedtranscendental meanings.

In language and literature, in artand architecture, in music andpainting, in dance and drama, ineconomic and political life, in socialhabits and customs, a co-existence andunderstanding exists between differentcommunities. The cross-fertilisation ofIslam and Hinduism led to the Bhaktiand Sufi movements. The Bhakti cultemphasised the fundamental equalityof all religions and the unity of God.It preached simple devotion and faithas the means of salvation and opposedexcessive ritualism and social rigidities.The Sufi cult devoted itself to therealisation of self and God and theirunion in mystic ecstasy. It came to Indiafrom Iran and was greatly influenced byBuddhism, Vedanta and Yoga.

Thus, through the whole of India’shistory, it has been a multi-ethnic,multi-cultural and multi-religious

society. Contemporary Indian cultureis a complex phenomenon, the outcomeof centuries of fusion and synthesisbetween its various elements. Itrepresents a synthesis of classical, folk,tribal and different religious ways of lifeblended into a functional, well-balanced and harmonious pattern.

Salient Features of TraditionalIndian Culture

Traditional Indian culture, in its overallthrust towards the spiritual, promotesmoral values and the attitudes ofgenerosity, simplicity and frugality.Some of the striking features of Indianculture that pervade its numerouscastes, tribes, ethnic groups andreligious groups and sects are asfollows:

A Cosmic Vision

The framework of Indian culture placeshuman beings within a conception ofthe universe as a divine creation. It isnot anthropo-centric (human-centric)only and considers all elements ofcreation, both living and non-living, asmanifestations of the divine. Therefore,it respects God’s design and promotesthe ideal of co-existence. This visionthus, synthesises human beings,nature and God into one integral whole.This is reflected in the idea of satyam-shivam-sundaram.

Sense of Harmony

Indian philosophy and culture tries toachieve an innate harmony and orderand this is extended to the entire

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cosmos. Indian culture assumes thatnatural cosmic order inherent in natureis the foundation of moral and socialorder. Inner harmony is supposed tobe the foundation of outer harmony.External order and beauty will naturallyfollow from inner harmony. Indianculture balances and seeks tosynthesise the material and thespiritual, as aptly illustrated by theconcept of purushartha.

Tolerance

Indian culture accepts themanifoldness of reality and assimilatesplurality of viewpoints, behaviours,customs and institutions. It does nottry to suppress diversity in favour ofuniformity. The motto of Indian cultureis both unity in diversity as well asdiversity in unity.

Emphasis on Duty

As against rights, Indian cultureemphasises dharma or moral duty. Itis believed that performance of one’sduty is more important than assertingone’s right. It also emphasises thecomplementariness between one’s ownduty and other’s rights. Thus, throughthe emphasis on community or familyobligations, Indian culture promotesinterdependence rather thanIndependence and autonomy of theindividual.

Sacrifice and Altruism

Indian culture respects those whosacrifice their personal interests for thewell-being of others. Sages, saints and

renunciators have always beenconsidered superior to kings andmerchants. The martyr has nearlyalways been preferred over kings andmerchants as the cultural hero.

Change within Continuity

Indian culture has always favouredchange within continuity. It is in favourof gradual change or reform. It does notfavour abrupt or instant change.Therefore, most changes in thoughthave come in the form of commentariesand interpretation and not in the formof original systems of thought. Inmatters of behaviour also synthesis ofold and new is preferred overreplacement of old by the new.

The Ideal of Joint Family

At the level of marriage, there is a lot ofplurality in India. At the level of family,however, there is striking similarity. Forexample, the ideal or norm of jointfamily is upheld by almost every Indian.Every person may not live in a jointhousehold but the ideal of joint familyis still favoured. The family is thedefining feature of Indian culture.Although Indians differentiate betweenindividual identity and family identity,the Western type of individualism is rarein Indian culture.

Theory of Karma

Most Indians believe that one cannotescape from one’s karma. One has tobear the fruit of one’s action. It isgenerally believed that destiny is linkedwith past karma.

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Diversity and Plurality

In Indian culture, diversity or pluralityis accepted as the natural way of life,of thought and customs. Most Indiansbelieve that every path, way, custom,tradition and mode of worship can leadus to realisation of self and God.

Indian Culture during the Modernand Contemporary Period

The social structural affiliation of theclassical in the traditional Indianculture had been broadly linked withprinces, priests, monks, munis,sadhus, scholars, guild masters andother prosperous groups. During themedieval period the relationshipbetween the classical and the folk wasnot disturbed. In ancient India theclassical tradition was linked not onlyto Sanskrit but there were also streamsof the classical tradition associated withPali and Tamil. Sanskrit was the bearerof the Hindu classical tradition and theMahayana Buddhist tradition andsome of the Jain science traditions aswell. Pali was the vehicle of the ThervadiBuddhist tradition and Tamil was thebearer of the South Indian classicaltradition.

During the modern period, therelationship between the classicalrepresented by English and thevernacular folk traditions has brokendown. Traditional equilibrium has beenaffected by different factors andprocesses of modernisation. With theimpact of modern social forces therelationship between the classical andthe folk traditions has been disturbed.

In the urban centres a new middle classhas been growing and assuming the roleof the bearer of the classical tradition.The middle class has a world view andoutlook that is radically different fromthe bearers of the folk tradition. Theyare mostly the bearers of Westerncultural values, norms, ideas, outlookand institutions, and English hasbecome their dominant language.

Throughout history, the folk andthe tribal traditions have remainedrelatively unaffected by changes inpolitical structures. The importance ofclassical traditions has been changingfrom time to time with changes inpolitical power structure but the folkand the tribal traditions have remainedconsistently vibrant. The classicaltraditions in traditional India hadalways accepted the importance as wellas given space to the folk and the tribalcultures. The bearers of modernWestern classical cultural tradition, onthe other hand, have on occasionsshown less tolerance towards the folkand the tribal traditions. They usuallybrand the traditional culture asprimitive, barbaric and superstitious incomparison to the modern culture.They try to modernise and westerniseall the elements and streams of Indianculture.

The processes of westernisation,industrialisation, urbanisation,globalisation and democratisation areinfluencing various aspects of Indianculture today. These modernising andsecularising forces, however, have notyet cut off contemporary Indian culturefrom the traditional and cultural roots

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of Indian culture. The traditionalcultural media not only continue tosurvive today, but also some aspects ofit have also been incorporated in novelways into an emerging popular andclassical culture.

ASPECTS OF INDIAN CULTURE

Art and Architecture: Indian art isinspired by religion and centres aroundsacred themes. However, there isnothing ascetic or self-denying aboutit. The eternal diversity of life and natureand the human element are all reflectedin Indian art forms. The art ofarchitecture and sculpture was welldeveloped during the Indus valleyperiod. India has the largest collectionsof folk and tribal artefacts.

Music: The popular term for musicthroughout India is Sangit, whichincluded dance as well as vocalinstrumental music. The rhymes of theRigveda and the Samveda are theearliest examples of words set to music.The oldest detailed exposition of Indianmusical theory is found inNatyashastra, attributed to the sageBharata who lived at the beginning ofthe Christian era. North IndianHindustani classical music and SouthIndian Karnatak music are the twomajor forms of classical music in India.More specific schools of classical musicare associated with particulargharanas. This is one aspect of Indianculture that has achieved worldwiderecognition.

Song and dance has always been apart of social gatherings and get-

togethers in India. Fairs, marriages,festivals and other celebrations are notcomplete without them. Films, filmsongs and music have had animportant role to play in the furtherpopularisation of music among themasses in modern times.

Dance: Classical Indian dance is abeautiful and significant symbol of thespiritual and artistic approach of theIndian mind. Traditional Indianscriptures contain many references tonritta (music) and nata (drama). Danceand music are present at every stage ofdomestic life in India. One classificationdivides Indian dancing into threeaspects — Natya, Nritya and Nritta.Natya corresponds to drama. Nritya isinterpretative dance performed to thewords sung in a musical melody. Onthe other hand, nritta signifies puredance, where the body movements donot express any mood (bhava) norconvey any meaning.

There is a rich variety of classicaland folk dances in India. Kuchipudi(Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Orissa),Kathakali (Kerala), Mohiniattam(Kerala), Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu),Manipuri (Manipur), Kathak (UttarPradesh) and Chchau (Orissa, WestBengal and Jharkhand) are some of themost notable dance forms in India.Besides, India has a rich tradition offolklores, legends and myths, whichcombine with songs and dances intocomposite art forms.

Theatre: While classical dance in Indiais linked to its ‘divine origins’, the originof Indian theatre lies with the people.

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Bharat’s Natyashastra is still the mostcomplete guide to traditional Indiantheatre. ‘Modern Indian theatre’ ofrecent times originated in three colonialcities— Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai.It is strongly influenced by conventionsand trends of European theatre.

‘Traditional Indian theatre’ includesdistinct streams. This theatre remainedconfined to courts and temples anddisplayed a refined, carefully trainedsensibility. In the second popularstream the spoken languages anddialects of different localities andregions were used. Theatre in India isusually staged in the post-harvestseason when actors as well asspectators have free time. It is staged inopen-air theatres. The narrative, oftena myth already known to the audience,is enacted through dance, music,mimetic gesture and stylisedchoreography.

The State, Market andCulture in India

After Independence, the state hasplayed a significant role in the domainof culture. The state has set upnumerous institutions such as theSahitya Academy, Sangeet NatakAcademy, Lalit Kala Academy, NationalGallery of Modern Art etc. to promoteand patronise arts, literature andculture.

The Department/ministry ofCulture is a nodal agency that overseesthe functioning of the various culturalinstitutions. Increasingly, however, inrecent times, the private sector too hasemerged as an important supporter and

sponsor of art and culture.There is a close interaction between

the market, state formation and culturein India. Trade facilitated the movementof persons and helped create a marketfor cultural products and activities. Thecommercial activities related to tradeand patronage of the rulers greatlyinfluenced literary and culturalactivities. The most importanttraditional temple towns in India(Kanchipuram, Kashi, Ujjain, etc.) havealso been important commercialcentres.

Artistic patronage has alwaysinspired honour and respect. Providingsupport to an aspiring or establishedartist is also considered sufficient tobring merit to the benefactor. Intraditional times and to a lesser extentnow-a-days, temple managements alsoplay the role of such sponsors andfacilitators of art. In contemporaryperiod, however, the main sponsors ofart and refined cultural pursuits are theinstitutions of the state and the market.Corporations and market forces havebecome particularly important in thisregard in the era of globalisation.

Culture and the Mass Media

Modern means of communications —radio, television, films, newspapers,magazines and journals have given newforms and modes of expression to thevarious themes and ideas of Indianculture. Radio has played the mostimportant role in recent times inpromoting Indian culture at an all Indialevel. Broadcasting started in India in1927 and the All India Radio was

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constituted in 1936. All India Radio,and private channels in recent years,have created an audience throughoutthe country for Indian classical music,for instance. It has also been crucial tothe promotion of film and popularmusic.

The Indian television network todayis one of the largest terrestrial networksin the world. Dish antennas and cableTV have linked most urban and ruralhouses to a large number of televisionchannels today. This huge network is,on the one hand, an importantmeans of the dissemination andpopularisation of almost every form ofart and culture today. On the otherhand, through the link of televisionprogrammes with market forces andadvertisement revenue, it sometimespromotes programmes with littlecultural or educational value, which maynevertheless appeal to the wider public.

Indian films are considered one ofthe most authentic representations ofIndian cultural life with all its strengthsand weaknesses. The first feature film

was made in India way back in 1913.Today India produces the largestnumber of feature films in the world.More than a hundred films are madeevery year in nearly a dozen languages.However, cinema has remained basicallyan urban medium. Its impact on thevast hinterlands has been minimal. Themost important impact of films in Indiais on music. Today, film music hasemerged as the most popular form ofmusic in India.

Film music is a spontaneousexuberant growth, emerging from anolder folk music. It has almost becomethe folk music of modern India. On theother hand, what is included within theclassical music today had its birth inthe music meant for entertainment offolk audiences.

In the last few years, radio, TV andfilms have led to a revival of classicalmusic as well. Classical music discs andcassettes have a good market. Classicalconcerts have a much larger attendancetoday than two decades ago and theaudience is predominantly young.

GLOSSARY

CIVILISATION. Culture and civilisation are used together as complementary terms.Culture refers to the non-material, symbolic aspect whereascivilisation refers to instrumental and material aspects.

LOK OR LITTLE TRADITION. It is another term for folk or regional culture.

GREAT TRADITION. It refers to classical tradition in art and culture in Indian traditions.

EXERCISES

1. What is culture? Discuss it.2. Write a note on the types of Culture.

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3. Differentiate between material and non-material culture.4. What are the elements of Indian Culture? Discuss.5. Discuss the relationship between religion and culture in India.6. Explain the salient features of traditional Indian culture.7. Discuss the features of Indian culture in modern period.8. Discuss different aspects of Indian culture.9. Explain the impact of mass-media on Indian culture.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Borden, Carla M., ed, Contemporary India: Essays on the Uses of Tradition,Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1989.

2. Mukerji, D. P., Sociology of Indian Culture, Rawat Publications,Jaipur,1948/1979.

3. Mukherjee, Radhakamal, The Cosmic Art of India, Allied Publications,Mumbai, 1965.

4. Pandey, Govind Chandra, Foundations of Indian Culture, Books and Books,New Delhi, 1984.

5. Singh, Yogendra, Culture Change in India: Identity and Globalisation, RawatPublications, Jaipur, 2000.

6. Tripathi, G. C. and Kulke, Hermann, ed, Religion and Society in EasternIndia, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1994.

Introduction

Political institutions are mechanisms oragencies relating to the exercise ofpower for maintaining peace and orderwithin a society. Institutions of themodern state always have the purposeof ordering, controlling and providingguidelines for the behaviour of peoplewho live within the state. At the sametime, the society itself works on thebasis of generally recognised and well-understood rules of tradition. Rules ofgovernance ensuing from politicalinstitutions, therefore, shape socialbehaviour and are influenced in turnby rules of common social behaviour.Thus, there is a complementaryrelationship between the institutions ofstate and society in India.

What is Power

Power is an aspect of relationshipsbetween social units (persons orgroups). An individual or group holdspower in relation to another. Max Weberhas defined power as “chance of a manor a number of men to realise their ownwill in a communal action even againstthe resistance of others who areparticipating in the action”.

There are, broadly, two different

views in Sociology regarding the natureof power in society: (i) that of Robert S.Lynd who follows Max Weber and seemsto partially agree with Karl Marx, and(ii) that of Talcott Parsons. The view ofLynd and Weber is that those who holdpower do so at the expense of the other.This suggests that there is a fixedamount of power in society. It is knownas ‘Zero-sum’ or ‘constant-sum’concept of power. This view is differentfrom the Marxian view. According to theMarxists, society is usually divided intotwo broad groups: the power holdingruling class, and the powerless workingclass. They say that the power of thedominant group refers to their overallaccess to economic, political andcultural resources in society.

As against this, Parsons observesthat power is a societal resource heldin trust and directed by those inauthority for the benefit of all. Poweris the capacity to mobilise theresources of the society for theattainment of social goals. In efficientsocieties collective efforts to realisecommon goals generate additionalpower, privileges and benefits whichare collectively shared. The exercise ofpower then usually means that

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Politics in India


everybody wins. Power is thus a‘variable-sum’ or ‘positive-sum’phenomenon. This forms a basis for theco-operation and reciprocity, which areessential for the maintenance and well-being of society.

According to Parsons, politicalsupport is deposited in political leadersin the same way in which money isdeposited in a bank. The electorate canwithdraw its grant of power frompolitical leaders at the next election.In this sense, power resides ultimatelywith members of the society as awhole. Just as money generatesinterest for the depositor, so grants ofpower generate benefits for theelectorate. In this way, power in societycan increase or decrease.

In the analysis of politics andpolitical institutions, both concepts ofpower are used by different socialscientists.

The Nature of Authority

Indeed, Max Weber’s concept ofauthority reflects a reconciliation of thetwo apparently contradictory notionsof power. Power is applied through theuse of force or coercion. But, nakedpower is hardly accepted by those whoare subjected to it. Therefore, theweilders of power seek to translate itinto authority. Authority is the powerlegitimised and institutionalised in asociety. Sub-ordinates accept thepower of those in authority becausethey accept their control as justifiedand proper. The subjects have a feelingthat those who exercise authority do

not use it for serving their owninterests to those over whom thisauthority is exercised.

The legitimate power or authorityin a society may be centralised in aperson or a class or an institution orit may be dispersed in the wholesociety. In traditional societies bothforms of power distribution are found,which are given below: (i) A kingship or an aristocratic class

or religious chief exercisingoverarching power.

(ii) Dispersion of power in the wholesociety regulated by kinship rulesand customs.

State in Modern Society

In modern industrial societies, however,power is centralised in the institutionof state and dispersed among itscitizens. Max Weber has defined thestate as ‘a human community whichsuccessfully claims the monopoly of thelegitimate use of physical force withina given territory’. Thus, the state is oneof the important agencies of socialcontrol, whose functions are carried outby means of law backed ultimately byphysical force.

A state is characterised by fourelements, viz., population, territory,government and sovereignty. A statealso requires international recognition.The state grows out of a particularhistorical process in response to theissue of legitimation of power andintegration of power arrangements.

To maintain an orderly system ofsocial relations, people have to be

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subjected to some degree of discipline.The discipline in an ordered society orstate need not always come from anexternal agency like the police, armyor judiciary. It may come as a result ofvoluntary acceptance of the norms andvalues of the society or the constitutionof the state by the people themselves.In every political institution, there isdefinitely a moral aspect, which isbinding on the people concerned whichoften takes the form of rules and laws.

EVOLUTION OF THE STATEAND DEMOCRATIC POLITY IN INDIA

1. The Transformation of theColonial Legacy

The independent Indian state, whichemerged from the freedom movement,inherited two rather contradictorylegacies. Some of its institutions wereshaped by the needs of colonial rule.Though the British introduced certainliberal elements like the rule of law anda relatively independent judiciary, thepolitical institutions created by themwere governed by the principlesprompted by the demands of colonialpower. The structures of the army,bureaucracy, the police, theadministrative rules and their distancefrom the common people wereobviously the consequences of thislegacy. At the same time, theindependent India is also the productof a great national movement, and iscommitted to the transformation ofsome of these colonial structures in theinterests of the common people. Theindependent state is trying to

decolonise the nature and functions ofthe political institutions inherited by itfrom the British Raj by makingthem responsive to the needs andaspirations of India and rendering themaccountable to the people.

2. Sovereign, Socialist, Secular,Democratic Republic of India

India adopted its new Constitution afterIndependence, on 26 November 1949.It became effective from January 26,1950. A Constitution contains thefundamental principles of a state,which determine the powers andduties of the Government, andguarantee certain rights to the peopleand which together constitute theorganic law of the land.

The Preamble to the Constitutionlags out its spirit and broad objectives.According to it, the state of Indepen-dent India is sovereign i.e., it hassupreme power to decide its owncourse of action relating to the peopleand territory of India. It is a democraticstate where power is exercised by therepresentatives of the people who aredirectly or indirectly chosen by them.It is a republic where the head of theGovernment is a President elected bythe people.

Independent India has chosen theform of parliamentary democracy. Itensures the people’s control over thegovernment (the Council of Ministers)by making it responsible to thepopularly elected legislature and byensuring periodic elections to theHouse of the People at the centre andlegislative assemblies in the ‘provincial

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states’ on the basis of adult suffrage.No person shall be denied the right tovote in these elections on grounds ofreligion, race, caste and sex. Theseprovisions of the Constitution (Articles325 and 326) have brought farreaching changes in a society whichhas been traditionally marked bycaste hierarchy, serious economicdisparities and gender inequalities.Politics in India is not confined to asmall aristocracy. India is today thelargest democracy and one of the mostintensely political societies of theworld. Mass participation in politics ofmodern India increases the legitimacyof the political system and strengthensits effectiveness.

The success of Indian democracywas facilitated by a political processwhich aimed at modernisation,democratisation and economicdevelopment. This political processwas controlled by the parliament, thecouncil of ministers as well as thebureaucracy. The bureaucracy,members of which are recruitedthrough open competitive publicexaminations, implements the policiesframed by selected representatives ofthe people. The members of thisbureaucracy are chosen not on thebasis of birth, caste, creed, race,religion or gender but on the basis ofimpersonal laid down rules.

The colonial power divided India onthe basis of religion and severecommunal riots accompaniedpartition. Independent India chose,therefore, the path of Secularism,which means that the state will have

no official religion of its own and it willnot favour or interfere with any religion.From the very beginning theindependent state in India has shownequal respect for all religions. Holdingof public offices and employment ingovernment services do not depend onthe religious affiliation of an individual(Articles 15 & 16).

The adoption of socialist ideals ofsociety, in order to curb or reduceinequalities, constitutes anotherattempt of the Indian polity towardsdemocratic nation-building.

Justice, Liberty and Equality

The Constitution secures social andeconomic justice through theguarantee of fundamental rights.Part III of the Constitution secures sixgroups of rights for the individuals.They are :

(1) Right to Equality.(2) Right to Freedom.(3) Right against Exploitation.(4) Right to Freedom of Religion.(5) Cultural and Educational Rights.(6) Right to Constitutional Remedies.

The Constitution had also guaranteedthe Right to Property which has beenmodified through later amendments inresponse to the demands for social andeconomic justice. An independentjudiciary protects these rights andfreedoms. The guarantee of theserights by the Constitution is a boldattempt by the state of IndependentIndia to remove the inequalities anddisabilities of caste, gender, religion,region or race, suffered traditionally by

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different sections of the people of Indiain various situations. It, thus,guarantees ‘the dignity of theindividual’ which is the hallmark of themodern society. The Constitution hasabolished, for example, the scourge ofuntouchability. By ensuring the libertiesof the individual, the Constitution seeksto curb the exercise of arbitrary powerby any individual within the governmentor outside it.

The Humanistic and democraticidealism expressed in the Preamble tothe Indian Constitution is furtherstrengthened in the directive principlesof the state policy in Part IV of theConstitution. They offer elaborateagenda of what the state should do topromote the welfare of the people andsecure a just social order for them.They exhort the state to ensure theequitable distribution of ownership ofthe means of production, andprotection of the health and thestrength of certain specific groups andindividuals viz., women, workers, andthe children who are usually far lessprivileged than the other sections of thesociety. Although no citizen can movethe court to compel the state to enforcethe rights promised in the directiveprinciples, nevertheless these principlesprovide a means for evaluating theperformance of the Government inpromoting welfare of the people. Thejudiciary increasingly functions as thecustodian of the people’s rightsenshrined in the Constitution.

The Federal Structure

Soon after Independence, India faceda number of problems, including the

territorial and administrativeintegration of the princely states, thecommunal riots that accompaniedpartition, the rehabilitation of refugeeswho had migrated from Pakistan, andinsurgency. Besides, there were otherlong standing problems like poverty.

The national movement played apivotal role in welding India togetherpolitically and emotionally into anation and integrating it into‘a common framework of politicalidentity and loyalty.’ The politicalleaders faced the problem ofintegration of the princely states withthe rest of India. In deference to thelinguistic, cultural and regionaldiversities and the need for integration,the Constitution made provisions fora federal structure with a strong centreas well as a great deal of autonomy forthe States or Units. There is a divisionof powers between the UnionGovernment at the centre andgovernments of different regional unitscalled States in the IndianConstitution. The Supreme courtfunctions as the custodian of theautonomy of the states in India. Ofcourse, to prevent the fissiparoustendencies and to preserve the unityof the nation, the Union Governmenthas been given a large amount ofpower. The All-India Services ensureuniformity in administration through-out the country. Many States andregions are, however, dissatisfied withthe amount of power and autonomygranted to them. It is not unexpectedin a country like India which is thehome of many diverse groups of peoplewith differing cultural identities and

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different concerns. Differences in socio-economic positions and culturalidentities give rise to various demandsthat are both the strength and challengeof a vibrant democracy. The Indiannation state is striving hard to meet thechallenges by balancing the competingdemands of different segmentsconstituting the Indian polity.

Democratic Decentralisation andPanchayati RajTo make democracy responsive to theneeds of the people at the grassroots,the Constitution directed the state toorganise village Panchayats and endowthem with such powers and authoritiesas may be necessary to enable themto function as units of self-government(Art. 40). It has been in response tothe emphasis laid by Mahatma Gandhion local self-government, creation ofleadership at all levels, from top tobottom, decentralisation of power andbuilding up of self-reliance of villagecommunities. Gandhiji and otherleaders of the National Movementstressed the need for democraticdecentralisation. Democratic decentra-lisation aims at widening the area ofthe people’s participation, authority,and autonomy through dispersion ordevolution of powers to people’srepresentative organisations fromthe top levels to the lowest levels. InIndia democratic decentralisation —popularly known as Panchayati Raj —was introduced in 1959 and was linkedwith the major programme for ruraldevelopment such as the communitydevelopment programme which was

introduced in 1952. The three-tierPanchayati Raj System aimed atensuring people’s participation in thedecision-making and implementationof developmental programmes. Theseventy-third and the seventy-fourthAmendments have given more powersto the Panchayats in rural areas andmunicipalities in urban areas andmade the holding of regular electionsto them mandatory.

The years from 1951 to 1964were the beginning of the massivereconstruction of the polity and theeconomy. Very important measures inthis respect were those of land reforms,the initiation of planned economicdevelopment and rapid expansion ofthe public sector. Major programmesfor rural development, such as theCommunity Development Programmeand Panchayati Raj were introducedin 1952 and 1959, respectively.Women were given 33 per centreservation in the Panchayati Rajlegislation.

Political Parties and IndianDemocracy

Political parties are indispensable forthe working of a democraticgovernment. They are organisedgroups of citizens who have commonviews on public issues and, acting aspolitical units, seek to obtain controlof the government in order toimplement the programme and policywhich they profess. The Indianconstitution has recognised the rightto the freedom of speech and thefreedom of forming associations and

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also guaranteed periodic elections oftheir representatives by the people tothe legislatures on the basis ofUniversal adult franchise. India hasadopted a multiparty system. Themultiparty system offers enoughpolitical choice and interaction,especially for minorities and marginalgroups. However, the predominance ofall-India parties in India indicates theextent to which political unity is firmlyestablished. In the contemporarypolitical scenario, the growth ofregional political parties and theexperiment of coalition governmentreflect the articulation of regional andsectional interests.

From 1947 to 1977, Congress wasthe only ruling party at the all-Indialevel. After 1977, the Congress has beenreplaced by successful coalitionsbetween different political parties bothat the national and state levels. Todaywe have two broad coalitions of politicalparties — one led by the BJP and theother led by the Congress. At one time,the Janata Party held the centrestage.Today, the leftist parties and manyregional parties also claim all-Indiastatus. In the subsequent decades afterIndependence, the political parties weredominated by professional groups suchas lawyers. This dominance is decliningand their place is being taken over byfarmers and agriculturists.

The Party System, Politics of Casteand Voting Behaviour in India

Initially, the Indian polity was characte-rised by one party dominance. Byvirtue of its presence over a long

duration and through sustainedorganisational penetration, theCongress had given a unified leadershipto the whole nation. Histori-cally theCongress had developed as amovement for social regeneration andnational Independence.

The real contribution of the partysystem to political development lies inits role of being a catalyst ofgovernment performance at variouslevels. These parties represent people’sinterests and compete for power. Theyare the pivots of the political processand provides the base for both thegovernment and opposition.

To achieve power, political partiesoften exploit elements like caste andreligion, which have a bearing onhuman sentiments. Rajni Kotharipoints out that by drawing the castesystem into their web of organisation,political parties find scope formobilisation of mass support. Inmaking politics its sphere of activity,a caste asserts its identity and strivesfor positions of power. Politiciansmobilise caste groupings andidentities in order to consolidate theirpower. The democratic polity based onelections has led to the involvementof the traditional structure of the castesystem in politics. The votingbehaviour over the years has shownthe linkages between the traditionalstructure of caste and the modernpolity in India. The nature ofdemocratic state in India is differentfrom the states in other democracies.India has tried to accommodate thelogic of modern democratic state with

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the other institutions of Indian society.For example, the caste system and theprocesses of democratic participation inpolitics have successfully acco-mmodated each other. Caste hasresponded to the constraints andopportunities offered by modernelectoral politics. It has given riseto unexpected forms of castemobilisation. Political mobilisationsaround caste, region and communities(i,e., casteism, regionalism andcommunalism), remain the greatestobstacles in the realisation ofpolitical goals enshrined in IndianConstitution.

The politics of caste is also relatedwith the longterm logic of the policy ofprotective discrimination, popularlyknown as the reservation policy, whichhas given an opportunity to theScheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,Other Backward Classes and thereligious minorities to gain anadvantage from the resources of thestate directed economic system.Political changes in the caste basedsociety have been caused by deliberateand intended direction of state policies.

In rural India, the patterns ofloyalties and interests and the powerstructures which prevail at the villageor neighbourhood level are often themost important elements of politicalaction. In urban areas, the role of classfactor has been found to be moreimportant in voting behaviour.

Studies of voting behaviour revealthat debate over issues of public policyplays a negligible role in electioncampaigns and presumably in affecting

the ways in which individuals vote. Toa large extent, Indian voters are stilloriented towards particular ties ortheir specific interests rather than topolicy or ideological issues. It ispossible for parties and candidates tomake emotional and irrationalappeals to voters on the basis ofprimordial attachments to caste andreligion.

Reports from the rural areassuggest that neither the largelandowners nor the landless labourersplay a decisive role in the outcome ofthe elections, the former because theirpower has been limited by recentlegislation and the latter because theyare often economically dependentupon others. The class of owner-cultivators (middle level castes) havea keen and decisive interest in theelections. However, even votersbelonging to low caste and economicallybackward sections cannot be ignoredif only because their numbers are high.

Public Sector Units, Interest Groups,Lobbies and Trade Unions

The Independent state of India hastaken the initiative for economicdevelopment in agriculture andindustry as well as for equaldistribution of resources. The publicsector undertakings in the industrysought to strengthen the economicfoundation of Indian democracy. ThePlanning Commission and theNational Development Council havebeen very effective in ensuring it.

Two processes of nation buildinghave been operating in India after

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independence: one, the administrative– governmental process aiming atcoordination and uniformity in planneddevelopment efforts; two, the processesinvolving various types of politicalgroup activity by the people.Increasingly there is a politicalorientation of social interests incontemporary India. Thus, the politicalsystem has become, perhaps, the mostimportant instrument of socialstructure in India. There is politici-sation of a fragmented social structurethrough a penetration of politicalforms, values and ideologies.

In any economic system, thestate can play three kinds of roles:1. As a producer of goods and

services.2. As a supplier of ‘Public goods’ or

‘Social goods’ like education,health, drinking water etc.

3. As a regulator of the system.In Indian democracy during the

initial stages, the first two roles of thestate, have been important. But, withliberalisation, these two roles havedeclined and the third role has becomemore important, although theregulation is exercised, in someinstances, through independentauthorities. In the era of liberalisation,privatisation and globalisation, the roleof the state has declined further andsome of the erstwhile functions of statehave now been taken over by the privatesector, Non-governmental and civilsociety organisations. Instead of directcontrol of the state, the market forcesnow play a greater role, although incertain sectors independent regulatory

authorities are being set up to regulatemarket forces.

Role of the NGOs

The NGOs (Non-Governmental Organi-sations) in the voluntary sector,through the last five decades, haveworked with communities in everycorner of India to bridge the distancebetween the promises and the realityof development. The important role ofNGOs in reaching developmentschemes to the poor communities hasbeen increasingly recognised by theIndian government. ‘Center for scienceand Environment’ (CSE), ‘Lokayan’,‘Sathin’, ‘Self Employed WomenAssociation’ (SEWA) and ‘SulabhInternational’ are some of thesignificant NGOs which are makingappreciable contribution to the processof development in the country.

Interest groups have performed animportant function in influencing theeconomic and other kinds of thedecisions of the state. Interest groupsmay be based on economic, ethnic,linguistic, religious, regional and otherorganisations. Sometimes, theyinfluence the members of thegovernment (ruling party) or the partyin opposition to pressurise thegovernment to concede to theirdemands. An interest group maythus act as a Pressure group.The Federation of Indian Chamberof Commerce and Industry (FICCI), theAll-India Chamber of Commerceand Industry, etc., (AIMA) are examplesof Interest Groups which may act aspressure groups. The farmers also

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have their lobby in the parliament andstate legislatures.

Trade Unions represent theworker’s, interests in Indiandemocracy. They have succeeded ininfluencing the decisions of thegovernment for protecting the interestsof the workers. Many social legislationspassed after independence in favour ofthe workers are examples of this.

The Press

The Constitution of India hasguaranteed the freedom of expression.The press is the important medium forthe free expression of opinion in thedemocratic polity of India, Press hasproved to be the watchdog of the peoplefor controlling arbitrary acts of thegovernment. Today, other forms ofmass-media alongwith the Pressenable the citizens to know what isreally happening in the country,especially what the government doesor does not do for them. Whenever agovernment takes an arbitrarydecision, newspapers and magazinesfunction as the vehicle of social checksand balances on the government. ThePress had also played a very significantrole during the freedom movement.

Social Movements and the State

Indian tradition provides manyexamples of socio-religious movementsbringing about change in social andreligious systems of the country. Thistradition has been strengthenedduring the independence movement.The democratic polity of independent

India also provides an environment forpeaceful movements.

A social movement may be definedas the collective effort either to promoteor to resist social change. Two elementsare necessary for a movement to becategorised as social movement:spontaneity and sustainability. Theobjective, ideology, programmes,leadership and organisation areimportant components of socialmovements. These components areinterdependent and influence eachother.

The state which holds the sovereignpower looks at social and politicalmovements as a challenge to itslegitimacy of governance, at leastinitially. It adopts different measures,ranging from dialogue and negotiationwith the leaders of those movementswhich do not challenge the powerstructure of the state to repression ofthose movements which challenge thepower of the state. The democraticpolity of India has not indulged inrepression of different types of socialmovements. Rather, it is mostly softerin dealing with those movementswhich have reformist or welfare-oriented demands than those whichquestion the interests of the powerfulor seek to bring about more radicalsocial structural changes.

Peasant Movements, LabourMovements, Women’s Movementshave been organised in IndependentIndia. These movements havesucceeded in changing the laws infavour of the peasants, workers andwomen. Ecology has become a major

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issue linked to many contemporarysocial movements. They involvespecific natural resources like land,water, forest, air and sea and thequestion of people’s access to themand also the problems suffered bythe common people because of

GLOSSARY

AUTHORITY. It refers to that form of power which is considered legitimate bythose over which it is exercised.

BUREAUCRACY. A body of administrative officials, and the procedures and tasksinvolved in a particular system of administration.

CHIPKO MOVEMENT. A type of environmental movement in Uttaranchal (TehriGarhwal).

DOMINATION. It refers to that form of power which rests on force and manipulationrather than social sanction.

FRATERNITY. A group of people with common interests and brotherly feeling.

GREEN REVOLUTION. A particular type of technical change in Third Worldagricultural practices.

LIBERALISATION. A process of economic reforms which removes government’srestrictions in the economy.

LIBERTY. Freedom to act and think as one pleases.

PRIVATISATION. A process of economic reforms where a particular sectormonopolised earlier by the government is opened for private enterprise.

RULING CLASS. A social class that controls a society through whatever politicalinstitutions available. In some societies this control may be overt, whilein others it may be less obvious.

SOVEREIGNTY. Supreme and independent political power or authority of apolitically independent state.

TERRITORY. The land under the control of a ruler, government or state.

EXERCISES

1. What is meant by political institution?2. What is power?3. What are the elements necessary for state?

disturbances in ecology created by thedevelopments of dams, and industries.Forest based struggles like theChipko Struggle in the Himalayanregion and the Appiko movement inthe Western Ghats provide importantexamples.

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4. What is meant by politicisation of caste?5. Elaborate on the role of state in Indian society.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Brass, Paul, The Politics of India since Independence, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1990.

2. Frankel, F. R., et al, ed, Transforming India, Oxford University Press,New Delhi, 2002.

3. Gupta, Dipankar, Political Sociology in India: Contemporary Trends, OrientLongman, New Delhi, 1996.

4. Kothari, Rajni, Politics in India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 1982.

5. Kaviraj, Sudipta, Politics in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002.

6. Oommen, T. K, Protest and Change: Studies in Social Movements, SagePublications, New Delhi, 1990.

7. Shah, Ghanshyam, ed, Social Movements and the State, Sage Publication,New Delhi, 2002.

Introduction

Historically in every society there arecertain groups who are weak ordeprived from socio-political-economicor educational points of view. In Indiansociety the Scheduled Castes,Scheduled Tribes, the Other BackwardClasses and women, especially fromthese groups, are regarded weak ordeprived groups. Religious minoritiesin Independent India are alsoconsidered weak from the point ofview of economic and politicalempowerment.

Article 46 of the Indian Constitutionrequires the state to promote withspecial care, the educational andeconomic interests of the backwardcitizens and in particular of theScheduled Castes and ScheduledTribes. The Constitution also conferscertain rights specifically on minoritygroups; the right to conserve aminority group’s distinct language,script, or culture and the right toestablish and administer educationalinstitutions of the group’s choice(Articles 29 and 30).

India’s system of preferentialtreatment for disadvantaged sections

of the population is popularlyknown as a policy of compensatorydiscrimination. Such policies entailsystematic departures from norms ofequality (such as merit, even-handedness etc.), which are justifiedon the following grounds:

1. Preferential treatment may beviewed as a guarantee against thepersistence of discrimination insubtle and indirect forms.

2. The beneficial results that theywill presumably promote socialintegration, use of neglectedtalent, more equitable distributionof power and resources etc.

3. It seeks to mitigate the systematicand cumulative deprivationssuffered by deprived groups in thepast.

Independent India has firmly andexplicitly embraced the protectivediscrimination policy in favour ofScheduled Castes (SCs), ScheduledTribes (STs), Other Backward Classes(OBCs), women and minorities. In itsscope and reach, compensatorydiscrimination has receivedconsiderable attention from thelegislators, the courts and theexecutive. This policy has succeeded

CHAPTER 10

Deprived Groups


to some extent in taking care of thespecial needs of the deprived groups.It has, however, also created sometension and confrontation betweensocial groups who have received thebenefits of reservation and those whohave not.

Sociologically speaking, compen-satory discrimination may bedescribed as a way of reducing socialdisparities by creating specialopportunities for some in addition toequal opportunities created for all.Obviously, there is a tension betweenthe two principles (equal opportunitiesfor all and special opportunities forsome) and success in realising thelarger objective of reducing disparitieswill depend on the care with which abalance is struck between the two.

BACKWARD CLASSES

The term ‘Backward Classes’ is usedto describe all the weaker sections ofthe society. It includes ScheduledCastes, Scheduled Tribes and otherbackward classes. Now we discussthese groups in details.

SCHEDULED CASTES

According to 1991 census, thepopulation of Scheduled Castes is13.82 crores. They constitute 16.48per cent of the country’s totalpopulation. The empowerment of thesocially disadvantaged groups is highon the government agenda. There is aprovision of special central assistancefor the welfare of the Scheduled Castes.

The term ‘Scheduled Caste’ (SC)can be understood in the context of

caste as an all pervasive feature of theIndian society. The institutionalisedinequality in the caste systemmanifests its extreme form in the growthof completely segregated set of castescalled ‘Scheduled Castes’. TheScheduled Castes come at the bottomof the caste hierarchy on the basis ofritual impurity. They are technicallyoutside the four fold varna scheme.These castes were imputed withmaximum degree of ritual and socialimpurity. Their occupations were heldto be the lowest in the normativehierarchy. This led to their residentialsegregation in villages and towns.

‘Scheduled Caste’ is a politico-legal term coined by the SimonCommission and then by theGovernment of India Act, 1935. InPost-Independent India, the term‘Scheduled Caste’ was adopted by theConstitution for the purpose ofproviding them some special privilegesunder compensatory discriminationpolicy. Gandhiji had given them a newname, Harijan or son of God, but theradical elements among ScheduledCastes call themselves Dalits.

The word Dalit encompasses thecommunities known as untouchableswho are officially termed as ScheduledCastes. Dalit is a Marathi word whichgenerally means ‘broken to pieces’.Jyotiba Phule, Dr. Ambedkar and theDalit Panther Movement in theseventies have popularised this term.

Problems of the Scheduled Castes

A majority of Dalits are poor, deprivedof basic needs, and socially backward.

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Many do not have access to sufficientamount of food, healthcare, housingand clothing. Moreover, casteinequalities continue to be among themost important factors affecting theiraccess to education.

Though traditional occupations aregradually dissolving, Dalits generallycontinue to be concentrated inoccupations that render little socialstatus or possibility for social mobility.Moreover, caste violence has witnesseda dramatic increase over the last coupleof years. Modernisation has done muchto weaken traditional caste occupationsand practices. It has also strengthenedthem. Practices of untouchability andexclusion are still continuing in someareas regardless of constitutionalguarantees and official decrees.

Scheduled Castes as a group arenot homogeneous. They are internallydifferentiated in terms of occupation,numerical strength, geographicalspread and ritual status. But togetherthey are segregated from other casteson the criteria of untouchability. Theyare considered as ritually defiled. Theywere subjected to various types of socialdisabilities and several restrictions wereimposed on them.

After 52 years of commencementof the Constitution and after nearly 50years of planning, they continue tosuffer. Untouchability still persists toan extent in some pockets in ruralIndia. The majority of the ScheduledCastes in villages continue to sufferbecause they work under the controlof the dominant castes and thelandlords. They continue to be

economically dependent on thelandowning castes and are exploitedin different ways. As a result, severalremedial measures have been tried toimprove the conditions of theScheduled Castes in India.

Constitutional Provisions for theScheduled Castes

The Constitution provides theScheduled Castes many safeguardsand special privileges. The governmentappoints a commissioner forScheduled Castes to look into theirgrievances, and his annual report isplaced before the Parliament. Theimportant measures taken by theIndian government for ScheduledCastes include:

1. Abolition of untouchability.2. Protection from social injustice

and various forms of exploitation.3. To keep open religious institutions

to all irrespective of caste, classand gender.

4. Removal of restrictions on accessto wells, tanks, shops, restaurants,roads, etc.

5. Giving them preferentialtreatment in admission toeducational institutions.

6. Giving them other benefits andgrants for pursuing education.

7. Compensatory provisions forrecruitment and promotion ingovernment services.

8. Giving them special represen-tation in Lok Sabha,Vidhan Sabhaand Punchayti Raj.

9. Setting up separate departmentsand advisory councils to promote

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their welfare and safeguard theirinterests.

10. Making special provision for theadministration and control of thescheduled areas.

Present Status

The Scheduled Castes are still not fullyintegrated to the mainstream of Indiansociety. Despite constitutionalprovisions and various developmentalschemes exclusively for their welfare,only a small section of the ScheduledCastes has benefited. In fact, thespecial provisions and reservations forthem over generations have led to theemergence of an elite or creamy layerwithin the Scheduled Castes.

SCHEDULED TRIBES

According to the 1991 census, thetribal population in India is more than6.7 million. They constitute 8.28 percent of the total Indian population. InIndia Chattisgarh, Jharkhand,Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Orissa,Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh haveSheduled Tribe’s population in largenumber. Some states like Goa,Haryana, Punjab and Delhi havereportedly no tribal population. TheScheduled Tribe population is spreadover the various regions of India andwe find much diversity among them.

The Scheduled Tribes have beenspecified by Presidential Orders issuedunder the provisions of Article 341 and342 of the Constitution. TheConstitution of India does not definethe Scheduled Tribes. They have been

specified by the Presidential Ordersissued in consultation with theGovernors of the respective states.

Social differentiation among thetribes is different from that of theadvanced agricultural and industrialsocieties. They have however,gradations and inequalities based onage, sex and kinship. Different tribalgroups can be classified on the basisof language, religion, and degree oftheir isolation and the pattern oflivelihood. Some of these attributes oftribes often resemble with that of thenon-tribal people of a given regionrather than the tribal people of anotherregion. The basic disability of theScheduled Castes stems from their lowritual and economic status whereasthat of Scheduled Tribes is rooted intheir physical isolation after adverseand exploitative economic conditions.Some of the major problems ofScheduled Tribes are the following:

1. Indebtedness

Indebtedness is probably the mostdifficult problem faced by the tribalpopulation in India. It is due to rampantpoverty, loss of tribal rights over landand forests as well as poor and primitivemode of agriculture etc. It has not onlyeconomic dimensions but also social andpsychological dimensions.

2. Land Alienation

Agriculture is the primary occupationof the tribals. Nearly 88 per centScheduled Tribes are engaged inagriculture. Besides, tribals have great

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emotional attachment with their lands.Their chronic indebtedness to theshopkeepers and moneylendersbecomes the primary factor in landalienation. Their simplicity andignorance only accelerate theirimpoverishment. The other methodsthat the civilised people use to encroachupon the lands of the tribals are byutilising the intimidation of court, andby using the method of temptation ofimmediate gain.

3. Poverty and Unemployment

Insensitive planning in tribal areas hasled to chronic poverty among thetribals. In 1983-84, the percentage ofpersons below the poverty line amongthe Scheduled Tribes was 58.4 per centin rural areas and 39.9 per cent amongthe urban population. Besides poverty,employment scenario is quite grim inthe tribal areas. In the present scenario,the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana foremployment generation is underimplementation since 1989. Theobjectives of the Jawahar Rozgar Yojanaare generation of additional gainfulemployment, creation of productivecommunity assets and improvement ofoverall quality of life in rural areas. TheJawahar Rozgar Yojana has provisionsfor preference to Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes for employment.

4. Other Problems

Many of the tribal areas have beenmarked out by migration of peopleseeking to etch out their livelihood indifferent parts of the country. For

instance there have been anacceleration of women from Jharkhandcoming to cities like Delhi as domesticworkers.

The other problems which tribals ofIndia usually face are that ofilliteracy, housing, communication,industrialisation, urbanisation,migration and depopulation. The mainfactors responsible for the depopulatingtrend of some tribes are radical changesin ecological conditions, abruptdisturbances in man-nature equili-brium and the dehumanisation of theforest policy and its cruelimplementation. It is, however, aparadox that on the one hand thepopulation of large tribes has beenincreasing and on the other hand anumber of other tribes are movingtowards total extinction.

Constitutional Provisions for theScheduled Tribes

The term ‘Scheduled Tribe’ is nowhereclearly defined in the Constitution.Article 342 empowers the President ofIndia to specify a tribe as a ‘ScheduledTribe’. There are two types ofconstitutional provisions for ScheduledTribes: one with regard to theirprotection and the other for tribaldevelopment.

1. Special provisions are made forthe educational attainment of theScheduled Tribes. Theseprovisions include reservation ofseats and relaxation inrequirements for admission toeducational institutions,

DEPRIVED GROUPS


scholarships, etc.2. Reservation of posts in service.3. Safeguard of tribal interest in

property.4. The State is enjoined upon to

promote with special care theeducational and economicinterests of Scheduled Tribes andprotect them from social injusticeand all forms of exploitation.

5. Seats are reserved for ScheduledTribes in Lok Sabha and StateLegislatures.

6. The recognition of traditionaltribal rights to land and legalprotection against alienation oftribal land.

7. The President may at any timeappoint a Commission to reporton the administration of thescheduled areas and the welfareof the Scheduled Tribes in theState.

Efforts have also been made sinceindependence to improve the conditionof tribals by: (i) distribution of land tothe tribals and development of landalready in their possession;(ii) distribution of improved agricul-tural instruments, seeds, manure andextension of agricultural facilities; and(iii) the protection of tribals frommoneylenders.

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs hasbeen set up in 1999 to attendexclusively to the needs of the tribalpopulation in the country.

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

Other Backward Classes comprise the

non-untouchable, lower andintermediary castes who weretraditionally engaged in agriculture,animal husbandry and handicraftsservices. Caste rank and occupation arethe main criteria by which they areconsidered backward. The OBCs areabove the so-called untouchablegroups and below the twice born castes.There is much confusion regarding thecomposition and provisions for theOBCs. The Supreme Court in theMandal Commission case held the viewthat the backwardness contemplatedby Article 16(4) is mainly social. It neednot be both social and educational.

The OBCs do not constitute ahomogeneous category. There aremany divisions within the overallcategory. Andre Betteille considerspeasant castes as the core of thebackward classes. The significance ofthe category ‘Backward Classes’lies not only in its size andextent, but also in the uniquely Indianway of defining it’s boundaries. InIndia, ‘backward-ness’ is viewed as anattribute not of individuals but ofcommunities, which are, by theirnature, self-perpetuating. Thebackward classes are not classes atall, but groups of communities. Theyare a large and mixed category ofpersons with boundaries that are bothunrelated and elastic. Thus, the OtherBackward Classes are a residual andhighly ambiguous category.

Provisions for the Other BackwardClasses

The OBCs constitute 51 per cent of the

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total population of the country. TheConstitution does not define BackwardClasses. Under Article 340, the Constitutionprovides for the appointment of acommission to investigate the condition ofbackward classes. The first BackwardClasses Commission was appointed in1953, with Kaka Saheb Kalelkar aschairman. This showed that the nation wasdetermined to extend to them the necessaryassistance for their empowerment. TheCommission was of the view that theBackward Classes cannot come into theirown with their unaided strength.

The Kaka Kalelkar Commissionidentified 2,399 castes (about 70 percent of India’s population) asbackward. It suggested severalmeasures for their development. Castewas taken as the key factor in makinga list of Backward Classes. TheCommission proposed reservations ofat least 25 per cent in class I Services,33.5 per cent in class II Services and40 per cent in Class III and IV Servicesfor the castes listed as backward. In theCommission’s view, real social equalityin India could be achieved only byeliminating caste distinctions and socialdiscrimination.

However, reservation for OBCs hasbeen seen more from the political anglethan from the welfare angle. Pressurefor incorporating more castes into thelist of OBCs has been seen as a designof vote bank politics. The V.P. SinghGovernment announced 27 per centreservation for the OBCs following theMandal Commission’s report. TheSupreme Court’s verdict of 1992 on theMandal Commission’s report has the

following features:1. Caste was accepted as basis for

identifying the beneficiaries ofreservations.

2. The upper limit of reservation wasfixed at 50 per cent.

3. Creamy-layer was to be excludedfrom reservations.

4. Reservation in certain technicalposts was not advised.

5. There were to be no reservation inpromotions.

6. The Union Government was tospecify socio-economic criteria toexclude socially advanced personsamong the Backward Classes.

7. Tribunals were to be set up by theunion and state governments toexamine complaints of over -inclusion and under-inclusionand requests for inclusion in thelist of Other Backward Classes.

Today most states have dividedOBCs into two groups comprisingAnnexure-I and Annexure-II.Annexure-I represents the creamy layeramong the OBCs.

As another measure of support, theNational Backward Classes Financeand Development Corporation(NBCFDC) was set up by theGovernment of India in 1992, with theobjective of providing concessionalfinance to members of the BackwardClasses living below the poverty line, forincome generating activities.

Assessment of the Policies forSCs, STs and OBCs

Sociologists have differentiatedbetween the compensatory discrimi-

DEPRIVED GROUPS


nation provided to the SCs or STs andthe privileges given to the OBCs. If SCsand STs are by now easily recognisablegroups in Indian society the samecannot be said about the OBCs. Policiesregarding OBCs differ from state to stateand different groups of people areincluded.

We can underline the followingspecial features of compensatorydiscrimination in favour of OBCs:

1. Other Backward Classes areusually not defined in exactlythe same way in different partsof the country. The mostimportant measures adoptedor recommended for theiradvancement are reservations inthe educational institutions,especially in professional andtechnical colleges andgovernment service.

2. Reservations for the SCs and STsare directed basically towards thegoal of greater equality in society.

3. The OBCs have a very differentposition in Indian society fromthat of the SCs and STs. TheHarijans and the adivasis havebeen the victims of active socialdiscrimination through segrega-tion in the f irst case andisolation in the second. The samecannot be said to be true ofOBCs.

MINORITIES

Minority is a term, which is difficultto define with any degree of precision.It may refer to a relatively small groupof people either dominated by or

capable of being dominated by apreponderant majority. It is nowwidely felt that population size is notthe only feature of minority status. Ifa group is discriminated on the basisof religion, race or culture it can beconsidered a minority group. TheInternational Encyclopaedia of SocialSciences defines minority as a groupof people differentiated from others inthe same society by race, nationality,religion or language, who think ofthemselves as differentiated group andare thought of by others as adifferentiated group with negativeconnotations.

The Constitution of India uses theterm minority but nowhere defines it.The Supreme Court and various HighCourts have depended on thestatistical criterion. Any communitythat does not constitute more than 50per cent in a state is, thus, called aminority. The Indian Constitutionrecognises two types of minorities —the one based on language andthe other based on religion.According to the 1991 census ofIndia, Hindus constitute 82.41 percent of the total populationfollowed by Muslims (11.67 per cent),Christians (2.34 per cent), Sikhs(1.94 per cent), Buddhists (0.76per cent), Jains (0.40 per cent), andothers constitute 0.44 per cent of thetotal population of India.

The issues of minority are reallyrelational i.e. in terms of the locationand the majority. The wish to preservedistinctive features of one’s social andcultural life is an essential feature ofa minority community. Such a group

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may be held together by shareddescent, physical characteristics,traditions, customs, language andreligious faith, or by a combination ofthese. They very often organisethemselves into a coherent groupdrawing on shared values, cultures,languages or religions. For example,the Muslims in India are a minoritygroup on the basis of their religion incomparison to the majority of Hindus.But they constitute a majority in theState of Jammu and Kashmir. Thewish to represent their demands oftengives rise to political demands byminority groups.

Contribution of Minorities

The minority communities have madesignificant contributions in practicallyall fields. They actively participated inIndia’s freedom movement. Followingpoints show their contributions indifferent fields:

1. In the political field they haveoccupied the posts ranging fromthe President of the world’slargest democracy to the ChiefJustice of the Supreme Court ofIndia.

2. Punjab, dominated by the Sikhs,is the foremost producer of wheatand they have made GreenRevolution a success.

3. On the cultural front toominorities have made splendidcontributions. Urdu by itself is anexcellent example. The languageimbibes some of the best culturaltraditions of Hinduism and Islam.

4. Many Muslims, Christians and

members of other minorities haverichly contributed to literature inother Indian languages too. Theyhave also contributed to classicalmusic, dance and films etc.

5. Indian science, journalism andsports are richer by thecontribution of minority members.

6. Parsis have played significantroles in the industrialisation ofthe country.

7. Minorities have done their best inpromoting national interestswithin their reach.

Constitutional Provisions for theMinorities

The Constitution of Independent Indiahas guaranteed various rights to theminorities. The rationale for this is thatwhile the majority community by virtueof its number can guard its interest, aminority community needs additionalsupport to safeguard its interests. TheConstitution has guaranteed them thefollowing rights:

(1) Under Article 29(1), if there is acultural minority which wants topreserve its own language andculture, the State would not bylaw impose upon it any otherculture belonging to the majorityof the locality. This provision givesprotection not only to religiousminorities but also to linguisticminorities.

(2) Under Article 350(A), the Constit-ution directs every State toprovide adequate facilities forinstruction in the mother tongue

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at the primary stage of educationto children belonging to linguisticminority groups.

(3) Under Article 350(B), there hasbeen a provision for a specialofficer for linguistic minorities toinvestigate all matters relating tothe safeguards provided forlinguistic minorities under theConstitution. Under the Constit-utional provision, there can be nodiscrimination in admission intoany state educational institutionon grounds only of religion, race,caste or language.

(4) Under Article 300(1), all minoritiesshall have the fundamental rightto establish and administereducational institutions of theirchoice. Their property cannot beacquired by the State withoutpaying compensation. With regardto granting aid, the state cannotdiscriminate against anyeducational institution on theground that it is under themanagement of a minority,whether based on religion orlanguage. In 1964, the SupremeCourt upheld the right of theminorities to choose the mediumof instruction in their schools.

The Government has notified fivecommunities namely, Muslims, Sikhs,Christians, Buddhists and Zoroastriansas minorities at the national level. Toevaluate the working of the varioussafeguards of the Constitution for theprotection of religious minorities andto make recommendations to ensure

effective implementation andenforcement of all the safeguards andlaws, a Minorities Commission was setup in 1978. This Commission wasreplaced by the National Commission forMinorities in 1993. The 15 = pointprogramme has been implemented forwelfare of minorities. It has the objectiveof securing life and property ofminorities. It has also provided specialconsideration for minorities in publicemployment to ensure non-discrimination in developmentprogrammes and grant of financialbenefits. In addition, the governmenthas also set up a National MinoritiesDevelopment and Finance Corporation(NMDFC). The Corporation wouldprovide financial aid for economic anddevelopmental activities for the benefitof backward sections among theminorities.

Despite several governmental andnon-governmental efforts, a large sectionof the minorities still lag behind. Most ofthem are illiterate and deprived in acountry of continental dimensions.Industrial and technological growth inIndia needs to influence not just themajority community but also inequal measure the minorities. Noweconomic opportunities will enhancetheir self-confidence and generate inthem a new outlook. Industrial andtechnological growth and educationaldevelopment are the two most effectiveinstruments to bring about nationalintegration. Legislation and co-operation at the level of society canaccelerate the process of integration ofminorities in the national mainstream.

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WOMEN

India became an independent countryin 1947. We dedicated ourselves as anation in 1950 to build a democraticsociety based upon justice, liberty,equality and fraternity. But even afterfifty five years of Indian independence,women are still one of the mostpowerless and marginalised sectionsof Indian society. Various social andeconomic indicators provide theevidence of inequalities andvulnerabilities of women in all sectorseconomic, social, demographic, health,nutrition etc. The rising incidence ofcrime and violence against women areindicators of the condition of society.Increasing physical violence againstwomen in the form of rape, dowrydeaths, wife beating and female-foeticide are all indicative of thepowerless position of women in familyand society. Sometimes women aretreated as ‘inferior’ members in theirown families. They are mostly at thereceiving end. Women’s oppressionand their exploitation cuts across casteand class lines. Even in the neo-richfamilies, women feel subordinated tomen. They have a dual identity in suchfamilies i.e., one inside the family,where their identity is defined inrelation to their male members, and theother outside the family. Marital statusand their fertility provide crucialidentity to women. Married womenachieve status and respect in the familyand society after attainingmotherhood, especially after givingbirth to sons. Working women areconsidered to be enjoying an

independent and superior position insociety. But they are not free from theirfamily roles. As a result, they face role-conflicts in all places.

There is a considerable ambiguityabout the nature and status of womenin Indian society. She has twocontradictory images. On the onehand, she is believed to representpower and evoke both fear andreverence. On the other hand, she islargely appreciated for her beauty anddelicateness. In traditional India,women were supposed to be supremein the household domains, whereas inthe public domain men weresupposed to be supreme.

The status of women improved tosome extent during the Bhaktimovement. It granted social andreligious freedom to women. Thereligious and social reform movementsgave a sense of confidence to women.The reformative measures undertakenduring the British rule had positivechanges in the status of women.Measures like the spread of educationand abolition of practices like sati and‘child marriage’ had positivelyinfluenced the status of women.Movements initiated by social reformerslike Raja Ram Mohan Roy,Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, AnnieBeasant and Mahatma Gandhi alsohelped in bringing positive changes inthe status of women.

After Independence, variouslegislations were passed to improve thestatus of women. The legislativemeasures include Special Marriage Act,1954, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Hindu

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Succession Act, 1956 and the Anti-Dowry Act, 1961. The Constitution ofIndependent India also guarantees ‘Rightto Equality’ as a Fundamental Right.

Being the allegedly inferior gender,women still have to forego someprivileges and rights that are regardedas belonging exclusively to the maledomain. Even in respect of roleallocation, distinction is made between‘women’s domain of work and ‘men’sdomain of work’.

The Present Status of Women

After Independence, a lot ofimprovement has been made in theposition of women in society. Womenbelonging to the educated, urban andhigh-income group are the majorbeneficiaries of the developmentalmeasures. The life of an average Indianwoman is one long battle againstdiscrimination and deprivation. Thelife of a poor Indian woman ischaracterised by too many illnessesand too many children. Genderinequality in India stems from threeimportant sources: (i) difference inwomen’s and men’s economic roles andpotential power, (ii) cultural traditionsrestricting the movement andautonomy of women; and(iii) marriage and family practices.

We shall get a comprehensivepicture if we analyse various indicatorsof the status of women in the presentsociety.

Sex ratio in India is always biased infavour of the male population. There is adownward trend from 972 females perthousand males in 1901, to 930 per

thousand in 1971. In the 2001 census,it shows an improvement of 6 points, from927 per thousand in 1991 to 933 perthousand males. The adverse sex ratiocan be attributed to a number of factorssuch as, preference for male child,discrimination against the female child,female foeticide and female infanticide.Female literacy rate has always beenlagging behind male literacy and thenational average. There are widespreadregional variations in female literacy too.Women’s access to income and controlover economic resources is even worse.Their work tends to be invisible andunder-rewarded. Most working womenremain outside the organised sector. Onthe domestic front, women always worklonger hours than their malecounterparts. Violence against women ison the rise. This increase in violence canbe attributed to the low status of womenin a patrilineal society, an increase inlawlessness, poor enforcement of legalprovisions, consumerism, and erosion oftraditional values.

Constitutional Provisions forWomen

The Constitution of India accepts theprinciple of equality of gender. ThePreamble of the Constitution speaks ofequality of status and opportunity andof social, economic and political justice.Article 14 of the Constitution assuresequality before law and equalprotection of the laws as afundamental right. Article 15 and 16prohibit any type of discrimination onthe ground of gender. Article 15 alsoprovides that the state may make

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special provisions for women and thatsuch provisions may not be treated asviolation of right to equality. TheConstitution imposes a fundamentalduty on every citizen through article15 (A) (e) to renounce all practices thatare derogatory to the dignity ofwomen. The Directive Principles referto women at three places. Article 39(c) seeks the state to see that the healthand strength of men and womenworkers is not abused. Article 39 (d)asks the state to direct its policy tosee that there is equal pay for equalwork for both men and women. Article112 requires the state to provide formaternity relief.

Other Provisions

The State has enacted variouswomen specific and women relatedlegislations to safeguard theconstitutional rights given to women.The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 hasmade divorce an easy affair. The EqualRemuneration Act, 1976 provides forequal pay to men and women forequal work. The Immoral TrafficPrevention Act makes sexualexploitation of male or female, acognisable offence. The DowryProhibition Act, 1961 aims atcontaining the evil of dowry. Underthis Act, if a girl commits suicidewithin seven years of her marriage andit is proved that she was subject to

cruelty, the husband/in-laws areliable to be punished. The ChildMarriage Restraint Act, 1976 hasraised the age of marriage of a girl to18 years and that of a boy to 21years. The Medical Termination ofPregnancy Act, 1971 legalisesabortion on health grounds. TheIndecent Representation of Women(Prohibition) Act, 1986 and theCommission of Sati (Prevention) Act,1987 have been passed to protect thedignity of women and prevent theirexploitation and violence againstthem.

The Sixth Five Year Plan laidgreater emphasis on women’seconomic role. It identified coredevelopment issues of women ashealth, education and employment.There was a shift in emphasis from‘welfare’ in the 70s to ‘development’ inthe 80s, and now to ‘empowerment’ inthe 90s. The Women’s Reservation Billaims at providing women with 33 percent representation in the legislativebodies. What we must understandnow is that by granting theconstitutional provisions and byenacting various legislations only theposition of women in the society cannotbe improved substantially. So, theymust be given a participatory role inthe affairs of state and society.Moreover, we need to change ourattitude towards women’s issues andtheir empowerment.

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GLOSSARY

CUSTOM. Custom means established patterns of behaviour and belief.DEVIANCE. This refers to behaviour which infringes rules or the expectation of

other, and which attracts disapproval or punishment.GLOBAL PROCESS. It refers to a social or economic process which is trans-national

in nature. It is a process which denotes removal of legal, political andtechnological barriers for free flow of capital, goods and ideas from thecountry to another.

JATI PANCHAYAT. The village assembly which consists only of a particular castemembers in a village is called Jati Panchayat.

FOLKWAYS. Folkways refers to day-to-day activities within a society or communitywhich have become established and are socially sanctioned.

MORES. Mores are those folkways to which the sense of group togetherness isadded. It is more difficult to break than the folkways.

PANCHAYAT. Panchayat is a democratic village assembly. It is usually electedby the adult members of the village for 5 years.

THIRD WORLD. The countries outside the industrially advanced capitalistcountries and the former socialist countries are known as the thirdworld.

EXERCISES

1. Who are the Scheduled Castes?2. Discuss the problems of the Scheduled Castes?3. State the constitutional provisions for the Scheduled Castes.4. Who are the Scheduled Tribes?5. Discuss the problems of tribes in India.6. State the constitutional provisions for the Scheduled Tribes.7. Explain the term ‘Backward Classes’.8. Discuss the status of women in contemporary India.9. What do you understand by the Minorities?

10. Explain the problems of Minorities in India.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Beteille, Andre, Chronicles of Our Time, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000.2. Dubey, S.C., ed, India Since Independence, Vikas Publications, New Delhi,

1977.

3. Ahmad, Imtiaz and others, ed, Pluralism and Equality, Sage Publications,

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New Delhi, 2000.

4. Thapar, Romesh, ed, Tribe, Caste and Religion, Macmilan, Delhi, 1977.

5. Srinivas, M.N., ed, Caste: Its Twentieth Century Avatar, Penguin, New Delhi,1996.

6. Singh, K.S., The People of India : National Series (Volume II) The ScheduledCastes, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1993.

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Introduction

An approach is a way in which aperson starts looking at socialfacts, social phenomenon or socialbehaviours etc. When a group ofscholars come to share a particularviewpoint towards the study of socio-cultural and other aspects of humanlife, a particular sociological approachemerges. Such an approach isaccompanied by appropriate concepts,theory or theories, methods andtechniques for studying society. Thisparticular approach may be criticisedby others who take a differentapproach towards the socio-culturalphenomena. The development ofdifferent approaches calls for differentsets of concepts, theories, methodsand techniques. In this way, a numberof sociological approaches havedeveloped in Western Sociology as wellas in Indian Sociology.

Sociologists like Comte andDurkheim wanted to apply theapproach of physical and naturalsciences in Sociology as well. Othersociologists under the influence ofDilthey were opposed to this view.Dilthey claimed that the natural

world can only be observed andcomprehended from the outside,while the world of human activity canbe observed and comprehended fromthe inside. Therefore, Sociologyrequires new, alternative approachesfor the understanding of meaning insocial life.

There are many ways to classifysociological approaches in IndianSociology. According to YogendraSingh there are four types ofapproaches in Indian Sociology.These are Indological approach,culturological approach, structuralapproach and historical approach.

There are other classifications ofapproaches in Indian Sociology as well.In all such classifications there is acertain degree of overlapping betweentwo or more classes of approaches.

Indological Approach

Indology literally means a systematicstudy of Indian society and culture.Indologists claimed that uniqueness ofIndian civilisation cannot be fitted intothe framework of European Sociology.They claimed that Indian society couldbe understood only through the

CHAPTER 11

Approaches to the Study of Indian Society

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concepts, theories and frameworks ofIndian civilisation. They rely primarilyon the book view. It gives moreimportance to the culture of Indiansociety than to the empirical structure.Indology is an independent discipline initself as well as an approach in IndianSociology. In both the versionsIndological studies comprise investiga-tions of language, ideas, beliefs, customs,taboos, codes, institutions, tools,techniques, works of art, rituals,ceremonies and other relatedcomponents of the Indian culture andcivilisation. The mainstream of Indology,however, has been the creation of Westernscholars. The sources of Indologicalstudies are primarily classical texts,manuscripts, archaeological artefacts,and symbolic expressions. The aim ofIndological studies is to gain a deeperunderstan-ding of the Indian culture.

As an independent discipline,Indology is much older thanSociology in India. The first importantcentre of Indology was started by SirWilliam Jones at Kolkata in 1784 AD.By 1886 the Theosophical Society atAdyar had started Indological studiesof its own kind. In 1891, the OrientalResearch Institute, Mysore wasstarted. Oriental Institute, Baroda,was started in 1893. The BhandarkarInstitute, Pune, was established in1917. Thus, when the firstdepartment of Sociology was startedat Bombay University in 1919, thediscipline called Indology was wellestablished in India. As a result, thefounding fathers of Indian Sociologywere influenced by the Indological

approach. In the writings ofB.K.Sarkar, G.S.Ghurye, RadhakamalMukherjee, K.M.Kapadia, P. H.Prabhu and Iravati Karve, we have adecisive influence of Indologicalapproach.

Indological approach in IndianSociology is influenced by thediscipline of Indology but it is notco-terminous with Indology. Allsociologists who have usedIndological approach are alsoinfluenced by other sociologicalperspective. For example, in thewritings of G.S.Ghurye, there is asynthesis of Indological approach andthe diffusionist approach propagatedby W.H.R. Rivers. In the same way, inthe writings of RadhakamalMukherjee, there is a synthesisbetween Indological perspective andthe empirical Sociology of Americanvariety. Secondly, Indology as adiscipline contains a variety ofapproaches and methods. There aremany schools within the disciplineitself. Different Indian sociologistswere influenced by different schoolsof Indology. For example, B.K.Sarkarwas influenced by the Indologicalstudies of the Asiatic society foundedby Sir William Jones. G. S. Ghuryewas more influenced by the writingsof Indologists of the BhandarkarInstitute, Pune, than by the writingsof British School of Indology foundedby Sir William Jones or the Germanscholar Max Mueller. In the same way,Radhakamal Mukherjee wasinfluenced by the Indological writingsof Anand K. Coomaraswamy.

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Two trends defined the westernperception of India. One was theblatantly racist view that there wasnothing of any worth in the culture ofIndia. The other view, termedOreintalism, found India’s culture andcivilization worthy of appreciation. Oneof the most familiar name associatedwith this was Max Mueller.

The Indological studies havesought to develop an empathicunderstanding of Indian culture.There is, however, a general tendency,among the Indologists, to exaggerateeither the virtues of Indian culture orweakness of Indian culture. TheOrientalists see primarily the negativeelements in Indian traditionand rationalises the missionaryactivities as well as the Britishrule in India. Indologists, however,overemphasise Indian spiritualismand underemphasise theachievements in the realm of materialculture and the practical wisdom ofthe common people of India.

The Indological approach withinIndian Sociology is much developed,sophisticated and nuanced than thewritings of the British school ofIndology. Within the broaderframeworks of Sociology it hasenlarged our understanding of Indianfamily, marriage, kinship, religion,art, culture, language, mythology andcivilisation.

Recently, under the influence ofLouis Dumont and Mckim Marriott,culturological writings on India havefruitfully utilised the insight ofIndological approaches. T.N.Madan

has pleaded recently for the synthesisof Coomaraswamy and Levi-Straussin the creative understandingof Indian society and culture.D.P.Mukerji had earlier pleaded for asynthesis of an understanding ofthe Indian tradition (provided byIndologists) within the Marxiananalytical framework of dialectics.All the major sociologists beforeindependence were influenced byIndological approach. Even Srinivashad at times used Indological data tosupplement his fieldwork.

Culturological Approach

Culturological approach in Sociology isa non-standardised term. Within it avariety of viewpoints are included. Thecommon thread which runs through allthese viewpoints is the primacy ofculture as the object of study. For allsuch approaches the phenomenonof culture is primary and thephenomenon of social relation-shipsand social structures is secondarymanifestation of culture.

Culturological approach is morepopular in America and France than inBritain or Germany. It is primarilyconcerned with person as a culturalbeing. The study of culture covers ideasand values, social organisation,technology, language, myth, historyand religion.

In America it is primarily representedby cultural analysis. It is conceptualisedas a system of symbols by culturalanalysts like Clifford Geertz and DavidSchneider. They argue that cultural

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systems must be distinguished fromsocial systems and analysed as internallycoherent wholes. For cultural analysts,cultural meanings are more importantthan their behavioural manifestations.Cultural analysts are also known asadvocates of culturological approach andinterpretative analysis.

In France, culturological approachis primarily represented by structura-lism of Levi-Strauss. Levi-Straussreceived his inspiration from structurallinguistics. Structural linguisticsconcentrate not so much on consciousphenomena but on their unconsciousinfrastructure. It says that the value ofthe elements is dependent upon therelations which combine and opposethe elements.

Levi-Strauss applied the structuralapproach of linguistics in the study ofkinship, myth, totemic beliefs,primitive mind and other areas ofsocial life. He proposed that social lifeshould be primarily conceptualised asa system of symbols or culturalconstructions. He also said that thesesymbols or cultural constructions arethe manifestations of the structure ofhuman mind.

For Levi-Strauss, the binaryopposition of the categories of natureand culture, incest and exogamy,exchange and reciprocities provided theclue to understand human culture. Hesays that cultural phenomena are theproducts of the “unconscious structureof the human mind”. Structuralismaims to discover the universal elementsin human society. It is opposed to thehistorical approach to social structure

and pleads for an extreme form ofculturological approach.

The culturological approach inIndian Sociology has, however, manysimilarities with the Indologicalapproach. The publication of HomoHierarchicus (1970) is regarded as animportant departure for theculturological approach within IndianSociology. Dumont treats Indology asthe basis for a Sociology of India. But,he does not give much importance tothe writings of indigenous Indologists.Following the ideas of Levi-Strauss, hehighlights the opposition of purity andpollution in the structure of the castesystem as the key to its understanding.Dumont’s approach to the study of thecaste system in India provoked a verysubstantial debate.

The other important variety ofculturological approach has come fromthe method of cultural analysis andtheories of culture. It is evident in thewritings of Geertz, Mckim Marriott,Inden and Nicholas, Schneider andMilton Singer. The followers of thisapproach have produced a verysubstantial body of work. Marriott andhis peers, have developed an‘Ethnosociology’ of India. Ethnosocio-logy seeks to explore the meanings andsymbols, codes and substances that areinherant in the texts and languages of apeople’s own culture. Cultural analystshave studied the concept of ‘Person’ inIndian culture and tradition. They havealso studied family, marriage, kinship,food, great and little traditions andprocesses of social change, etc.

There is a shift in culturological

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SOCIETY


approach from the study of facts to thestudy of ‘people’s ideas’. They also tryto discover the relationship betweenknowledge and reality as reflected in thepeople’s own model.

This approach has developed verysophisticated methods and techniquesof cultural analysis. The element ofcomparison is, however, missing in suchstudies. Most of such studies are basedon textual material either drawn fromepics, legends and myths or from thefolk traditions and other symbolic formsof culture. Their construction of socialreality is based on translation of thesymbols and categories of the peopleinto the language of Sociology. This,translation, however, does not amountto explanation. This is a majorlimitation of the culturologicalapproach.

Structural Approach

Structural approach claims thatSociology is a universal science ofsociety and its concepts, theories andassumptions can be fruitfully utilisedbeyond Europe for comparativeanalysis. It gives more importance tothe empirical structure in the field thanto the normative framework of culture.This view propagates a very rigorousand systematic fieldwork for thecollection of data. The central conceptwithin this approach is socialstructure.

Social structure usually, refers toany recurring pattern of socialbehaviour. It also includes enduring,orderly and patterned relationshipsbetween elements of a society.

Different sociologists have definedsocial structure in different ways. Wemay briefly refer to A.R. Radcliffe-Brown who inspired M.N. Srinivas toadopt the structural-functionalapproach towards the religion andsociety among the Coorgs of SouthIndia.

To Radcliffe–Brown the socialstructure is an empirical realityexisting at a single moment of time,while the structural form is anabstraction from reality by theinvestigator, and implies a periodrather than a moment of time. Fortes,Evans Pritchard, Firth and Nadel usethe term social structure broadly in thissense. Radcliffe-Brown differe-ntiatesthe culture of a society from its socialstructure. He sees the culture of asociety as its standardised mode ofbehaviour, thinking and feeling. Socialstructure for him consists of the sumtotal of all the social relationships ofall individuals at a given moment intime. Radcliffe-Brown’s structuralfunctional approach also distinguishesthe forms (structures) of socialrelations from their effects (functions).Radcliffe-Brown further insists thatculture can only be studiedscientifically as an aspect of socialstructure. Followers of Radcliffe-Brownacknowledge the inseparability ofculture and social structure.

Structural approach in IndianSociology is the most popular, mostdeveloped and most coherentapproach in Sociology after theindependence. This approach has beenadopted to study village communities,

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caste structure, family structure,kinship structure, religious structure,political structure etc. It underlines theprocesses of structural cleavages(discontinuities) and differentiation insocieties for special attention.Problems of equality and inequality,study of power structure, socialstratification, changes in thedemographic and family structure ofIndian society has been studied by thisapproach.

In the structural approach specialconsideration is given to comparativestudy of social categories such as casteand class and their implication for thenature of the society in India.M.N.Srinivas’s studies of the religionand society among the Coorgs,Rampura village and social change inmodern India were primarily anapplication of Radclif fe-Brown’sstructural approach with somemodifications. Srinivas had studiedthe structure of village life, thestructure of family (okka) and thestructure of caste relationships byusing key concepts of structural-functionalism.

S.C.Dubey’s studies of Indianvillage and India’s changing villageswere conducted by using the structuralapproach. F.G.Bailey’s analysis ofstructural changes in India with the setof comparative categories like tribe,caste and nation is another example ofstructural approach. Andre Beteille’sstudies of caste, class and power in aTanjore village and agrarian structurewere based on the analytical categoriesderived from Max Weber and Karl

Marx. T.N.Madan had studied family,marriage and kinship from structural-functional perspective but in the studyof non-renunciation and the ideologyof householder in Indian culture, heused culturological approaches.A.M.Shah studied the householddimension of Indian family by usingstructural approach but in the studyof village life he used the historicalapproach. Oommen’s studies of socialmovements in India are also rooted instructural framework of sociologicalenquiry.

The use of more than oneconceptual category and theapplication of comparative method arethe defining features of structuralapproach in India. Although most ofsuch studies were rooted in smallempirical fields, their theoretical andconceptual schemes were useful for abroader generalisation. For example,Srinivas’s concepts such as thedominant caste, Sanskritisation,Westernisation and his analyticaldistinction between varna and jati wereuseful in the understanding ofpatterns of relationship at a moregeneral level by generations ofsociologists. Structural approach inIndian Sociology includes a very widespectrum of viewpoints ranging fromstructural-functionalism to a synthesisof Karl Marx and Max Weber.

The main limitations of the majorityof structural studies include neglect ofcultural dimensions or historicaldimensions. They, usually, overlookthe hidden contradictions and presenta more consensual view of the social



structure. Their strength lies in theirrich empirical traditions andconceptual and theoreticalsophistications.

Historical Approach

Historical approach in Sociology ismost pronounced in what is known ashistorical Sociology. HistoricalSociology is a particular kind ofcomparative study of social groups,their composition, their interrelation-ships and the social conditions whichsupport or undermine them.

Historical approach in Sociology orHistorical Sociology has the followingtheoretical concerns:

1. Sociology is specifically concernedwith the transition toindustrialism as an historicalprocess.

2. Sociology is concerned with thedynamic interaction betweenhuman agency and socialstructure, not as an abstractproblem, but as an empirical issuein world history.

3. Sociology is concerned with thepattern of freedom and constraintin the life histories of individualsin social contexts.

Historical Sociology gives moreimportance to the historical processof development than to thesynchronic structures of the socialphenomena. Historical approach inSociology is primarily concernedwith the problems of socialdevelopment, especially the historicalprocesses of industriali-sation,

urbanisation, democratisation andmodernisation. The Marxists as wellas the Weberians have adopted thehistorical approach.

In Indian Sociology there arevarieties of historical approaches. Theworks of G.S.Ghurye and RadhakamalMukerjee are also historical but theseare classified as Indological orculturological. According to somesociologists Indological approach isconcerned more with culture than withsocial structure. The historicalapproach gives greater emphasis tosocial structure and its dynamicaspects. The Marxist sociologists,therefore, prefer the historical approachto other approaches. Historicalapproach in Indian Sociology is alsoknown as Dialectical approach. It is,however, important to understand thatmany sociologists, like G.S.Ghurye andR.K.Mukerjee have madesimultaneous use of more than onemethod or approach.

D. P. Mukerji tried to synthesise aparticular variety of Marxist analysiswith the notion of Indian traditionused by the Indologists. He preferredto term his approach as theMarxological in comparison to themore popular term Marxist. He usedthe categories of structure, classconflict and model of socialist societyin his analysis of historical socialprocesses in India. He did not conductany empirical study using this frameof reference. His analysis of thehistorical development of Indianculture in general and the historicalemergence of the middle class in

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particular remains popular till date.Ramkrishna Mukherjee made

systematic historical as well asempirical studies using dialecticalmodel. His Rise and Fall of the EastIndia Company is a contribution toeconomic and social history of theinstitutionalisation of colonialism inIndia. He concentrated on theeconomic policies of the East IndiaCompany, process of disintegrationof feudalism and the rise of newmiddle classes in India in his study.In his The Dynamics of a RuralSociety, Mukherjee studied theassociation between the high casteand landowning classes in ruralareas and changes in their classstructures. In his studies, Mukherjeetried to explain the connectionbetween the social and economicchanges in rural Bengal. Later on hemodified his views about thesociological studies to be made. Hesaid that the role of history anddialectics is useful only at the levelof formulation of propositions.Beyond this the logical principles oftest and verification would have tooperate independently. He, therefore,pleaded for an inductive Sociologyin India.

A.R. Desai was the only majorsociologist in India who consistentlyused dialectical historical method inhis sociological studies. In his analysisof nationalism, rural social structure,urban slums, structure of state andsociety in India, he had consistentlytried to expose the contradictions and

anomalies in the policies for andprocesses of change in Indian society.According to Desai the polarisation ofclass interests especially of thebourgeoisie against those of theworking class and the agriculturallabourers in India is the foundationof modern Indian state and society.

B.S.Cohn’s studies of theScheduled Castes family structure ineastern Uttar Pradesh in particularand his studies of Indian civilisationin historical dimensions are the majorexamples of non-Marxist historicalstudies within Indian Sociology.Daniel Thorner and P.C.Joshi’sstudies of the agrarian structure andland reforms are examples of theapplication of Marxist historicalapproaches in Sociology in india.Kathleen Gough’s study in TamilNadu and D.N.Dhanagare’s study ofpeasant movements in India are othernoted examples of historical approachin Indian Sociology.

Historical approach is acomparatively less developed branchin Indian Sociology. It does notpresent a unified theoreticalapproach. A sound empiricaltradition of historical Sociology is yetto be institutionalised systematically.The main limitations of historicalapproach within Indian Sociology arethose of economism, formalism andthe neglect of symbolic systems oftradition. Their strength, however, liesin the analysis of conflict,contradiction, exploitation andhistorical dimensions of change.



GLOSSARY

INDOLOGY. A systematic approach to study Indian society through the categories,theories and frameworks of Indian civilisation.

ORIENTALISM. An European point of view which looked at Asia or East includingIndia negatively, symbolising the polar opposite of European civilisation.

CULTUROLOGICAL. An approach which emphasises the primacy of culture oversocial relations and social structure.

HISTORICAL APPROACH. An approach which gives more importance to the historicalprocesses of social development than to the synchronic structures.

FIELD VIEW. An empirical study on the basis of survey or participant observation.It is a popular name of structural approach in Sociology.

TRADITION. Human practices, beliefs, institutions and artefacts which are handeddown from one generation to the next.

ETHNOSOCIOLOGY. It seeks to explore the meanings and symbols, codes andsubstances that inhere in the texts and languages of a people’s ownculture.

CULTURAL ANALYSIS. This analysis is more interested in the study of people’s ideasthan the study of facts.

EXERCISES

1. What do you mean by approach? Discuss some of the features of sociologicalapproaches.

2. Compare and contrast Indological approach with structural approach.3. What is social structure? How social structure is studied in Indian Sociology?4. What is meant by culture? Write short essay on the study of cultural

phenomena in Indian Sociology.5. Compare and contrast culturological approach with historical approach.6. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Ethnosociology(b) Historical Sociology(c) Marxiology(d) Field-view

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SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Dhanagare, D.N., Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology, RawatPublications, Jaipur, 1993.

2. Kumar, Dharma, Mookherjee, Dilip, ed, Delhi School: Reflections on theDelhi School of Economics, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1998.

3 Mukherjee, Ramkrishna, Sociology of Indian Sociology, Allied Publishers,New Delhi, 1979.

4. Oommen, T.K., Mukherji, P.N., ed, Indian Sociology: Reflections andIntrospections, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, 1986.

5. Madan, T.N., Pathways: Approaches to the Study of Society in India, OxfordUniversity Press, New Delhi, 1995.

6. Singh, Yogendra, Image of Man: Ideology and Theory in Indian Sociology,Chanakya Publications, New Delhi, 1983.


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