Stories of Tragedy, Trust and Transformation?

StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?

Learningfromparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentexperience

inpost-earthquakeHaiti

JayneEngle

SchoolofUrbanPlanningMcGillUniversity

Montreal

AdoctoralthesissubmittedinAugust2016toMcGillUniversityinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsofthedegreeof

PhDinUrbanPlanning,Policy,andDesign

©JayneEngle2016

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Dedication

Thisthesisisdedicatedtoourchildren,MaxandEstherEngle-Warnick.

Thankyoufortheimmensejoy,love,curiosity,creativityandpassionthatyoubringtomeandthisworld.

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Abstract

Haiti’scatastrophicearthquakeof2010leftsome200,000peopledead,1.5millionhomelessandmostgovernmentbuildingsdestroyed.Evenpre-disaster,Haiti’soutcomesontheUNHumanDevelopmentIndexwereamongthelowestintheworld,andsincethequakethecountryhasfallenintofurtherdecline.Today,mostHaitianscontinuetolackbasicservices,strugglewithdailysurvival,andconfrontdauntingobstaclestochange.Paradoxically,thedisastermaypresentawindowofopportunitytobuildcommunitiesandsocietalinstitutionsdifferently.TheaimofthisPhDstudyistoinvestigatecasesofparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentinthepost-earthquakeperiod,andtoexposeinwhatwaysthedevelopmentprocessesunderwayandearlyoutcomesarehavinganimpactoncommunitylifeandchange,andwhethertheyareopeningpathwaystotransformation.Themainresearchsiteisanearthquake-affected,peri-urbanandgrowingareaofBellevue-La-Montagne,locatedinthemountainssouthofcapitalcity,Port-au-Prince.Aneducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmenteffortisunderwayinpartnershipwithresidents,HaitiPartnersandotherorganizations,andlocalgovernment.Beyondstudyingthedevelopmentprojectsfocusedoneducationandsocialenterprise,Iundertookparticipatoryresearchwithagroupofresidentsinordertoinvestigatetheirlivedexperience,perspectives,andmeaningsassociatedwiththedevelopmentprocesses.Methodsincludedcontext-specificparticipatoryphotographytoenablesociallearningandstudyofsocialchangedynamics.AsecondarycaseisHabitatSantoVillageinLéogâne,locatedattheearthquakeepicenter.HabitatforHumanitybuiltahousingcommunityonatentcampsiteandtheninvitedresidentstocollaborativelydesignaself-governancesystem.Thatprocessandearlyresultsarethefocusofthestudy.Casefindingsrevealanumberoftensionpoints,suchaslamentablestate-societyrelations,asenseofpowerlessnessregardingprospectsforchange,andlocaldevelopmentoutcomesthatexceedthoseofindividualhouseholds.Asynthesisresultisthatcommunitytransformationisoccurringandsignsofsocialchangeareapparent,butthelatterrequireslongertermstudy.EvidencepointstothecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationtothedevelopmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.Activating‘leversoftransformation’--includingimprovededucation,socialentrepreneurship,placeidentity,andstateaccountability–wouldsupportnewnarrativesforHaiti,consistentwithpolicyprioritiesto:(re)buildthesocialcontract,creategreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs,andreducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience.Thisthesisisscholarlywork,anditisalso,quitepractically,acalltoaction.Itisaninvitationtopolicymakers,funders,andotherstorecognizethecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationinHaitiandothermarginalizedsettingsaroundtheworld.Thismeansrecognizingandscalingpromisinginitiativessuchasthesecasesonthreelevels:1)‘scalingout’tobringsocialinnova-tionstomorecommunities;2)‘scalingup’toinfluencesystemicandpolicychange;and3)‘scalingdeep’toaffectculturalnormsandpatterns.Throughhighlighting,amplifying,andconnectingcommunitydevelopmentinnovationsthatarecontributingtopositivetransform-ation,Haitiandplaceswithsimilarchallengescanforgenewdevelopmentpathwaystowardmoreinclusivesocietieswhereallpeoplehaveopportunitiestoparticipateandflourish.

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Résumé

Leséismecatastrophiquede2010enHaïtiafait200000mortset1,5milliondesans-abri,enplusdedétruirelamajoritédesédificesgouvernementaux.Mêmeavantledésastre,leclassementd’Haïtiselonl’indicededéveloppementhumaindesNationsUniessetrouvaitparmilesplusbasaumonde.Depuisleséisme,lepaysaglisséencoreplusbas.Aujourd’hui,laplupartdesHaïtiensn’onttoujourspasaccèsauxservicesdebase,ilsluttentpourleursurvieetsebutentàdesobstaclesimportantsdansleurparcoursverslechangement.Paradoxalement,leséismepourraitreprésenterunebonneoccasiondereconstruirelescommunautésetlesinstitutionssocialessurdenouvellesbases.L’objectifdelaprésentethèsededoctoratestd’examinerdescasdedéveloppementcommunautaireparticipatifdanslapériodeayantsuivileséisme,d’exposerl’impactdesprocessusdedéveloppementencoursetdespremiersrésultatssurlaviecommunautaireetlechangement,etdevoirs’ilspaventlavoieversunevéritabletransformation.

MonprincipalsitederechercheestlazonepériurbaineendéveloppementdeBellevue-La-Montagne,trèstouchéeparleséisme.Ellesesituedanslesmontagnesausuddelacapitale(Port-au-Prince).Uneinitiativededéveloppementcommunautaireaxéesurl’éducationestencours,enpartenariataveclesrésidents,HaitiPartnersetd’autresorganismes,ainsiquelegouvernementlocal.Enplusd’étudierlesprojetsdedéveloppementaxéssurl’éducationetlesentreprisesàvocationsociale,j’aimenéunerechercheparticipativeavecungroupederésidentsafindebiencernerleurexpériencepersonnelle,leurperspectiveetleurperceptionduprocessusdedéveloppement.J’aichoisi,entreautresméthodesdetravail,laphotographieparticipativecontextuelle,carelledonnelieuàdesapprentissagessociauxetpermetd’examinerladynamiqueduchangementsocial.Lesecondcasàl’étudeestl’HabitatSantoVillageàLéogâne,situéprèsdel’épicentreduséisme.L’organismeHabitatpourl’humanitéaconstruitdeslogementscommunautairesdansuncampement,puisilaencouragélesrésidentsàconcevoirdemanièrecollaborativeunsystèmed’autogouvernance.Ceprocessusetlespremiersrésultatsquiendécoulentconstituentlepointcentraldelaprésentethèse.

Lesconclusionsdelarechercherévèlentuncertainnombredepointsdetension,commelesmauvaisesrelationsentrel’étatetlasociété,unsentimentd’impuissancefaceauchangement,etdesobjectifsdedéveloppementlocaldépassantceuxdesménages.Lasynthèseindiquequ’unetransformationcommunautaireestencoursetquedessignesdechangementssociauxsontapparents,maisilfaudramenerdesrecherchesàlongtermepourvérifierlasecondepartiedecetteaffirmation.LespreuvesdémontrentqueleniveaucommunautaireestunlieudetransformationduparadigmededéveloppementenHaïti.L’activationdes«leviersdetransformation»–notammentunemeilleureéducation,unentrepreneuriatsocial,uneidentitéparrapportaulieuetuneresponsabilisationdel’état–permettraitd’ouvrirdenouveauxhorizonspourHaïti,conformémentauxprioritésdespolitiquesvisantà(re)construirelecontratsocialetcréerdenouvellespossibilitéséconomiquesetdenouveauxemplois,enplusderéduirelavulnérabilitéetd’améliorerlarésilience.

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Plusqu’unsimpletravailderechercheuniversitaire,laprésentethèseseveutunappelàl’action.Ils’agitd’uneinvitationlancéeauxdécideurs,auxbailleursdefondsetauxautresacteursàreconnaîtreleniveaucommunautairecommeétantunlieudetransformationenHaïtietdansd’autreszonesmarginaliséesdumonde.Ilfautdoncmultiplierlesinitiativesprometteusescommecellesmentionnéesplushautàtroisdegrés:1)fairerayonnerlesinnovationssocialesdansd’autrescommunautés;2)généraliserlesinitiativespourentraînerdeschangementsauseindessystèmesetpolitiques;et3)ancrerleschangementsprofondémentdanslesmœursafindemodifierlesnormesetlestendancessociales.Grâceaurayonnementdesinnovationscommunautairesfavorisantunetransformationpositive,Haïtietlesautresendroitsdumondeconnaissantdesdéfissemblablespourrontexplorerdenouvellestrajectoiresdedéveloppementettendreversunesociétéplusinclusiveoùchaqueindividuauralachancedecontribueretdes’épanouir.

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Foreword

‘Ithink(therighttohumanflouring)isaniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifit’suptogovernments,wewillneverflourish.AskthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivinginHaiti,theywillnotbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuchelectricity,howmuchmoneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthatelsewhere,butthegovernmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.’Researchparticipant,2013

Icouldn’tnotdothisprojectonHaiti.ThespiritsknowItried.ButeachtimeIlookedintotheeyesofmythennewly-arriveddaughter,Esther,adoptedfromHaiti,Isawreflectionsofalifethathadalreadytakenintoomuchtraumainamerethreeandahalfyearsonthisearth.Shehadexperiencedlossofbirthparents,existenceinanorphanage,andthen,theearthquake.Meanwhile,mybirthson,Max,wasfiveyearsoldin2010whenIbroughtEstherfromHaititohernewhomewithusinMontreal,justtwoweeksaftertheearthquake.Hehadbeenanticipatinghissister’sarrivalalreadyforhalfhislife.Inhiseyeswasfear–hefearedthatwhenhismotherwenttoHaiti,sheperished,asmorethan200,000othershad.Beyondthetraumaandfearthough,whatIsawmostinmychildren’seyesastimewentbywaspossibility;possibilityforalifethatwouldenablethemtoflourishashumanbeings.Theywouldhavetheirbasicneedsmet,theirhumanrightsrespected,andopportunities–tolearnandgrowashumanbeings;toaccesssocialsupportsystems,decenthousingandqualityeducation;toliveinahealthyenvironment;andtomakechoicesabouttheirfutures–whattocreateandcontributetosociety,howtoexpressthemselvesthroughartsortheirprofessions,andsoon.ButImustbackuptosome20yearsagotowhenImademyfirsttriptoHaiti.Whatstruckmemost–oncegettingbeyondthestartlingimagesassociatedwitheverydaysurvivalstrugglesforsomany–suchasopensewers,massivepoverty,andpeoplewalkingthroughthemountainsandaboutthestreetsdeliberatelyandgracefullyoftenwithwhatseemedlikefarmoreweightontheirheadsthantheirbodiesshouldbear--wasthelaughterandjoyinHaiti.Ihaveexperiencednothinglikeitelsewhere.TheincrediblecapacityofpeopleinHaititofindhumor,oratleastalighterside,ineventhemostdifficultlifecircumstancewastransformativeforme.OvertheyearsasIvisitedHaiti,Icontinuedtobeawestruckandinspiredathowpeoplewithalmostnomaterialresources,publicservices,orformalinstitutionstorelyon,wouldmanagetofindremarkablycreativewaystomakelivesforthemselves,tocultivatebeauty,toflourishinsomeways,andaboveall,tolaugh...atthemselves,attheircircumstances,atanythingandeverything.Evenmisery. Buthowcantheprofoundtraumasoftheearthquakeanditsaftermath,ofahistoryofslaveryandoppression,ofmassivepovertyandofacorruptandoftenpredatorystatereconcilewithlaughterandwithhumanflourishing?Theansweristhattheycannot.TheseareamongtheparadoxesinHaitithatareimpossibletoreconcile.Amidstthestrugglesthatarepartof

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everydaysurvivalformostHaitians,thereremainslaughter–andthepossibilitythatitrepresents.PossibilitythatHaitiwillonceagainbecapableofsurmountingthegreatestobstacles–asithaddoneindefeatingNapoleoninthefirst,andstillonly,successfulslaverevolutioninhistory--toestablishitselfasabeaconofhumanityfortheworld.Itisthatpossibility–thatlaughter--thatIseeinmychildren’s–andinallchildren’s–eyes.AnditiswhatcompelledmetobringmyyearsofurbanplanningexperienceandmyPhDstudytobearonthistopicofsocialtransformationinHaiti,whichaimstovaluelocalpeople’svoicesandaspirationsandcommunitywell-beinginchangemakingefforts,inwaysthatwouldcontributetotherighttohumanflourishingforall.Itshouldbemorethananiceidea.

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PositionalityandAcknowledgementsMotivationandskillsarenotsufficientresourcesforconductingresearchinHaiti,particularlyqualitativeandparticipatoryinquiry.Oneneedstohaverelationshipsoftrustand,ideally,accesstonetworksofpeoplewhohaverelationshipsoftrustamongthem.Iwasaffordedtheprivilegeofsuchaccessthatenabledthisresearchthroughmybrother,JohnEngle,whohasspentmostofhisadultlifeinHaiti.JohnhasalonghistoryinHaiti,manyaccomplishmentsincludingthefoundingofseveralorganizations–notablyBeyondBordersandHaitiPartners,andanexcellentreputationwithliterallythousandsofHaitiancommunityandschoolleaderswhoknowandtrusthim.Ashissister,andalsoasthesister-in-lawofhisHaitianwife,Merline,IhadtheprivilegeoftrustfrommanyHaitiansbeforetheyevenmetme.Inaplacewheremostformalinstitutionsaredysfunctional,relationshipsoftrustareparamount.Iwouldnothavecarriedoutthisresearchinthiswayifitwerenotforthisfamilyconnection,giventhedifficultyofgainingaccessandtrustoflocalpeopleasanoutsider,butIamawarethatitaffectshowpeopleperceiveandinteractwithme.Ihavebeensensitivetothispositionality,andcontinuallyreflexiveabouthowmypresenceinthefieldaffecteddevelopmentandrelationships.Iwassensitiveaswelltomypositionalityasawhitemiddle-classwomanfromtheglobalnorthworkinginapredominantlyblacksocietywherepositionsofpowerareoverwhelminglyheldbymen.IamconsciousofthehistoryofslaveryandoppressionbywhitepeopleinHaiti’spast,andoftheongoingimperialismofthe‘internationalcommunity’thathasbeenexacerbatedinthispost-earthquakeperiodthroughpolicyandstructuralinterventions.Afurtheraspectofmypositionalityrelatestomyexperienceandage.Beinga40-somethingwomanwithchildren,Iwasaffordedacertainlevelofrespectbycommunitymembers.Mymanyyearsasapractitionerofparticipatoryurbanplanningequippedmewiththeskillsandknowledgetobeabletoquicklyadaptparticipatorymethodsaccordingtolearninginthefieldandtomodifydesignasappropriate.Whilemybackgroundandfamilyconnectionsprovidedabasis,thisresearchwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportandassistanceofmanyotherpeopletowhomIamexceedinglyandhumblygrateful.IhavelearnedagreatdealfrommyPhDSupervisor,ProfessorLisaBornstein,whonevertiredofpushingmetodotheverybestworkIwascapableof.Thankstoher,IhavestretchedmyselfbeyondmyexpectationsforlearningandgrowthduringthisPhDprocess.IamgratefulaswelltomyothercommitteemembersProfessorDavidBrown,ProfessorNikLuka,andDr.JeanGoulet,whoofferedvaluableadviceandinsightsparticularlythroughtheprocessesofmycomprehensiveexaminationandthesisproposaldefenses.Ireceivedvaluablecommentsorsimplyinspirationalongthispathfrommanyothers,including:FritzDeshommes,HansTippenhauer,LeslieVoltaire,PatrickAttié,JeffKenworthy,GenieBirch,JanicePerlman,JanGehl,GonzaloLizarralde,RobertFatton,BillRees,RayTomalty,AbelardXavier,LouinoRobillard,GuyMorelus,MiraclePierre,DavidDiggs,StevenWerlin,LucRabouin,SarahTurner,DavidWachsmuth,PeterGenco,SusanBronson,NadiaDuguay,JaniceAstbury,RichardRegister,UliLocher,PhilipOxhorn,EmelGanapati,RichardShearmur,SarahMoser,JohnEngle,GorkaEspiau,MaryRowe,IndyJohar,DavidMaddox,RebeccaAbers,MichaelOden,

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SalimaPunjani,OrianeSmith,Félix-AntoineJoli-Coeur,LibbyPorter,LeonieSandercock,andJohnFriedmann.Thebodyofworkoftheselasttwo,LeonieandJohn,havebeenamongthemostinfluentialinmyplanningcareer.LeonieandherfilmmakinganddialogueworkwithCanadianIndigenouscommunities(withGiovanniAttili),inparticular,inspiredmetointegrateartanddialogueinmyresearchandtoproducethevideoswhicharepartofthisthesis.SheandherIndigenousfilmparticipantsremindedmetobecontinuallyself-reflectiveaboutthepowerrelationshipsofwhichIamapartinconductingmyfieldwork.InHaiti,Iwasfortunatetohaveaccesstowonderfulandskilledpeoplethroughmyprimaryresearchcollaboratingorganization,HaitiPartners.ErikBadger,BenajaAntoineandAlexMyril,inparticular,providednotonlyresearchassistance,butalsomadedirectcontributionstomethoddesignandimplementationaswellasanalysisandinterpretationoffindingsinthefield.MyriamNarcisseprovidedoutstandingtranslationandtranscriptionsofdocuments,interviewsanddialoguecirclesinHaitianCreole,FrenchandEnglish.Mymainculturaladvisorand‘rock’inthefieldwasMerlineMyrilEngle,andIamgratefulforthenourishmentandlovefromNeslieMyril,DanielEngle,LeilaEngleandothersattheBellevueGuestHouse.ItwasajoyandprivilegetoworkwithresidentsofBellevue-La-Montagnewhotookpartintheparticipatoryresearch,andIamgratefulfortheirtime,trust,opennessandgenerosity:CindyJosef,FrancesseAntoine,GuerlineErnest,JacquelineSt-Vaudré,JacquesLucet,Marie-AngeMeristyl,MesilusBien-Aimé,PatricksonBien-Aimé,ProphèteAntoine,SherlyneBien-Aimé,TalamasJean,andYolandeBien-Aimé.1AdditionalkeyinformantsinHaiti,includingatHabitatSantoVillagewere:MarieVeronilaAntoine,MireilleCivil,AbelardXavier,FrémyCesar,MimzDiño,ClaudeJeudy,MayorSantos,WalnordSimilien,JeanSamuelAndré,JosephatJeanBaptiste,JasonMcGaughey,MmeBoby,andMmeSonson.ArtisticadviceandassistanceinMontrealwasprovidedbyLaurenTrimble.Iwarmlythankyouall.Mèsianpil!Forvideoproductionandeditingassistance,IthankZiliProductionsinHaiti,PhilLichtiofPhilmoreProductionsinMontreal,andtheCentreforOralHistoryandDigitalStorytellingatConcordiaUniversity.ThankstoSaraKoforearlyfieldworkvideoediting,andtoNadiaTodresfortheexcellentphotographytrainingwithresearchparticipants.ThisresearchwasmadepossiblewiththefinancialsupportoftheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC);leGouvernementduQuébec,FondsderechercheduQuébec-Sociétéetculture(FQRSC);McGillUniversitySchoolofUrbanPlanning;andl’Observatoireuniversitairedelavulnérabilité,larésilienceetlareconstructiondurable(Oeuvredurable)del’UniversitédeMontréal.Myemployer,theJ.W.McConnellFamilyFoundation,generouslyaffordedmetimeoffworktowritethisthesis.IthankmyFoundationcolleaguesfortheirsupportandunderstanding,particularlyStephenHuddart,JohnCawley,LyndsayDaudierandNicolinaFarella.Andformuchneededencouragement,Ithankmysiblingsanddearfriends,Jodie,John,Jesse,Justin,andBC.MyparentsIthankforlife,loveandrichchildhoodexperiencesthathelpedshapedthepersonIhavebecome.AndtoJim,Iamgratefulforyourwiseadvice,yourlove,andyoursupportonmanylevelsandovermanyyears.Thankyou.

1Allquotationsthroughoutthethesiswhichareunattributedarethoseoflocalresearchparticipants.Quotationshavenotbeenassociatedwithindividualsinordertoprotecttheirprivacy.

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TableofContents

Abstract................................................................................................................................. iiiRésumé................................................................................................................................. ivForeword............................................................................................................................... viPositionalityandAcknowledgements................................................................................... viiiListofFigures........................................................................................................................ xiiiListofTables......................................................................................................................... xviContributiontoKnowledgeSummary................................................................................... xviiPublicationandSubmissionDetails...................................................................................... xix

Chapter1:ThesisIntroduction,Objectives,andDesign.................................. 201.1.ResearchProblématique................................................................................................ 21

TheHaiticontext.......................................................................................................... 22Theoreticaldebatesandconcepts................................................................................ 24Methodologicalchoices................................................................................................ 29

1.2ResearchObjectiveandQuestions................................................................................. 311.3ResearchDesignandOverallMethodology................................................................... 34

Worldview.................................................................................................................... 35Theoreticallens............................................................................................................ 35Methodologicalapproaches......................................................................................... 37Methods....................................................................................................................... 44

1.4EthicalConsiderations..................................................................................................... 481.5OverviewofFollowingChapters..................................................................................... 48

Chapter2:CommunityCaseStudyPaperPreface............................................ 51

Chapter2:StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?Acasestudyof

education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti........................... 52

2.1Introduction..................................................................................................................... 52Haiticontextandconceptualframework..................................................................... 54Methodology................................................................................................................ 65

2.2Casestudy:Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-Montagne. 71

HaitiPartners:vision,missionandtheoryofchange.................................................. 72Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproach:sixelements....................... 76

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2.3Storiesfrombehindthescenes:Whatdoesthedevelopmentmeantolocalpeople? 94Hearingvoicesandnarrativesoflocalresidentparticipants........................................ 97Tensionpointsrevealedthroughtheresearch.............................................................105

2.4Leveragepointsfortransformation................................................................................1112.5Conclusion.......................................................................................................................116

Chapter3:ParticipatoryPracticeandResearchVideos...................................119

Chapter3:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatory

practiceandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange

(13minuteand6minutevideos)............................................................................................119

Chapter4:ParticipatoryMethodsPaper..........................................................120Chapter4:CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunity

developmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch1214.1Introduction.....................................................................................................................121

Fieldsettingandresearcherpositionality....................................................................123Participatorymethodologyandmethodstoexplorecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange................................................................................................................125

4.2Learningfromthemethods:communitycorestoryandthemesrevealed...................133

Communitycorestorythemes.....................................................................................134Socialchangedynamics................................................................................................138Issuesahead.................................................................................................................142

4.3Learningaboutthemethods:strengthsandshortcomingsencountered.....................1424.4Conclusion.......................................................................................................................147Addendum:PhotographsofandbyResearchParticipants.................................................149

Chapter5:CommunityGovernancePaper.......................................................163

Chapter5:ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborative

dialogueina‘communityofdesperation’............................................................................164

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5.1Introduction.....................................................................................................................164

5.2AnalyticalFramework.....................................................................................................165

5.3Methodology...................................................................................................................168

5.4TheHousingProject........................................................................................................171

5.5CommunityGovernanceinHabitatSantoVillage..........................................................174TheGoodNeighborprojectthroughacollaborativerationalitylens...........................176Collaborativerationalityinpractice.............................................................................181Investmentincommunityvs.statecapacity:afalsedichotomy..................................182Reflectionsonmethod.................................................................................................184

5.6Conclusion.......................................................................................................................187Chapter6:OverallConclusions........................................................................1906.1TheoryofChangeandKeyResults:FromCommunityStoriestoTransformational

Narratives...............................................................................................................................1916.2ContributiontoKnowledge:Methods,Theory,Practice,andPolicy..............................2006.3RecommendationsforPolicy...........................................................................................2076.4FutureDirectionsforResearchandPractice...................................................................208

References.............................................................................................................................213

Appendix.InterviewsinHaiti,2011-2013

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ListofFiguresFigure1.1:ResearchDesignFrame....................................................................................... 35Figure1.2:TheoreticalLens.................................................................................................. 36Figure1.3:PartsoftheMethodologicalProcess.................................................................. 38Figure1.4:GraphicRepresentationoftheResearchDesign................................................ 40Figure1.5:FieldworkPhases................................................................................................. 46Figure2.1:GraphicRepresentationoftheBellevue-La-MontagneCaseStudyDesign........ 70Figure2.2:Map:Bellevue-La-Montagne’sLocationinHaiti.................................................. 73Figure2.3:Photo:GeographicSetting:ViewfromthesoutheastofHaitiPartners’schoolwithcapitalcityPort-au-PrinceandtheCaribbeanSeainbackground................................. 77Figure2.4:ElementsofEducation-centeredCommunityDevelopment:ApproachofHaitiPartners.................................................................................................................................. 79Figure2.5:Photo:HaitiPartners’SchoolBuilding:Withitsearthquakeresistant,open-airdesign,housesfourlargeclassrooms,ahealthclinicandapharmacy.................................. 80Figure2.6:Photo:InsideaClassroom:1stgradeteacher,FrancesseAntoine,guidesastorytimeexercisewithkindergartenersonaplayparachutedonatedbyavolunteervisitingfromtheUS............................................................................................................................ 81Figure2.7:Photo:Bakeryoperations:Setupin2014asasocialenterprisecooperativeDesignedtomeetalocalneedandprovideasustainablefundingsourceforschooloperations.............................................................................................................................. 82Figure2.8:Photo:MuhammadYunus,FounderofGrameenBankandYunusSocialBusinessHaiti,visitsBellevue-La-Montagne,wherehisHaititeamhelpedwithbusinessadviceandfinance................................................................................................................. 82Figure2.9:RenderingofSocialEnterpriseBuilding:Firstfloorhousesbakeryoperations,upperfloorstohousevocationalandteachertrainingfacilities........................................... 83Figure2.10:SitePlanbyBARArchitects:Plansincludefiveclassroombuildingsandanopenairamphitheatre........................................................................................................... 84

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Figure2.11:Photo:ConstructionwithExtollo:Localpeopleweretrainedinmasonryandcarpentryandemployedtoconstructthebuildings.Schoolparentvolunteerscontributetositeplanningandmaintenancework............................................................... 85Figure2.12:ADECATimeline................................................................................................. 87Figure2.13:Photo:HumanWasteCompostingLatrines:DesignedbyGiveLoveandmaintainedbylocalpeople,theselatrinesaddressasanitationneed,andtheharvestedcompostisusedincommunitygardensorsold..................................................................... 89Figure2.14:Photo:GardeningLesson:Schoolchildrenaretrainedinenvironmentalstewardship,includingecologicalandorganicgrowingpractices......................................... 90Figure2.15:Photo:HaitiClinic:Equippedwithoutpatientroomsandapharmacy,theclinic’sdoctorandnurse–alongwithregularlyvisitingvolunteerdoctorsfromtheUS–servethousandsoflocalresidentseachyear................................................................ 91Figure2.16:Photo:PublicOpenSpaceMeeting:Discussionontheroleofeducationincommunitydevelopment:300peoplegatheredtodiscussthetopictogether;manyledsmalldiscussiongroupsonrelatedmattersoftheirchoosing.............................................. 93Figure3.1:Video:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange:13-minuteversion......................119Figure3.2:Video:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange:6-minuteversion........................119Figure4.1:AddendumtoParticipatoryMethodsPaper:Photosofandbyresearchparticipants:CindyJosef,FrancesseAntoine,GuerlineErnest,JacquelineSt-Vaudré,JacquesLucet,Marie-AngeMeristyl,MesilusBien-aimé,PatricksonBien-aimé,ProphèteAntoine,SherlyneBien-aimé,TalamasJean,andYolandeBien-aimé...................149Figure5.1:DIADTheory(Diversity,Interdependence,andAuthenticDialogue)NetworkDynamics................................................................................................................................167Figure5.2:MapofLéogâne,Haitiand2010EarthquakeEpicenter......................................171Figure5.3:OriginalSitePlanofHabitatSantoVillage(2011)...............................................173Figure5.4:Photo:TypicalHousesandStreetscapeasBuilt(2012)......................................173Figure5.5:CommunityGovernanceStructureEstablishedThroughtheGoodNeighborProject....................................................................................................................................178

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Figure6.1:TheoryofChange:FromCommunityStoriestoTransformationalNarratives.....192Figure6.2:TheoryofChangeandSummaryDescription......................................................193Figure6.3:TheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities.................................................194Figure6.4:SummaryExplanationofTheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities.........195

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ListofTables

Table2.1:Education-centeredCommunityDevelopmentElementsinHaitiPartners’Approach................................................................................................................................ 86Table2.2:NarrativesandTensionPointsintheBellevue-La-MontagneCase...................... 96Table2.3:LeversofTransformationfromCommunitytoStructuralLevelsinHaiti..............112Table4.1:OverviewofResearchMethodsandDataCollection............................................128Table4.2:FieldworkSchedule:ParticipatoryResearchActivities,July2013.........................132Table4.3:KeyLearningsfromtheParticipatoryMethods:ThemesandNarratives.............140Table4.4:KeyLearningsabouttheParticipatoryMethods:StrengthsandShortcomings....144 Table5.1:GoodNeighborProjectObjectives.......................................................................175Table5.2:GoodNeighborProjectKeyMilestones...............................................................175

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ContributiontoKnowledge

Mythesisprovidesnarrativeanalysisofpost-earthquakecommunitydevelopmentexperiences

inHaiti,alongwithportraitsofcommunityparticipants’aspirationsforchange,themain

obstaclestheyface,andstrategiesthatpointthewayforwardtowardbroadertransformation.I

carriedoutallfieldworkandamthesoleauthoronallpartsofthedissertationexceptChapter5

onCommunityGovernanceatHabitatSantoVillage.Iamtheprimaryauthoronthatpaper,and

itisco-authoredwithProfessorLisaBornsteinandProfessorGonzaloLizarralde,whoprovided

advice,writingandeditingcontributions.Mythesissupervisor,LisaBornstein,providedadvice

andeditingcontributionsthroughoutthethesis.Inaddition,myfieldresearchassistantsand

collaborators–primarilyAlexMyril,ErikBadger,BenajaAntoineandJohnEngle--provided

adviceduringfieldworkthatcontributedtoresearchdesignandinterpretation.Inputfrom

researchparticipantsinthefieldduringparticipatoryphotographyandparticipatorymapping

exercisesalsocontributedtomodificationsindesignandfieldmethods.

Theresearchcontributestoknowledgeonseverallevels.Itprovidesnewknowledgeabout

collaborativeplanning,institutionalframeworks,education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,

andotherstrategiesandconditionsthatfosterorhindereffortstowardlocalparticipatory

governanceandcommunityandsocialtransformation.Igivespecialattentiontotherolesof

non-governmentalorganizationsandlisteningtovoicesoflocalpeople.Thisresearch

recognizesthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationincontributingtosystemicchange,

anditcontributesinfourareasofknowledge:1)methods;2)theory;3)practice;and4)policy.

1.Methodscontribution.Ihavedesignedcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatory

photographyandparticipatorymapping,inordertostudyandunderstanddynamicsof

communitydevelopmentandsocialchangeovertime,whichisrelevantforandsensitiveto

conditionsinparticularplaces.Iassessedboththeoutcomesofthemethodsandthemethods

themselvesastoolsforstudyingcommunitydevelopmentandchange.

xviii

2.Theorycontribution.Thisthesisdevelopsatheoryofchange–called‘FromCommunity

StoriestoTransformationalNarrativesforHaiti’thatmakesvisiblerelationshipsbetween

communitydevelopmentandpathwaystotransformation.Theoryisdevelopedinductively

throughstudyofparticipatorydevelopmentprocessesunderway,includingeducation-centered

communitydevelopment,aswellaslisteningtovoicesandlivedexperienceoflocalpeople.The

workalsocontributestobroadertheoreticaldebatesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,

thecrucialroleofnon-governmentalorganizations,thevalueofparticipatorydevelopmentand

theimportanceofcontext-sensitivequalitativeresearchinquiry.

3.Practicecontribution.Thedocumentationandsharingofcasesofparticipatorycommunity

development,localgovernance,andlivedexperiencesoflocalpeopleintwoHaitian

communitiesprovidelearningandscalingopportunitiesforothercommunitiesseeking

developmentpathwaystowardsocialchange,aswellasNGOsandfundingagenciesthatmay

wanttosupportthem.

4.Policycontribution.Myresearchresultsareconsistentwithandsupportaimsofmedium-

termpolicyprioritiesinHaiti,whichwererecentlyarticulatedinSinghandBarton-Dock(2015),

whichareto:1)Re(build)thesocialcontract;2)Creategreatereconomicopportunitiesand

betterjobs;and3)Reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience.

EachoftheabovecontributionsisexplainedinfurtherdetailinChapter6,OverallConclusions.

Insum,thisthesiscontributestomoreprogressiveinternationaldevelopmentplanning,which

placespeopleandcommunitywell-beingatthecenteroftransformationefforts.

xix

PublicationandSubmissionDetails

Chapter2“StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?Acasestudyofeducation-centered

communitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti“iscurrentlyunderreviewwiththejournal,

ProgressinPlanning.

Chapter3“Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchfor

communitydevelopmentandsocialchange”isavideoproductionwithtwoversions(13

minutesand6minutes),whichispublishedonlineandavailableatvimeo.com/jayneewandvia

theVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.

Chapter4“CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunity

developmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch“is

underreviewwiththeJournalofUrbanAffairs.

Chapter5“ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborativedialoguein

a‘communityofdesperation’”iscurrentlyunderreviewwiththejournal,PlanningTheory.An

earlierversionofthepaperhasbeenpublishedas:Engle-Warnick,J.,Bornstein,L.,&

andLizarralde,G.(2013).ConstructingCommunityattheEpicenter:Collaborativegovernancein

post-earthquakeHaiti.Proceedingsofthe6thInternationali-RecConference.Ascona,

Switzerland,May26-30.

20

Chapter1:ThesisIntroduction,Objectives,andDesign

Thesocialcohesionthathasresultedfrom[Haiti’s]longhistoricalprocesswasmadedramaticallyvisiblebythe2010earthquake….Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotallackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti]isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate,oralongthelinesmanypeoplemightexpectorwantittobe.Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathaveemergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonlythroughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.LaurentDubois(2012:12)

…itisclearthatthepost-earthquakestrategiesofreconstructionshouldbereversedbecausetheydifferlittlefrompastdevelopmenteffortsandwillleadtothesameimpasse.Infact,theycarryontheexport-orientedpoliciesofthelate1970sandtheycontinuetobypassthestate.Thesestrategieswillmerelycreatemoredependence,foodinsecurity,andinequalities.Inaddition,theyarelikelytoaccentuateruralmigrationstourbanareas,whichwillnotprovidetheemploymentandwagesrequiredtoavoidthefurtherexpansionofslums.Haiti,asitwere,isonitsway‘backtothefuture’.RobertFatton,Jr.(2014:7)

ThesequotationsfromtwogreatscholarsonHaiticaptureprofoundrevelationsfollowingthe

January2010earthquake.Ontheonehand,thedisasterexposedremarkablyresilientsocial

institutions.SocialresiliencehasbeenacharacteristicstrengthofHaitisinceitsslavesand

secretsocietiesmanagedtooverthrowNapoleonandbrutaloppressorsinleadingthefirst,and

stillonly,successfulslaverebellionintheworldmorethan200yearsago.Ontheotherhand,

despitethehopethataroseparadoxicallyfromtheearthquake,asmanysawitasopeninga

windowofopportunityforsocialtransformation,adarkersidehasemerged.Ratherthan

adaptivelyimprovingfromtheopportunitythatcancomefromcrisis,Haitiappearstohavesunk

tonewlows.ThecountryranksamongthelowestintheworldontheUNHumanDevelopment

Index–evenlowerwhenadjustedforinternalstructuralinequality,aswellasforincidencesof

present-dayslavery,andforitspaltryinvestmentineducation.AccordingtoFatton(2014:9),

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“undertheweightofanexternallyimposedneoliberalregime,aquasi-permanentcrisisof

governability,andthedevastatingearthquake…Haitihastumbledintothe‘outerperiphery’.”

Haiti’s2010earthquakewasoneofthemostcatastrophichumandisastersofourtime,andit

leftinitswakemorethan200,000peopledeadandatleast1.5millionhomeless.Mostcentral

governmentbuildingsweredestroyedalongwiththousandsofschools,hospitals,churches,and

businessesleavingalready-fragileinstitutionsindireconditions.Giventhedeteriorated

institutionalandphysicalinfrastructureandthelackofessentialresourcesandservices,many

Haitiancommunitiessixyearslaterstillconfrontdauntingchallengesintheirreconstruction

efforts.Today,mostHaitianscontinuetolackbasicservicesandstrugglewithdailysurvival.

Manyhavecalledforreconstructionofsociety,arguingthatcivilsocietyorganizationsshould

leadthewayintheseeffortsbyvaluinglocalknowledge,andbuildingonsmall-scalecommunity

successes.Thisresearchstudieshowtwocommunitieshaverespondedtothatcallandwhat

thoseexperiencesrevealaboutpossibilitiesformoreeffectiveandsustainableparticipatory

communitydevelopmentthatwouldcontributetolongertermtransformationinHaiti.

1.1.ResearchProblématique

Haitideservesattention,includingscholarlyattention.Thissectionprovidesaframingof

theoreticaldebatesandconceptsthatinformthisresearch,andmethodologicalchoices

regardingqualitativeandparticipatorymethodologies.

Simplystated,theproblemaddressedthroughthisresearchisthatpost-earthquake

reconstructioneffortsinHaitihavebeenslowanddifficult,andsignsofsubstantialprogressin

communitydevelopmentremainelusiveseveralyearslater.2Inordertoarguethatthis

problemwarrantsscholarlyattention,Iframeitasaproblématiquewiththreeaspectsrelating

tothefollowingquestions.First,whatistheHaitiancontextforthisproblem?Second,what

2Myunderstandingof‘communitydevelopment’issetoutintheTheoreticaldebatesandconceptssection.Whenusedonitsownandunlessspecifiedotherwise,theword‘community’referstoagroupofpeoplelivinginsharedspaceofclosegeographicalproximity.

22

arekeytheoriesanddebatesthatcanhelpusunderstandandmakesenseofwhatis

happening?Andthird,giventhecontextandtheories(aswellasmyownpositionality),how

canthisproblembeinvestigated?Eachoftheseaspectsisaddressedbelow.

TheHaiticontext

ThecontextofthecurrentsituationinHaitiisthatlongbeforetheearthquakeof2010,people’s

rightsandaccesstodecentlivingconditionswereseverelyrestrained,andsoitisundesirableto

‘reconstruct’whatwas.Rather,thereisanopportunitytoconstructinfrastructure–physical,

politicalandsocietal–anew,whichiswhatFritzDeshommesreferstoasa‘re-foundation’of

Haiti(Deshommes,2012).FormerPrimeMinisterMichèlePierre-Louis(2012)calledfor

deconstructionofthecurrentparadigm(referringtothebasisofproduction,education,access

toemployment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure),construction,then

reconstructionofsociety.Shearguesthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsmustbetterorganize

tostruggleandbringaboutchange.3Shefurtherarguesto‘batiràpartirdespetitssuccès’

through‘mettreenvaleurlessavoirslocales’[buildonsmallsuccessesthroughvaluinglocal

knowledge].MmePierre-LouispointstotheworkofJeanGoulet(2006)foritsrevealing

perspectivesonthemultiplelogicsofcomplexinformalnetworksoperativeinHaiti,and

particularly,itsbidonvilles.

TheproblemsassociatedwithcommunitydevelopmentinHaitiarecomplex,indeed,with

multipleelementsandlayers.Centralgovernmenthasbeenoppressive,brutal,andpredatory

atworst,andatbest,inshortperiodsofrelativestability,ithasremaineddysfunctionaland

3Afulldiscussionofthecomplextermcivilsocietyisoutsidethescopeofthisproposal.Ourworkingdefinitionisthefollowing.Civilsocietyrefersto

“thatpartofsocial,asdistinctfromcorporate,lifethatliesbeyondtheimmediatecontrolofthestate.Itisthesocietyofhouseholds,familynetworks,civicandreligiousorganizationsandcommunitiesthatareboundtoeachotherbysharedhistories,collectivememoriesandculturallyspecificformsofreciprocity”(Friedmann,2011:140).

Thereisextensiveliteratureoncivilsocietyconstructions,suchasOxhorn(1995),Oxhorn,TulchinandSelee(2004);Castells(2008);Wagner(2006);andGursteinandAngeles(2007);myownunderstandingsdrawparticularlyonworksbyAbu-Lughod(1998),DouglassandFriedmann(1998),Friedmann(1992and2011),Mercer(2002),andStorper(1996).

23

corrupt.Thoughprescribedfor25years,decentralizationhasnotyetbeenimplemented.

Ordinarypeople–thevastmajorityverypoor--havelimitedaccesstothemostbasicservices.

IfevenpriortotheearthquakeHaitiwasahumanemergency,todayitisacatastrophe.Inspite

ofwhatseemstobehistoricgoodwillonthepartsofinternationalagenciesandgovernments,

thereislittleevidencetodayofgood,scalableprojectswiththepotentialtocreatesystemic

change.Nongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)attempttofillcratersofneedhereandthere,

butthereislittlecoordination,accountability,transparence,orconsistency,andthe

performanceandresultsofthethousandsofNGOsoperatinginHaitivaryenormously(Farmer,

2011;Pierre-Louis,2011;Schuller,2012;SchullerandMorales,2012).

Withrespecttogovernancerelations,therearelimitedcommunityrelationshipswiththestate.

ThereisnosolidprecedentinHaitiofasocialcontractinwhichthestatelistenstoorworks

withcivilsociety(Tippenhauer,2010).SowhilethereisevidenceofwhatCarleyetal.(2001)

call‘horizontal’(orintrasocial)civilsociety,theredonotseemtobeenougheffective‘vertical’

(state-society)NGOsthatareHaitian-basedandhavecapacitytonavigatetheneeded

relationshipsanddevelopmentworkamonglocalcommunities,theHaitianstate,and

internationalorganizations.

Thebroaderstorythathascontributedtoshapingpresent-dayHaitiisnolessconfounding.

Haitiistheonlysocietytohavecarriedoutasuccessfulslaverevolutionthatledtothe

independenceofthecountryin1804.Ironically,thatunprecedentedsuccesscontributed

substantiallytothecountry’sdemise.Therevolutioncameaboutduringthecolonialperiodand

aglobalizedslavetrade,whichledothercountriestoisolateHaitiandfail,atleastinitially,to

recognizeitsindependence(Girard,2010).Haitiwouldgoontopayamassive‘debtof

independence’toFranceuntil1946.ThatdebttoFrance,combinedwithvariousUS

interventionsthroughouthistory–notleastanoccupationfrom1915-1934,andthesupportof

brutaldictatorsduringtheColdWar–contributedtoHaiti’sinabilitytorecover.Haitianleaders

chosetofocusexternally,andexporttradeandinternationalrelationshipsweremoreimportant

togovernmentthaninwardeffortstobuildasolidsocietyandpoliticalculture(Dubois,2012).

Morerecently,foreigninterventions,particularlybytheUS,inpoliticalandagriculturalspheres

24

havecontributedtofurtherinstabilityandpoverty(Deshommes,2006).Thesefactors--along

withinternalpoliticalconflict--havecontributedtothecurrentsituationwhere,inspiteof

massivecontributions,internationalaidhasfailedtobringaboutbetterlivingconditionsor

institutionsinHaiti,whichremainsina‘conflict-povertytrap’despitehighlevelsofsocial

resilience(USAID,2006).Goodparadigmsforwhatcouldworktobringaboutlasting,systemic

changehavenotyetemergedonameaningfulscale(HeineandThompson,2011;Schuller,

2012;Tippenhauer,2010).

InpresentdayHaiti–sixyearspost-earthquake,amidstthegravedifficultiesandoften

inhumaneconditionsofdailylifeformanypeople,therearestoriesofpeoplethataremanaging

toself-organize,planandrebuild(SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).Giventhe

devastationoftheearthquakeinmaterialandhumanterms;thelackofeffectiveinstitutional

infrastructure;thedeficiencyofaccesstoadequateeducation,healthcare,water,sanitationand

housing;andthegeneralabsenceoftherighttohumanflourishingforsomany;itiscrucialto

studyhowsomegroupsseemtobefindingwaystoadaptivelylearn,effectivelyplan,and

manifestresilience.

Theoreticaldebatesandconcepts

Howisitthatsomegroupsseemtobeadaptivelylearning,effectivelyplanning,andmanifesting

whatwouldseemtobeacollaborativeformofresilience?Theoriesanddebatesfrommulti-

disciplinaryfieldsofcommunitydevelopment,planning,andinternationaldevelopmentprovide

anumberofinsights.

Twodebatesintheliteraturearerelevanttothecurrentstudy.Theyrevolvearound:1)therole

ofNGOsvis-à-visthestateincommunitydevelopmentendeavors;and2)thequestionof

whether‘resilience’inanyofitsvariousformsisahelpfulconstructforunderstandinghow

changeisoccurringinHaiti.Ioutlinethepremisesforeachbelow.Thisthesiscontributesto

severalaspectsofthesedebates(seeChapters2,3,4and5).

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ThefirstdebateconcernstheroleofNGOsvis-à-visthestateinendeavorsofcommunity

developmentandinternationaldevelopment.4Inrecentdecades,andarguablylargelyin

responsetothediminishingroleofthestateinsocialspheres,thesectorofNGOshasgrown

significantly.InGlobalSouthsettings,officialaidhasbeendivertedto(mainlyinternational)

NGOswithexpectationsoffavorabledevelopmentoutcomes;theunderlyingpremiseisthat

activitiesofNGOswouldhelptomitigatenegativeeffectsofneoliberalmacroeconomicpolicies

onvulnerablepeople,andthatagrowingNGOsectorwouldcontributetodemocratization

throughstrengtheningandpluralizingcivilsociety(Fowler,1991).Withrespecttotheformer

theevidenceismixed,inpartbecausetheroles,intentionsandespeciallyeffectivenessof

developmentNGOsarehighlyvariable.Othershavenotedthatdespitethepresumedroleof

NGOsinlesseningvulnerability,thereisalackofattentiontotheroleoflocalorganizationsin

reducingurbanpovertyandstrengtheningurbanandenvironmentaldevelopmentprojects

(Carleyetal.,2001;Friedmann,1992;MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;andPerlman,2007).

NGOsandcivilsocietyaremurkyandcontestedterms,andarenotunderstoodthesameway

betweenculturesorwithinanyoneculture.Here,NGOsrefertonon-statenot-for-profit

organizationsdesignedtoservecollectiveaims,andincludewhatareknownvariouslyascivil

societyorganizations(CSOs),community-basedorganizations(CBOs),grassrootsorganizations

(GROs),aswellasNGOs(nongovernmentalorganizations).Thesize,scope,aims,funding,and

effectivenessofthis‘thirdsector’varysubstantially.

Evengiventhisdiversity,thereisconsiderabledebateovertheroleofNGOsinpromoting

democracy.Mercer(2002)callsintoquestionthecommonlyheldidealofcivilsocietyandNGOs

asinherently‘good’fordemocraticdevelopment.Mercer’scriticalreviewoftheliterature

pointstohowsomearguethatNGOscanstrengthenstateandcivilsociety,andothersargue

thatstrengtheningNGOsunderminesdevelopmentofdemocracies.GursteinandAngeles

(2007)definecivilsocietiesinrelationtotheircontributiontodemocraticplanningand

governance.Theirdefinitionisnormative:“densenetworksoforganizationsandinstitutions

4Theterm‘nongovernmentalorganization’(NGO)isusedinitsbroadsenseherereferringtolocalandinternational,smallandlargenot-for-profitorganizationsthatareindependentofgovernment.

26

thatmediatebetweenstatesandcitizens,whilechallengingandtransforminghegemonicstate

policiesandmarketpractices”(p.5).DouglassandFriedmann’s(1998)editedbookoncivil

societylaysoutasetofdebatesandhealthycriticismofnotionsofcivilsocietyalongwithits

valueforplanningtheoryandpracticeinourageofglobalizationthatcoincideswithanew

awakeningtocitizenrights.

Recently,thetwostrandsofdebate–overNGOs’roleinimprovingdevelopmentoutcomesand

basisfordemocraticliving–havecometogether.Concernandcriticismhavegrownconcerning

thetransparencyandlegitimacyofNGOsand,asaconsequence,theirabilitytocontribute

positivelytointernationaldevelopmentoutcomes.Thisgrowingcriticismisparticularlyrelevant

toHaiti,whichhasbeenreferredtofrequentlyasthe‘RepublicofNGOs’.Whilethereal

numbersareunknown,itisestimatedthatperhaps10,000NGOsareoperativeinHaiti,which

wouldgiveitthehighestnumberpercapitaofanycountryintheworld.Themaindebatein

Haitirevolvesaroundthefactthat,ontheonehand,thestateishighlydysfunctionaland

corruptinthebestoftimesandHaitianscannotrelyonthestatetoprovidebasicservicesand,

ontheotherhand,NGOsthatundertakedevelopmentworkandserviceprovisionarenot

accountabletothestateorthepublicanddonotcoordinateactivitieswitheachother,which

resultsinhugeinefficiencies.Mosttelling,perhaps,isthattheplethoraofNGOsinHaitiin

recentdecadesdoesnotappeartohavecontributedtoimprovingoveralldevelopment

outcomes.However,itisexpectedtotakealongtimetoconstructalegitimate,effectivestate

inHaiti,sointhemeantime,NGOsareneededtosupportbasicserviceprovision,buttheyarea

highlyheterogeneousgroupwithwidelyvaryingeffectiveness.Aquestionthatarisesis:how

canthestatebestrengthenedincomplementaritywiththeconsolidationofNGOsinHaiti,while

improvinglivingconditionsforthepeopleofHaiti?

Theseconddebaterevolvesaroundtheusefulnessof‘resilience’asaconstructforanalyzing

andunderstandingcommunitydevelopment,particularlyinthecaseofHaiti.Fordecadesin

post-disasterorpost-dictatorepisodesofHaiti,mediapunditshavesungthepraisesofthe

‘resilientpeople’ofHaiti,whichoftenseemstobeaeuphemismforself-reliance.Thiskindof

socialresilienceisnotclearlyornecessarilydesirable.Inacademicliteraturethough,the

27

conceptofresilienceisgrowingandtakingonincreasinglycomplexconstructs.Forexample,

Folkeetal.(2010)claimthatthreeaspectsarecentraltointegratedthinking:resilience,

adaptability,andtransformability.Theirargumentisthattheresiliencenotionincludesthe

capacityforcrossingthresholdsintonewtrajectoriesofdevelopment;theyrespondinthisway

tothecriticismthatresilienceisaboutbouncingbackafterashocktoa(perhapsundesirable)

pre-shockstate.Goldstein(2012)showsthroughaseriesofcasesthat‘collaborativeresilience’

canbedevelopedthroughactivatingcollaborativemechanismsforadaptingortransformingin

responsetocrises.‘Communityresilience’(Norrisetal.,2008;Solnit,2009)(frompsychology

andpopularliteratures)and‘urbanresilience’(Bornsteinetal.,2013;Newmanetal.,2009;Vale

andCampanella,2005)arecomplementarynotionsthatareusefulforunderstanding

aftermathsofdisastersandplanningforthem.However,representationsofplaceswithlow

levelsoftransformativeresilience–suchasHaitiorotherfragileor‘outerperiphery’places–

arenotwidespreadintheliterature.Chapter2containsfurtherdiscussionontransformative

resilience,arguedtobeamoreusefulconceptinthiscasethansocialresilience.

Twotheoreticalconceptsarecentraltomyresearchobjectiveandquestion:NGO-community

developmentcollaborationsandhowtheycontribute(ornot)tosocialchange.Iturnnowto

discussingthesetwoterms.

NGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations,orwhatIrefertoasparticipatorycommunity

developmentinthethesistitle,referstonongovernmentalorganizations–internationaland

local–workingtogetherwithlocalparticipantsoncommunitydevelopmentinitiativesand

projects.Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfieldthatcombinesspatialandmaterial

developmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacitytomanagechange(Ledwith,2011;

LedwithandSpringett,2010).Communitydevelopmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilize

existingskills,reframeproblems,workcollaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunity

assets,andinvolvesflexibleprocessesguidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help

(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993).Thekeypurposeofcommunitydevelopmentis“collective

actionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld”,accordingto

LedwithandSpringett(2010:14).Majorstepsincommunitydevelopmentprocessesareoften

28

identifyingproblems,engagingpeopleandgroups,assessingthesituationandcontext,

exploringpossibilities,planning,prioritizing,andtakingaction(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993;

Ledwith,2011;andLedwithandSpringett,2010).

Collaborativecommunitydevelopmenthereisbasedonvaluesofsocialandenvironmental

justice,socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;KendraandWachtendorf,2007),

anddialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemicchangethroughinformalnetworks

andlocalpraxis(asinFreire,2011,original1972;andKennedy,2011).Collaborativeplanning

(Healey2006)andcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010)providetheoreticaland

analyticalframeworksforunderstandingcollectiveapproaches.Exploringcollaborativewaysof

working,thinking,anddesigninginstitutionsunderliesmyresearchapproach(asinOstrom,

1990),andIinvestigatewhethercollaborativeresilience(asinGoldstein,2012)providesa

helpfulframeforthinkingabouttheNGO-communitycollaborationsunderstudy.

Friedmann’salternativedevelopmenttheory(1992)andsociallearningandsocialmobilization

traditionsofnon-stateactorsinplanning(Friedmann,1987,1992,and2011)providekey

foundationsaswellformyperspectiveoncommunitydevelopmentinaninternationalcontext.

Friedmann(1992)referstoalternativedevelopmentas‘collectiveself-empowerment’ina

similarveintoBrown’snotionof‘self-efficacy’(Brown,1997).Friedmannarguesthatexternal

actors,suchasNGOsbasedoutsideofcommunities,mustbepartofcollectiveactionfor

transformativechangetooccur,whilehealsowarnsthatcivilsocietyactors(i.e.individuals

withincommunities)needtodevelop‘voices’oftheirown.Inthislight,itishelpfultoseeNGOs

notascivilsocietyitselfbutratheraspotentialcatalystsofcivilsociety.Expressing‘voice’and

learningthroughstoriesandeverydaylifeiscentraltocommunitydevelopmentplanningand

research(Flyvbjerg,2001;Healey,2006;Ledwith,2011;Sandercock,2003aand2003b).

Socialchangeisusedinterchangeablyherewithsocialtransformation.SimplyputbyMcLeod

andThomson(2009),socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallife.Healey(2006:91)

referstosocialchangeasthe“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin

relationwithothers,re-thinking,affirmingandchangingsituations,andtheorganizingpowerof

29

structuralforces”.Socialchange,accordingtoFriedmann(1987)istheaimofradicalplanning,

andmorebroadlyspeaking,planningis“anactivityinwhichknowledgeisjoinedtoactioninthe

courseofsocialtransformation”(Friedmann1987:250).Socialchangehereisspatially

cultivated.AsFriedmann(1987:297)observes,“apoliticalpracticeaimedatsocial

transformationcanbeeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-politicalactionsofordinary

peoplegatheredintheirowncommunities.”Socialchangeinvolvesapubliclearningprocess

thatleadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues,accordingtoSandercock(2000).She

arguesfurther

…justasinsuccessfultherapythereisbreakthroughandindividualgrowthbecomespossible,sotoowithasuccessfultherapeuticallyorientedapproachtomanagingourco-existenceinthesharedspacesofneighborhoods,citiesandregions,thereisthecapacityforcollectivegrowth(Sandercock,2000:27).

Sandercockclaimsthatsuch‘collectivegrowth’inthelanguageofpoliticsiscalledsocial

transformation.

Tosumup,communitydevelopment–inthewayapproachedhere--bringsthepotentialfor

socialchange,andinapost-disastercontext,awindowofopportunityforsystemicchange

seemstoopenup,ifonlyephemerally(Oliver-Smith,2002;Pelling,2003;PellingandDill,2010;

Solnit,2009).Theorysuggeststhatsocialandcommunitychange,includinginstitutional

adaptations,canbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovationcombinedwithcollaborativeapproaches

whicharesustainedthroughongoingparticipatoryprocessesthatallowforconstantnegotiation

betweenorganizationsandcommunityresidentsandparticipants(Healey,2006;Innesand

Booher,2010;Moulaertetal.,2010;Ostrom,1990).

Methodologicalchoices

AccordingtoCreswell(2007:102),therationaleforaqualitativestudyisthat“aneedexiststo

addtoorfillagapintheliteratureortoprovideavoiceforindividualsnotheardinthe

literature.”InthisdissertationIaimtoaddtoexistingliteratureonpost-disaster

30

reconstruction,internationalcommunitydevelopmentstrategiesandparticipatoryapproaches

towardsocialchange.Theresearchisalsomeanttoprovideavoiceforthosenotheard,namely

communityresidentsinHaitiwhohaveenduredsubstantialhardship,mostrecentlyasaresult

ofthe2010earthquake.

Participatoryresearchentailsthat

researchers,actingasfacilitatorsandguardingagainsttheirownbiases,seektominimizeanypowerdifferentialsbetweenthemandtheresearched.Theresearchdesign,therefore,isflexible,abletorespondtochangingcontextsandemergentfindingsastheyarise.Methodsareoftenvisualandinteractivetoallowparticipantswithallbackgroundstoparticipateinbothgeneratingandanalyzingthedata....thosewhoparticipatehavetheirknowledgerespected,havecontrolovertheresearchprocessandinfluenceoverthewaytheresultsareused(LedwithandSpringett,2010:93).

Whileitwouldbeanoverstatementtocharacterizethisstudyas‘pure’participatoryresearchas

above,Ihaveintegratedparticipatorymethodsinfieldworkwherepossibleandappropriate,

andthedesignwasflexibleenableadaptationasneededbasedonfindingsandconditionsthat

aroseinthefield.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.First,participatoryresearch

methodologiesandmethodsarenowwellestablishedinfieldssuchaseducation,urban

planning,humangeography,publichealth,andcommunitydevelopment(Forester,1999;

Somekh,2006;LedwithandSpringett,2010;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000).

Relevanttomystudyaswellareworksontheapplicationoradaptationofparticipatory

learningandaction(PLA)methodsininternationaldevelopmentandinpost-disasterorfragile-

statecontexts(MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;NakkiranandRamesh,2009;Narayanasamy,

2009;andÖzerdemandBowd,2010).

Participatorymethodologiestypicallyemphasizetheuseofstoryandnarrativeanalysistolearn

fromlocalknowledge.Whystory?Storycanhavethepowertocommunicatewaysofknowing

thatareespeciallyappropriateinparticularculturalsettings,suchasthosewithpredominantly

oraltraditions(Sandercock,2003a).Young(1995)arguesthatstoryisparticularlyhelpfulin

cross-culturalsettingswheretheresearcheristryingtogainunderstandingofparticipants’ways

ofseeingandsituatedknowledges.Oneofthemostimportantwaysofacquiringknowledgein

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Haitihastraditionallybeenthroughstoriesandstorytelling.Patton(2002)claimsthatnarrative

analysiscanprovidewindowsintoculturalandsocialmeaningsbyaddressingtwofoundational

questions:Whatdoesthisstoryrevealaboutthepersonandworldfromwhichitcame?How

canthisnarrativebeinterpretedsothatitprovidesanunderstandingofandilluminatesthelife

andculturethatcreatedit?Flyvbjerg(2001)claimsthatnotonlyisnarrativeourmostbasic

formformakingsenseofourexperiencesalreadylived,butalsothatnarrativescanprovidea

forwardglance,helpingustoanticipatesituationsbeforetheyareencounteredandenablingus

toenvisionalternativefutures.Usingstoryandnarrativeinqualitativeresearchisnowwell

establishedinthefieldsofplanningandhumangeography(forexample,seeBerg,1989;Birdet

al.,2009;Crang,2005;Creswell,2007;Eckstein,2003;Patton,2002;Sandercock,2003b;

SandercockandAttili,2012;Throgmorton,2003;andWilesetal.,2005).

1.2ResearchObjectiveandQuestions

Themainobjectivewastoinvestigateanapproachtopost-disasterrebuildinginHaitithat

favorscollaborationamongNGOsandlocalpeopleforcommunitydevelopment.Specifically,

theresearchaimedtoexplorehowtheapproachcontributes(ornot)toprocessesof

communityandsocialchangeandtostate-societyrelations.Anemphasisisongivingvoiceto

localresidentsthroughparticipatoryengagement.Arelatedaimistoexploreanduncoverin

whatwayscivilsocietyorganizations’collaborativeengagementstrategiesmaypointtheway

towardnewpossibilitiesforsustainable,transformativecommunitydevelopmentandfor

participatorylocalgovernanceinHaiti,throughtheireffortsinareassuchasschool

developmentandeducation,socialenterprisecreation,environmentalinitiatives,anddialogue-

basedlearning.

ThroughastrategyofinquirythatincorporatescasestudyandparticipatoryresearchmethodsI

havesoughttocollect,analyzeandexposeindividual,communityandNGOnarrativesofpost-

earthquakeexperiencesalongwithopportunitiesandobstaclestorealizingvisionsforchange.I

thendevisedwaystotranslatelearningintopolicyandaction.Thisthesispointstoeffective

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communityplanningprocessesandstrategiesthatcouldbeadaptedtoothercontextsinHaiti

andmorewidelycontributetopost-disastercollaborativeplanning.

Thecentralthemeiscommunitydevelopmentanditspotentialtogeneratesocialchange,

particularlyinapost-disastercontext,whereawindowofopportunityforsystemicchangemay

open.Animportantrelatedsuppositionisthattheimplicationsofdevelopmentinitiativesfor

localpeopleareunlikelytobeastheymayappearonthesurface,particularlytoforeign

outsiders.Ihavesoughttointerrogatenotonlythecommunitydevelopmentinterventions,but

alsowhatliesbehindwhatisvisiblefromtheoutside,namelytheirimplicationsandmeanings

forthelivedrealitiesoflocalresidents.Aprincipalmethodologicalstrategywasthedesignof

context-specificparticipatoryresearchmethods,asdiscussedlater.

Asistypicalininterpretiveresearch,asecondaryresearchobjectiveemergedasimportant

duringthecourseofthestudy:thelocalgovernancecontextforthecommunitydevelopment

processesandprojectsunderway,includingrelationshipsbetweengovernment,localresidents,

andNGOs.FieldworkrevealedthatinternationalNGOswithasolidtrackrecordandtrusted

networksinHaitihavebeenindistinctpositionstoplaykeyrolesinpost-disastercommunity

development.

Centralresearchquestion

MyinterestwastoinvestigateNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations’experienceand

revealwhetherandhowtheymaybeseizingthepost-disasterwindowofopportunitytobring

aboutsocialtransformationthroughnewformsofparticipationaimedatlong-termcommunity

development.Specifically,thecentralquestionofmyresearchisthefollowing.

IntheaftermathofHaiti’s2010earthquake,whatcananexplorationofthe

experiences,dynamics,andearlyoutcomesofnewNGO-communitydevelopment

collaborationsexposeabouttheirimpactonprocessesofsocialchange?

33

Twocentralconceptsintheresearchquestionwereexpoundedonabove:NGO-community

developmentcollaborationsandsocialchange.Arelatedsecondaryquestionwas:Whatisthe

impactofthecommunitydevelopmentcollaborationsonevolvingconstructionsofstate-society

relationsandlearningfordevelopmentpolicyandpractice?

Issuesub-questions

Twokindsofsub-questionsoperationalizethecentralresearchquestion:issuequestionsand

topical(orinformation)questions,thelatterwhicharemoreorientedtogatheringspecific

information,suchasdetailsofasituationwithinacasestudythroughinterviews,documents,

fieldobservation,orothermeans(Stake,2010).FollowingaretheprincipalissuequestionsI

addressedinthisresearch.5

Theory:Whattheoreticalconceptshelpusunderstandpost-earthquakeNGO-community

developmentresponsesandresults(e.g.collaborativerationality,participatoryplanningand

governance)?Howdoparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentexperiencescontributeto

change?

Methodology:casestudyandparticipatory:Whatstrategyofinquiryandsetofmethodsare

bestsuitedtoaddressresearchaims,takingintoconsiderationthefieldsettingandthe

positionalityoftheresearcher?Whatdoindividualandcommunitynarrativesandpost-

earthquakelivedexperiencedynamicsexposeaboutunderstandingsofrebuildingstrategies,

aspirationsforthefuture,obstaclesencountered,andoutcomesofcollaborationstodate?

Whatarethestrengthsandshortcomingsofparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitative

longitudinalresearchinpost-disastersettings?

Interpretation:Howdorelationshipsofpowerandtrustshapecommunitydevelopment

processes?Howdolocalpeopleexperiencedevelopmentandmakesenseoftheirexperiences,

individuallyandcollectively?Howdopeopledevelopagencytobringaboutchangeat5Topicalquestionsareinformation-orientedandincludedwithinmethodologysectionbelow.

34

communityandstructurallevelstoachievesocialtransformation?Whatdoanalytical

frameworks,includingofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010)andphronesis

research(Flyvbjerg,2001),revealaboutthecaseexperiencesandNGOsinvolved,aswellas

understandingsofcommunitygovernanceintheabsenceofastate?Whatearlyrevelationsare

present,ifany,regardingdynamicsofsocialchange?

TheabovequestionsareaddressedinChapters2,3,4and5.OverallconclusionsinChapter6

addressthefollowingbroaderquestions.Whatlearningandnewunderstandingsareexposed

throughthisstudy,includingtransformativepossibilitiesandlimitationsofthecase

experiences?Whatarepolicyimplicationsforcommunities,NGOs,governmentsand

internationalagencies?

1.3ResearchDesignandOverallMethodology

Methodologychoicesareshapedbyresearchquestions(Stake,2010),buttheyarealsoshaped

byone’sworldview--suchaspragmatist,constructivist,oradvocacy/participatory–andvalues

andbeliefs(Creswell,2007,2009).Forexample,myownadherencetobeliefsinthepotential

fortransformationandhowitisachieved(Freire,2011),coupledwithvaluesoftherightto

humanflourishing(Friedmann,2011)inwaysthatrespectplanetaryboundaries(Raworth,

2012)influencemymethodologyandmethodchoices.AsStakepointsoutinhisworksoncase

studyandqualitativeresearch,inqualitative(orinterpretive)inquiry,theresearcherisoftenthe

principalresearchinstrument(Stake,1995,2005,2010).AccordingtoFlyvbjerg(2001,2006,

2012),casestudiesproducecontext-dependentknowledge,whichistheonlyknowledge

possibleinthestudyofhumanaffairs.Hearguesthatcasesaremoreaboutlearning

somethingthanaboutprovingsomething.MyresearchdesigndrawsparticularlyonCreswell’s

worksonqualitativeandmixedmethodsdesigns(2007and2009),andonFlyvbjerg’scasestudy

approachtowhathecalls‘phroneticsocialinquiry’(2001and2006).CreswellandPlanoClark

(2011)setsoutahelpfuldesignframe(Figure1.1).

35

Worldview

Beginningbroadly,aparadigmshapeshowoneseestheworldandapproachesresearch.My

perspectivealignsmostwithParticipatory,andalsowithConstructivismandPragmatism

worldviews.InaParticipatoryworldview(suchasLedwithandSpringett,2010),oneplansfor

thesocialworldtochangeforthebetter.Itischaracteristicinthisparadigmforresearchersto

involveparticipantsascollaborators,andtorepresentfindingsinawaythatwilladvocate

change.InConstructivism,aresearcherreliesonparticipants’viewsofthesituationwhichis

beingstudied,andstrategiesinvolveopen-endedquestioningandinductivetheorybasedon

patternsofmeaningthatariseintheresearch(Creswell,2009).Pragmatismcentersonlinking

theoryandpracticeandtypicallybringsmultipleperspectivestoresearchproblems(seePatton,

2002).InthisstudyIconsideredperspectivesofparticipants,NGOs,andpolicyactors,aswellas

myownandothers’fromacademicliterature.

Figure1.1:ResearchDesignFrame

Source:adaptedbytheauthorfromCreswell&PlanoClark(2011)

Theoreticallens

Iusedatheoreticallenstohelpfocusthestudyandtoprovideafiltertointerprettheprimarily

qualitativedataandcommunicatethe‘story’oftheresearch.AccordingtoCreswell(2009:62),

“atheoreticallensorperspective…becomesanadvocacyperspectivethatshapesthetypesof

questionsasked,informshowdataarecollectedandanalyzed,andprovidesacallforactionor

Worldview / paradigm

Theoretical lens

Methodological approach

Methods

36

change”.AsshowninFigure1.2,participatorytheoriesconnectedwithsocialand

environmentaljusticeandgovernanceprovidetheoutershapeofthelens.Focusnarrowson

transformativetheories,particularlythoseassociatedwithsociallearningandrolesforcivil

society,suchasinFriedmann(1992,2011);Freire(2011,original1972,);GursteinandAngeles

(2007);Ledwith(2011);andWright(2010).Centraltothelensispraxis,whichgenerallyrefers

tothebalancebetweentheoryandaction.IdrawonthemorespecificnotionofpraxisofPaulo

Freire(2011,original1972),whichis“reflectionandactionupontheworldinordertotransform

it”(page36).AccordingtoFreire,itisthroughpraxisthatoppressedpeoplecangaincritical

awarenessoftheirowncondition,and,withcollectiveefforts,struggleforliberation.This

‘criticalpraxis’issteeredbyvaluesandissuesofsocialjustice,sustainability,participation,and

anideologyofequality.Ledwith(2011)definesthebasisofcriticalpraxisascritical

consciousnessandananalysisofhegemonycomingtogetherincommunity.Criticalpraxis

engageswithmultiplerationalitiesinsocial,politicalandplanningcontextsthatextendbeyond

classicinstrumentalrationalitytootherrationalities,suchasthosebasedonvaluesand

collaboration.Flyvbjerg(2001)referstovaluerationalityinhisphronesisapproachtosocial

inquirywhichemphasizestherolesofcontext-dependentethicsandlearning,andInnesand

Booher(2010)havedevelopedcollaborativerationality,whichlinkstotheirtheoryof

collaborativecomplexityandnegotiationcalledDIAD:basedonincorporatingaDiversityof

interests,Interdependenceamongthem,andAuthenticDialogue.

Figure1.2:TheoreticalLens

Source:theauthor

37

Methodologicalapproaches

Mymethodologycombinescasestudyandparticipatoryapproaches.Consistentwithphronetic

research(Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012),mystrategyofinquiryfocusesoncombining

bothactorandstructurallevelsofanalysis--understandingfromwithinandfromoutside.

BelowIdescribemycaseapproach,selectionanddesign,followedbyhowparticipatory

approachesareinterwoventhroughoutthecasestudyresearch.

Casestudyapproach

Casestudyhaslongbeenrecognizedasanappropriatemethodologicalapproachinthesocial

sciences,withitsuseexpandingintherealmofqualitativesocialandinterpretiveinquiry(see

Creswell,2007and2009;DenzinandLincoln,2005;Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012;

Patton,2002;Stake,1995,2006,and2010;andYin,2009).

AccordingtoYin(2009),carryingoutcasestudyresearchisasomewhatlinearbutregularly

iterativeprocess(seeFigure1.3).Aftertheinitialplananddesignforthecasestudyare

developed,aresearcherpreparesforfieldwork,collectsdata,analyzes,andthensharesresults.

Thepreparation,collection,design,andanalysisphasesarerehearsediterativelyinorderto

continuallyrefineapproachesandupdatedesignandcollectionmethodsasneeded.The

researchisre-packagedandsharedalongthewayinordertogetfeedbackfromadvisorsand

fieldcollaborators.

Eachcaseinvolvesaparticulardomain,whichStake(1995)referstoasits‘quintain’or‘thing’.

Inthisstudy,thequintainisNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationsandthecentralcase

hasbeenselectedbasedonapurposive,information-orientedsamplingstrategy,which

combinesinstrumentalandparadigmaticselection.Itisinstrumentalinthatthequintainandits

issuesaredominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseIwouldhopetobeable“to

developametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthecaseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,

2001:79).

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Figure1.3:PartsoftheMethodologicalProcess

Figure1.4providesagraphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign.Theprincipalcaseisa

collectionofcommunitydevelopmentinitiativesinBellevue-La-Montagne,Haiti,whichI

categorizeas‘education-centeredcommunitydevelopment’.Collaborativeeffortsbeganinthe

yearfollowingtheearthquakewhenlocalresidentsandanNGO,HaitiPartners,discussed

possiblecollaborativestrategiesforrebuildingintheirareawhichhadbeenhithardbythe

quake.EventhoughHaitiPartners’co-directorhadlivedinthisneighborhoodformorethan15

years,theworkoftheorganizationhadalwaysbeenfocusedinotherareasofthecountry,and

primarilyoneducation.Intheyearjustbeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartnersfeltthatitwas

timetobeengagedmoredirectlyintheneighborhoodvicinityoftheirhomeandtheywere

slowlyinvestigatinginterestlocallyincollaborativeeducationanddevelopmentprojects.

Inthewakeoftheearthquake,thedesireandneedtocollaborateonlocalinitiativeswas

heightenedandtheybeganinformallytalkingwithmanyneighbors,whocommunicatedthe

needforaschoolinthearea.GiventheexpertiseandexperienceofHaitiPartnersineducation

anddemocraticpractice,theycontinueddiscussionswithpeopleastheylookedforasitefora

newschool,andeventuallyfoundanavailablepieceoflandinavillageoftheBellevue-La-

MontagnesectionofPétionville,calledBawosya.Overthecourseofthenexttwoyears(2010-

39

2012),HaitiPartnersheldregularopenpublicmeetingsinvitinglocalpeopletosharetheir

needs,concerns,andaspirationsforthearea,andtogivefeedbackonevolvingplansfora

schoolandlearningcenter.Basedonearlydeterminationoftheneedtocreateaschool,this

aimbecamethecenterpieceofthedevelopmentinbothliteralandmetaphoricsenses–itisan

education-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatincorporatesparticipation,social

learning,andsocialenterprise.HaitiPartnersjoinedforceswithArchitectureforHumanityand

BARArchitectstodesignthesiteandschoolbuildings,andlocalpeopleprovidedtheirinputat

weeklypublicmeetingsthroughoutthedesignperiod.Thefirstschoolbuildingwasbuiltin

2012-2013andthefirstclassof25three-year-oldscompletedtheirfirstacademicyearinJune

2013.Otherneedsemergedfromcommunitydiscussions,namelytocreatemorelocaljobs

(specificallyconstruction)andproducts(abakery).HaitiPartnersthenbroughtinGrameen

CreativeLabs/YunusSocialBusiness(foundedbyNobelPeacePrizeLaureateProfessor

MuhammadYunus)tocarryoutresearchandpreparebusinessplans,andeventuallytheyraised

fundingtoestablishtwosocialenterprisestogeneraterevenuestreamsfortheschoolandto

provideneededlivelihoodopportunities,training,services,andproductsforlocalcommunities.

Thebakerycooperativewasestablishedin2012andconstructedinsummerof2013.A

constructioncooperativewasformedtoprovidelocaljobsandtrainingintheconstructionof

thebakeryandadditionalschoolbuildings.OtherNGOandindividualpartnersareinvolvedin

variousaspectsofthecollaborations,suchasahumanwastecompostingsystem,teacher

trainingprograms,andahealthclinic.

ThecasestudyofcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-Montagne(Chapter2)providesa

portraitofthelocalsituationfiveyearspost-earthquake.AsFigure1.4depicts,theprincipal

case(seecentralcircle)hasinvolvedworkatthreetypesofsites:1)theschoolandsocial

enterprisehub,whichisalsoacommunitygatheringplace;2)participanthomes,wherewe

conductedinterviews;and3)placesidentifiedthroughdatacollectionsuchassacredplacesand

problemspotsofthearea.Thebottomhalfofthecentralcirclerepresentsdatacollection

methods.The‘embeddedcases’refertothegroupof12localresidentswhotookpartinthe

DyalògFotoprocessinJuly2013(detailsinMethodssectionbelowandChapter4).Otherdata

wascollectedthroughinterviewswithNGOs,governmentofficials,andinternationalagency

40

Figure1.4:GraphicRepresentationoftheResearchDesign

41

representatives,anddocumentsrelevanttothisresearchstudywerecollectedfromeachof

thesesources.

OntheleftsideofthecentralcircleofFigure1.4arecircleswithContextandCommunity

profile.IdetailedhowtheNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationscameaboutandwho

wasinvolved,basedondatacollectedfrominterviewswithanddocumentationfromNGOs

involvedinthecollaboration.Thecommunitystudycontentfocusesonlearningfrom

collaborativeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproaches,localinstitutionaland

civicengagementframeworks,andtheinterplayandcollaborativedynamicsofcivilsociety,

NGOs,andlocalpeopleindecision-makingandaction.Participatoryresearchmethods(see

Methodssectionbelow)areincorporatedtounderstandcommunityaspirationsandenablea

criticalanalysisofthemainbarrierstorealizingthem.Ihaveaimedtounderstandaswellhow

relationshipsofpowershapecommunitydevelopmentanddecision-makingprocesses.

Icollecteddatathatarepertinenttounderstandingcurrentconditions,suchasthehistoric

communitycontextandkeyeventsofrecentyears,particularlytheearthquake;localsocial,

political,andenvironmentalconditions;thewiderpolicycontext;andimportantsituational

factors.Idesignedtheresearchinawaythatfacilitateslongitudinalstudysothatcommunity

changecanbetrackedintheyearsbeyondthisthesis.

Asecondarycasewasinvestigated(Figure1.4,rightside)atHabitatSantoVillageinLéogâne.

LiketheprincipalcaseofBellevue-La-Montagne,thecommunitysharesacommonpost-

earthquakeparadigmofcollaborativerebuildingstrategiesandparticipatoryprocessesthat

engagecivilsociety,NGOs,andlocalleadersinplanninganddevelopment.

Bothstudycommunitieswereselectedbasedonaninformation-orientedsamplingstrategy.

Thecommunitiesrepresentatraditional‘lakou’areaadjacenttoagrowingperi-urbanarea

(Bellevue-La-Montagne)andanewcommunitybuiltpost-earthquakeonthesiteofaformer

tentcamp(HabitatSantoVillage).

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Asamplingofcaseissuesandinformationquestions(bottomFigure1.4.)areincluded,andare

integratedininquirydesign.Anumberoffurtherquestionsaboutthissetofcollaborations

arosethatareworthyofscholarlyattention,suchasthefollowing.Whatarethefactorsthat

haveenabledtheseprojectstobecreatedandimplementedwhenmostpost-earthquake

reconstructionhasstalled?Whathavebeenthemainobstaclesandconcerns,andwhatcanbe

learnedfromthem?Howarethesecollaborativeeffortsaffectinglocalpeople,theireveryday

lives,andtheirprospectsforthefuture?Howaretheprojectsgovernedandwhoholdsthe

power?Inwhatwaysarelocalpeoplebenefitingornotfromthecommunitydevelopment,and

whataretheprospectsforsocialchange?Iengagedanumberofmethodstoaddressthese

questions,includinginterviews,documentstudy,observation,andparticipatorymethods,as

describedbelow.

Apropositionwithrespecttothisresearchisthatthecollaborativeeffortsunderwayinvolve

participationofcommunitiesandorganizations(localandinternational)indialogical

negotiationsthatappeartoaimtosharepowerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeopleand

groups,andtocreate,change,orpreservemechanisms,structures,andinstitutionsconsistent

withtheinterestsoflocalpeopleandorganizations.Anaimofthisstudyhasbeentoexpose

whetherthispropositionisvalidfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.

Participatoryapproach

Theparticipatoryapproachadoptedintheresearchreflectedtheaimtolook‘behindthe

scenes’ofcommunitydevelopmentcollaborationstohearaboutandunderstandthe

perspectivesoflocalresidents.The‘embeddedcases’listedinFigure1.4represent12people

withwhomIcarriedoutparticipatoryresearchin2013.6

Iprovidedatheoreticaljustificationabove(under‘Methodologicalchoices’)forusing

participatorymethodsforthisstudy.Ialsochosethisapproachduetomyownbackground

withparticipatorydevelopmentfacilitationanditsrisinguse,andrelevance,inHaitian6IbeganparticipatoryresearchduringpreliminaryfieldworkinJuly2012,throughamethodcalled‘FowòmFoto’.

43

communitydevelopment.Ihavemanyyearsofexperienceleadingparticipatoryapproachesin

planningandcommunitydevelopment,andIhaveagoodunderstandingofwhathasbeen

effectiveandnotindesigningparticipatorymethodsfordifferentsettingsandaudiences.The

integrationofparticipatoryaspectsappliesnotonlytotheuseofmethods,butalsotothe

researchdesignsothatlocalparticipantscanhavesomeinfluenceonand‘ownership’ofthe

research,allowingittobemeaningfultothem.Thisapproachimpliesaniterativeprocessanda

willingness,onmypart,tobeopentomodifyingcertainaspectsoftheresearchifneeded.I

understoodtheimportanceofbeingclearonwhichaspectsoftheresearchwereopento

modificationandwhichwerenot.Forexample,Icarriedoutaparticipatoryphotoandstory

elicitationexercise,called‘FowòmFoto’,in2012.Iwasabletogatherdataandbetter

understandparticipantperspectives.IlearnedthattheuseofcamerasandphototakinginHaiti

isdeeplymeaningful,butthatwhilemanyHaitiansareaccustomedtobeing‘subjects’ofphotos

takenbywhitepeople,theyrarelyhaveanopportunitytoholdcamerasthemselvestotake

theirownphotosofwhattheychoose;the‘FowòmFoto’allowedthemtodoso.Furthermore,

photosofselvesandlovedonesarecherishedbyHaitiansbutaretooexpensiveformostto

afford;‘FowòmFoto’leftthemwithphotosthattheycouldshareandkeep.Ifoundaswellthat

photosenabledpeopletoseethemselvesandtheirworkdifferently.Oneparticipantremarked

thatthechairshemadewereevenmorebeautifulinphotos,andthatseeingtheminphotosled

himtolookathisworkdifferentlyandtakemoreprideinhishandiwork.Second,someofthe

NGOsandHaitiansIworkedwithhaveextensiveexperienceinandhighlyvalueparticipatory

approaches.Theirpre-earthquakeexperienceinvolvedparticipatoryapproachesprimarilyin

schoolsettingsorforeducationalpurposes,however,sincethe2010earthquake,basedonlocal

communityneeds,theirparticipatoryeffortshavebeguntoextendintocommunitydevelop-

mentandlocalgovernance,asatHabitatSantoVillage.Theseparticipatoryapproachesare

slowlyseepingintopost-disasterprogramsandpracticesinHaiti.

QualitativeLongitudinalResearchSensibility

Qualitativelongitudinalresearchisasmuchasensibilityasamethodologyandgivesclose

considerationtotemporalaspectsofresearch.Itinvolvesadanceofflexiblyandadaptively

44

designingtheresearchovertimeinordertoexposeprocessesofsocialchange.Becauseakey

aimofthisstudyistounderstandwhetherNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationsare

contributingtosocialchange,andsocialchangeisalong-termandoftenelusivesetof

processes,Ihavedesignedthisstudyinawaythatwillenablelongitudinalstudytocontinue

afterthethesisiscomplete.Qualitativelongitudinalresearch(orQLR)isagrowinglineof

research.SeveralnewQLRresearchcentershavebeenestablished.Publishedworksinclude

McLeodandThomson(2009)andSaldaña(2003).PellingandDill(2010)callformoreQLR-like

researchtobecarriedoutinpost-disastersettings.

Qualitativelongitudinalresearchcanexposeprocessesofsocialchangethroughthelensof

individualorsmallgroupexperience(McLeodandThomson,2009).Perlman(2010),for

instance,conductedalongitudinalstudyofsortswithfavelaresidentsinRiodeJaneirawhoshe

hadinterviewedforherdoctoraldissertationinthe1960s,andthenwentbackandfound

participantsandtheirdescendants30yearslatertolearnhowtheirlivesandconditionshad

changedoverthatperiod.7Ihavecollecteddataincasecommunitiesinwaysthatwillfacilitate

goingbacktothesamefamiliesandcommunitiesovertimetostudydynamicsofcommunity

andsocialchangeinthoseplaces.

Methods

Myfieldworkwascarriedoutinthreephases:preliminaryworkandreconnaissancein2011,

phaseoneandtestingin2012,andphasetwoin2013(seeFigure1.5).During2011and2012I

undertookthefollowingactivities.

• ConsolidatedrelationshipswithHaitiancollaborators,communicatedmyresearchproject,andelicitedfeedback.

7JanicePerlman’sFavela(2010),whilenottechnicallyQLR,providesanexcellentexampleofresearchthat‘revisits’familiesinRiodeJaneirofavelasmorethan30yearsaftertheoriginalinterviewswereconducted.Thestudyprovidesuniqueinsightsaboutchangesthatoccurredindozensoffamiliesattwopointsintimeoverfortyyears.However,becauseparticipantswerenotinterviewedintheinterveningperiod,thestudydidnotenableadaptivelearningovertimethatmighthaverevealedtrendstopointtowardchangesinlocaldecisionmakingandpolicyalongtheway.

45

• Participatedinan‘OpenSpaceHaiti’eventwith60educationandcommunityleadersinordertodiscusscurrentconditionsandstrategizeaboutthefutureinthelocalandwidercontextsofparticipatorycommunitydevelopment,education,andsocialenterpriseinHaiti.

• Testedtheuseof‘story’methodsthatincorporatedphoto-takingexercises,andstoryelicitationvideosinordertohearaboutparticipantlikesanddislikesabouteverydaylifeandwhatismeaningfultothem,earthquakeexperiences,andtheiraspirationsforandconcernsaboutthefuture.

• ConductedinterviewsandresearchatHabitatSantoVillageandinterviewswiththelead

organization,HabitatforHumanity,andtheorganizationimplementingaparticipatorygovernanceprocess,HaitiPartners.Subsequently,thisresearchwaswrittenupintwopapers(Chapter5ofthisthesisandEngle-Warnick,BornsteinandLizarralde,2013).

• VisitedtheDelmas32neighborhoodwithJP/HROrepresentatives.8ThisNGOmanagedthe

largesttentcampinPort-au-Prince(population60,000atitsheight),andsince2012hasundertakeneffortstorelocateresidentsbacktotheirpre-earthquakeneighborhoods.NearlyhalfthepopulationlivedintheDelmas32neighborhoodofPort-au-Prince.JP/HROcarriedoutanumberofcollaborativerelocationanddevelopmentinitiativesintheneighborhoodinhealthcare,waterprovision,educationandcommunityservices,andphysicalreconstructionofhomesandinfrastructure.

Primarydatacollectionwassuccessfulthroughoutfieldwork,aswassecondarydatacollection

fromNGOs.Ihaddifficulty,however,collectingsecondarydatafromgovernmentsources.For

example,Iattemptedtoanswerthefollowingquestions,butwasunabletoaccesslocal

governmentdataforthemaincasecommunity.ThisissymptomaticofalargerprobleminHaiti

regardingthelackofaccuratedataavailabilitytoinformdecision-making.Forexample,itwas

notpossibletohaveclearandreliableresponsestothefollowingquestions.

Whatreliablesecondarydataareavailable,suchasdemographic,landuse,social,economic,andenvironmentalconditions?Whatwerethephysicaleffectsoftheearthquake(e.g.homesandinfrastructuredestroyed,environmentalconditionsaltered)?Whatspatialandstrategicplansexistforthecommunity?Whatmorecanbelearnedaboutthepoliticalcontextincludingdecentralizationplans?

Animportantsourceofdatainmyresearchisstory.Iusestoryinthreeways:1)asamodeof

datacollection,whereresearchparticipantsarestorytellers,asinearthquakeinterviews;2)asa

8JP/HROwasfoundedbyAmericanactor,SeanPenn,intheearthquakeaftermath.WhileIconductedinformalinterviewswithseveralstaffmembers,itwasnotpossibletoobtainapprovalforaformalresearchrelationship.

46

modeofrepresentation,whereIasresearcheramstoryteller,asinthecommunitycorestory

toldinChapter4;and3)asamodeofreasoningandinterpretation,asinnarrativeanalysis(or

narratology),asinmyinterpretationsofdatacollectedthroughparticipatoryphotography,

mapping,anddialoguecircles.Also,Icollectindividualstorydatathroughfocusgroups(called

dialoguecircleshere),semi-structuredandopen-endedinterviews,andotherparticipatory

exercises.Thesemethodswerecarriedoutprimarilyinsummer2013with12people

(embeddedcasesinFigure1.4)inaprocesscalled‘DyalogFoto’,whichfollowedthelessin-

depthinitialprocess,andFowòmFoto,whichIcarriedoutin2012.9InDyalogFoto,Iconducted

aseriesofparticipatoryactivitiesoverthecourseofamonth.Photoworkshops,participatory

mapping,probe-basedandsemi-structuredinterviews,focusgroups,andvideointerviewswere

incorporated.Imadeadjustmentsinthefieldasneededandappropriate,suchasincludinga

communitytimelineprocess,adaytovisittheregionalmarkettogethertolearnabouttrading

practicesandlocallivelihoods,andthedesignandtimetocarryoutacommunitywalkofplaces

mostimportant(orcontroversial)tolocalresidents.

Figure1.5:FieldworkPhases

2011:Conductedpreliminaryexploration,reconnaissance:consolidatedrelationships,networks2012:Collectedprimaryandsecondarycaseandcontextualdata/testedparticipatorymethods2013:Collectedprimarycaseandcontextualdata/carriedoutparticipatorymethods2014-2016:Continuedremotedatacollectionandmembercheckingwithresearchcollaborators

2011201220132014-2016

9ThebasisforworkingwithagroupthesizeofabouttenpeopleintheseparticipatoryexercisesstemsfromtheoryinFriedmann’ssociallearningapproach(Friedmann1987:185).

47

ThestructureoftheDyalògFotoprocessandrelatedfieldworkwasdesignedtoaddress

phroneticinquiryquestions(Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012)fromthepointofviewof

participants.Phroneticresearchquestionsarethefollowing.

1. OfwhatstoryorstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?

2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Andisitdesirable?

3. Whowinsandwholosesandbywhichmechanismsofpower?

4. What,ifanything,dowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?

DuringtheDyalògFotoparticipatorymethods,Icollecteddatathroughinterviews,participant

observation,fieldnotes,audioandvideorecordings,photographstakenbymeandthe

participants,aswellasadditionaloutputsoftheparticipatorymethods,includingmaps,

communitytimeline,andacommunityguidedwalk.IconductedinterviewswithNGO

representatives,governmentanduniversityofficials,andrepresentativesofinternational

agencies.Datawerecollectedinthreelanguages:primarilyHaitianCreole,andalsoFrenchand

English.AlldataweretranscribedandtranslatedtoEnglishforeaseofanalysis.

Theaimsofanalysisandinterpretationcarriedoutpostfieldworkweretoaddressthecentral

researchquestionandissuequestions(above),includingthemeaningofNGO-community

developmentcollaborationsforlocalpeopleandwhichconditionsandstrategiesseemto

potentiallycontribute,ornot,tosocialtransformation.Icarriedoutanalysisandinterpretation

usingstandardsofrigorinqualitativeresearch,drawingonnarratology,thematiccoding,and

patternanalysis(suchasinRyanandBernard,2000).Ialsodrewoncasestudysourcesfor

analyticalandinterpretivetechniques,suchascategoricalaggregationanddirectinterpretation

(Stake,1995;Yin,2009).ForChapter5,IusedInnesandBooher’s(2010)collaborative

rationalitytheorytoanalyzecollaborativepartnershipstructures.Ianalyzedmeaningand

potentialforsocialchangeatthecommunitylevel,innovationbyNGOsaffordedbythepost-

earthquakewindowofopportunity,andcollaborativedynamicsintheareasofsocialenterprise,

education,andparticipationandgovernance.

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1.4EthicalConsiderations

Ethicalconsiderationsarewoventhroughoutdecision-makingprocessesofresearchdesignand

implementation.Icontinuallyengagedincriticalreflexivity,whichinvolvesstudyingmyown

moralbeliefsandconductwithasensitivitytohowmyownethicsmayconflictwiththeethics

orsocialnormsinthefield.Isubmittedfieldworkproposalstotheuniversityethicalreview

boardin2012(seeAppendix),addressingissuesofinformedconsent,avoidingdeception,

ensuringconfidentialitywhenaskedfor,andprotectinganonymitywhenpossible.Throughout

fieldwork,Inegotiatedrelationships,manyofwhichhadastrongethicaldimensiontothem

(seealsoPositionalityandAcknowledgementssectionabove).WhoIchoosetoinvolveinthe

research,howIinvitedthemandhowIgathereddataraisedethicalissues.Reciprocity,orhowI

gavebacktoparticipantsfortheircontributionstomyproject,deservedcloseattentionsothatI

wasclearaboutwhatparticipantswouldstandtogainfrommystudy.Icarefullyconsidered

howbesttocommunicatewithparticipantsatkeystagesoftheresearch.Iwasawarethatmy

presenceasaresearchercouldaffectcommunitychangeandhaveunanticipatedconsequences.

IwassensitivetohowmypresenceaffectedrelationshipsofthosearoundmeandwhetherIput

participantsatrisk.Iwasalsoclearaboutwhowasentitledtovariousoutputsoftheresearch,

suchasphotos,videos,andwrittenstories.Becausemisunderstandingscanoccurindata

gathering,analysis,interpretationandrepresentation,particularlyincross-cultural

environments,Iwasconsciousofmyresponsibilitytomemberchecktoverifythatthe‘voices’

ofparticipantswerewellrepresented.ThismeansthatIconsultedsubsequentlywith

participantswhereappropriateandpossibletovalidateaccuracyofdatagathered.I

communicatedregularlywithparticipantsthroughouttheresearchprocesstohelpdecrease

potentialformisunderstandings.

1.5OverviewofFollowingChapters

Thismanuscript-basedthesiscontainsthreepapers,formattedhereasChapters2,4,and5,as

wellastwovideos,containedasChapter3.Eachchapterhasabriefintroduction.

49

Chapter2istheCommunityCaseStudyPaper,whichisbyfarthelongestofthethreearticles.

Itprovidesaconceptualframeworkfortherelationshipbetweencommunitydevelopmentand

socialchangeanditdetailstheprincipalcaseofthisthesis,theBellevue-La-Montagne

communityandHaitiPartners’approachtheretoeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.

Italsohasa‘behindthescenes’lookatlocalresidents’communitydevelopmentexperiences,as

wellastheirexistingandaspirationalnarrativesforchange.Thenarrativesexposed‘tension

points’inanumberofpowerdynamics,andenabledidentificationof‘leversoftransformation’

thatcouldopenuppossibilitiesforsystemicchange.

Chapter3isrepresentedintheformofvideo.Itcomprisestwoversions(13minutesand6

minutes)Iproducedtocommunicateapartofthisresearchtoawideraudienceandasa

teachingtool.Bothversionsofthevideoformpartofthisthesisandmayalsobeaccessed

onlineat:vimeo.com/jayneeworviatheVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:

vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.

Chapter4istheParticipatoryMethodsPaper,whichfocusesprimarilyontheparticipatory

photographyandmappingmethodologiesofthisthesis.Ihaveanalyzedboththeresults

generatedbycarryingoutthemethods,andthestrengthsandweaknessesofthemethods

themselves.Byiterativelydesigningtheresearchandadaptingthemethodsaccordingtothe

localcontextandconditions,Iwasabletodelvedeeperintosomeofthethreatstosustaining

thecommunitydevelopmentunderway,notablystate-societyrelationships,asenseof

powerlessnessandresignation,anddifferencesinoutcomesbetweenindividualsandthe

communityasawhole.Anaddendumisprovidedwithphotographsofandbythe12local

residentsofBellevue-La-MontagnewithwhomIconductedthein-depthparticipatory

processes.

Chapter5istheCommunityGovernancePaper,whichoutlinestheexperienceofcommunityco-

designofalocalgovernancemodelforthenewhousingcommunity,HabitatSantoVillage,

constructedbyHabitatforHumanityjustaftertheearthquakeonthesiteofapost-disastertent

camp.I,togetherwithmyco-authors,analyzeacollaborativedialogueprocess--‘Good

50

Neighbor’,asixmontheffortatdesigningcommunitylocalgovernance--throughthelensof

collaborativerationalitytheory.

Chapter6istheconcludingchapter.Itsetsoutthetheoryofchangedevelopedinthisresearch,

synthesizeskeyresults,andprovidesresearchcontributionsandpolicyrecommendationsas

wellasfuturedirectionsforthiswork.

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PrefacetoChapter2:CommunityCaseStudyPaper

StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?

Acasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti

Thischapterdescribestheprincipalcaseofthisthesis,theBellevue-La-Montagnecommunity

andHaitiPartners’approachtoeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.Participatoryand

phronesisresearchmethodologiesreveal‘insider’and‘outsider’perspectivesonthecommunity

developmentanditsmeaningforlocalpeople.Findingsrevealthat,inspiteofsubstantial

progressindevelopmentprojects,tensionpointspotentiallythreatenlong-termsustainability.

Localnarrativesexposedthese‘tensionpoints’inpowerdynamicsaswellas‘leversof

transformation’thatareopeninguppossibilitiesforsystemicchangeandprogressingfrom

communitychangeasrevealedhere,tobroaderanddeepersocialtransformation.

Communityorganizationsaretheplacewherepeoplelearnthepraxisofarealdemocracy,

learntodefendonepositionandtolistentoanother,todecidetogether,todividethework

tobedone,tosetobjectives.Itistheplacewhereexperimentscanbeattempted,insmall

asinlargematter,withallthejoyandstrengthofworkinsolidaritywithothers.

DiegoPalma(1988:25)quotedinFriedmann(1992:78)

Myfatherwasanimportanttontonmacoute.Everytimewesawhiminhisuniform,we

leftthehouse,werantohide.Sometimeshecamewithfellowmacoutesandhadus

marcharound.Weknewthatwhenhecamehewouldhaveusdothat,soweranandhid.

Butaftertheregimefell,theywerechasingandkillingmacoutes,nothinghappenedtomy

father.Histontonmacoutecardisstillthere[inthehouse].Atthetime,wedugabighole

toburyhisuniform,butnothinghappenedtohim.

Researchparticipant,2013

52

Chapter2:StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?

Acasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti

2.1Introduction

I’mnotcompletelycomfortable[withmylife],becauseI’mlimited.IfIhadcontinuedin

school,Icouldhaveadifferentfuture...Iammyfather’soldestdaughter1;hehaddreams

forme,butthingswentwrong;Ishouldhavegonefurtherinschooltobeabletogetajob

witharegularsalary.Currently,Ihavenoregularincome.Bynow,Iwouldhavealmost

completedmyeducation.Ihadtoquitschool[atage19],whenIwassupposedtogointo

7thgrade.

Lisa,residentofBellevue-La-Montagne,20132

Haitihasneverhadatraditionofprovidingservicestothepopulation. SinghandBarton-Dock,2015

ThemajorityofchildreninHaitidonotattendschoolregularly.Only12percentofprimary

schoolsarepublic,andmostoftherestrelyonparent-paidtuition,whichisdifficultformost

familiestosustain.Basicservicessuchascleanwater,electricity,andhealthcarearescarceor

nonexistentinmostcommunities,andmalnutritionandhungerareontherise.Therearean

estimated200,000formaljobsinacountryofmorethantenmillionpeople.Storiessuchas

Lisa’sarenotunusual.Shelivesinacountrywhereeducationisnotaright,norisaccessto

basichumanservices.Inshort,Haitiisacountrywheretherehasneverbeenatruesocial

contractinwhichthestatelistenstoorworkswithcivilsociety(Tippenhauer,2010;Singhand

Barton-Dock,2015).

CurrentconditionsinHaitiareanoutcomeofthecountry’shistoricaldevelopment,whichhas

producedweakformalgovernanceandeconomicstructures,highlevelsofinequality,and

limitedsocialsafetynets.TheHaitianstatewascharacterizedas‘predatory’,‘fragile’or‘failed’

1Thefatherhashad20additionalchildrensinceLisa.2Researchparticipants’nameshavebeenchangedornotrevealedinordertoprotecttheirprivacy.

53

evenbeforethecatastrophicearthquakeofJanuary12,2010.Therewashopethatthedisaster

wouldopenawindowofopportunityfortransformation(Pierre-Louis,F.2011;Pierre-Louis,M.

D.2012).However,outcomesinHaitihavedeterioratedsincethen.Haiti’srankingontheUNDP

HumanDevelopmentIndexfellbythreeplacesin2014to163outof188countriesand

territories--byfarthelowestofanycountryintheAmericas.Adjustedforinequalityof

educationandincomewithinthecountry,Haitiranksevenlower(UNDP,2015).

Foreignassistancewithpost-earthquakerecoveryhasproducedmixedresults.Sixyearslater,

morethan60,000peoplestillliveintentcamps.Whiletherearepocketsofsomewhat

successfulpost-earthquakedevelopment(seeEngle-Warnick,BornsteinandLizarralde,2013

andBell,2013),mostattemptsofscalablerecoveryandrebuildingeffortshavefailed.The

politicaleffectsofforeigninterventionshaveunderminedthesovereigntyoftheHaitian

Government,whichsomeclaim,hasbecomea‘virtualtrusteeship’of‘theinternational

community’(Fatton,2014;Fatton,2016).Atthetimeofthiswritinginearly2016,therehasnot

beenafunctioningparliamentforoneyear,anditisunclearwhenPresidentialelectionswillbe

held.

Giventhenumerouschallengesandbarrierstodevelopment,exploringinstanceswhere

progresshasoccurredprovidesapossibleroadmapforotherendeavours.Inthispaper,I

investigatetheexperienceofaneducation-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentin

Bellevue-La-Montagne,anareawherepost-earthquakerecoveryinitiativeshavehadsome

success.Iexplorethiscommunitydevelopmentfromboth‘outsider’(NGO)and‘insider’(local

resident)perspectives,inordertoaddressthequestions:Whatdoesthiscasecontributeto

learningaboutpossibilitiesforcommunitychangeandpathwaystotransformationinHaiti?

Andrelatedly,isBellevue-La-Montagneanexampleof‘transformativecommunitydevelopment’

--thatis,localparticipatorydevelopmentthatishavinganimpactonsocialchange?

Thearticleissetoutinfoursections:1)Haiticontext,conceptualframeworkandmethodo-

logicalapproach;2)thecommunitycasestudyincludingbackgroundandvisionofthelead

54

organization,HaitiPartners;3)a‘behindthescenes’viewofthecommunitydevelopment

underway,andadiscussionof‘tensionpoints’revealed;and4)identificationofexistingand

potentialleveragepointsforsystemstransformationforwhichthiscaseprovidesamicrocosm

andisinstructivetopracticeandpolicyacrossHaiti.Iconcludebyreturningtothequestionof

whethercommunitydevelopmentforsocialtransformationisevidentinthiscase.

Haiticontextandconceptualframework

Acentralargumentofthisarticleisthatmuch-neededchangetoHaiti’sdevelopmenttrajectory

canbefurtheredbylearningfromandscalinglocalcommunityexperienceswithparticipatory

developmentthatshowpromiseoftransformation,suchasthecaseofBellevue-La-Montagne

presentedhere.Threepointsprovideimportantcontext:1)historicalpatternsofoppression

anddevelopmenthaveresultedinentrenchedstructuralinequalitiesinHaiti;2)sincetheroleof

governmenthasbeenunderminedbyforeigninterventionsandinternalpolitics,NGOs–large

andsmall,localandinternational--havecometoplayadominantroleinthedevelopment

landscape,withassociateddrawbacksandopportunities;and3)thecommunitylevelisahighly

promisingsiteoftransformationwhenlocalpeoplehavetheagency--throughparticipatory

development--toact,particularlyintheareasofeducation,socialentrepreneurship,and

women’sempowerment.Inordertounderstandthecontextforlocalcommunitydevelopment

inHaitiandpotentialpathwaysforthecountry’stransformation,itisimportanttobeginwith

thebroaderbackdropofdevelopmentchallenges.

DilemmasofdevelopmentinHaiti

Historicalpatternsofslavery,oppressionandisolationintertwinedwithdeeplyembedded

structuralinequalitiesandfrequentdisasters–mostnotablythecatastrophicearthquakeof

2010–presentenormouschallengestochangingthedevelopmenttrajectoryofHaiti(Farmer,

2011;SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).Butitwouldnotbethefirsttimethat

Haitiansovercameseeminglyinsurmountablebarriers.Thebroaderstorythathascontributed

55

toshapingpresent-dayHaitibeganwithanunprecedentedhistoricalsuccessofthefirst,and

stillonly,successfulslaverevolution,whichledtotheindependenceofthecountryin1804.

Thatfeat,whichwasunfathomableatthetime,cameaboutduringcolonialismandaglobalized

slavetrade,andledtoothercountriesisolatingHaitiandfailinginitiallytorecognizeits

independence(Girard,2010).Haitiwouldgoontopayamassive‘debtofindependence’to

Franceuntil1946,andvariousUSinterventionsthroughouthistory–notleastanoccupation

from1915-1934andthesupportofbrutaldictatorsduringtheColdWar–contributedtoHaiti’s

inabilitytorecoveranditsexternalfocus;exporttradeandinternationalrelationshipswere

moreimportanttogovernmentthaninwardeffortstobuildasolidsocietyandpoliticalculture

(Dubois,2012).Haiti’scentralgovernmenthasbeenoppressive,brutal,andpredatoryatworst,

and,atbest,inshortperiodsofrelativestability,ithasremaineddysfunctionalandcorrupt

(HeineandThompson,2011).Thenever-endingtransitiontoa‘stabledemocracy’beganafter

theexileofdictatorJean-ClaudeDuvalierin1986withtheestablishmentoftheHaitian

Constitutionof1987,whichhasyettobeimplemented(Deshommes,2006;Deshommes,2012).

Foreigninterventionssincethattimeandadoptionofneoliberalisminpolitical,economicand

agriculturalsphereshavecontributedtofurtherinstability,foodinsecurity,and‘obscene

inequities’(Fatton,2016:34;Fatton,2014;Deshommes2006).Intermsofeconomic

development,strategiestocreatejobsthroughexportprocessingzonesforassemblyindustries

havebeena‘manifestfailure’intendedtoexploitHaiti’s‘ultracheaplabour’(Fatton,2014:77).

Thisapproachhascontributedtoenvironmentaldegradation,reductionoflandneededfor

agriculture,increasingnumbersofpeoplelivinginmiserableconditionsinvasturbaninformal

settlements–andwithjobsthat,forthemostpart,failtopayworkersalivingwage.Foreign

donorsbypassedthecorruptstateandcontributeddirectlytonongovernmentalorganizations

(NGOs)inthefollowingdecades,anditisestimatedthatmorethan10,000NGOsnowoperate

inHaiti(Schuller,2012;Fatton,2014).3Thesefactorsalongwithinternalpoliticalconflicthave

contributedtothecurrentsituationwhere,inspiteofmassivecontributions,internationalaid

hasfailedtobringaboutbetterlivingconditionsorinstitutionsinHaiti,whichremainsina

3Whileactualnumbersareunknown,itisestimatedthatperhaps10,000NGOsworkinHaiti,whichwouldgiveitthehighestnumberpercapitaofanycountryintheworld–thereasonthatHaitiisreferredtoas‘theRepublicofNGOs’.AccordingtoNationalGeographic(seeFuller,2015),atleast4,000NGOsareregisteredofficiallyinHaiti.

56

‘conflict-povertytrap’eveninthemidstofhighlevelsofsocialresilience(WorldBank,2006).

Goodparadigmsforwhatcouldworktobringaboutlasting,systemicchangehavenotyet

emergedonasubstantialscale(HeineandThompson,2011;Schuller,2012;Tippenhauer,2010).

Continuingstructuralinequalitiesinthecountryaremanifestinlowliteracyratesandan

abysmaleducationsystem,massivepovertyanddeprivation,andculturalnormsthat

disempowerthemajorityofpeopleandparticularlywomen.

Ordinarypeople–thevastmajorityverypoor--havelimitedaccesstothemostbasicservices.

IfevenpriortotheearthquakeHaitiwasahumanemergency,todayitisacatastrophe.Inspite

ofwhatseemedtobehistoricgoodwillonthepartsofinternationalagenciesandgovernments,

thereislittleevidencetodayofgood,scalablereconstructionprojectswiththepotentialto

createsystemicchange.Intheaftermathoftheearthquake,foreignassistancepatterns

reinforcedstateincapacitybycontributingonlyonepercent($25million)ofatotalof$2.43

billiontotheGovernmentofHaiti.Infact,approximately99percentofpost-earthquakerelief

aidwenttonon-Haitianactors(Fatton,2016;UnitedNations,2011).RobertFattonJr.(2014

and2016)argues,Haitihasfurtherlostsovereigntyandbeenreducedtoa‘virtualtrusteeship’

oftheinternationalcommunity,andisnowrelegatedtothe‘outerperiphery’oftheworld

economicsystem.NGOsattempttofillcratersofneedhereandthere,butthereislittle

coordination,accountability,transparence,orconsistency,andtheperformanceandresultsof

thethousandsofNGOsvaryenormously(Farmer,2011;Pierre-Louis,2011;Schuller,2012;

SchullerandMorales,2012).

WhileNGOaccountabilityisproblematicandperformanceishighlyheterogeneous,NGOs

representasignificantsetofplayersinthedevelopmentlandscapeofHaiti,astheydoinmany

othercountriesoftheGlobalSouth.Adebateinthedevelopmentliteraturerevolvesaroundthe

roleofNGOsvis-à-visthestateinmattersofcommunityandinternationaldevelopment.In

recentdecades,andarguablylargelyinresponsetothediminishingroleofthestateinsocial

spheres,thesectorofNGOshasgrownsignificantly.InGlobalSouthsettings,officialaidhas

beendivertedto(mainlyinternational)NGOswithexpectationsoffavourabledevelopment

57

outcomes,particularlythatactivitiesofNGOswouldhelptomitigatenegativeeffectsof

neoliberalmacroeconomicpoliciesonvulnerablepeople,andthatagrowingNGOsectorwould

contributetodemocratizationthroughstrengtheningandpluralizingcivilsociety(Fowler,

1991).4NGOsandcivilsocietyaremurkyandcontestedterms,andarenotunderstoodthe

samewaybetweenculturesorwithinanyoneculture.Here,NGOsrefertonon-statenot-for-

profitorganizationsdesignedtoservecollectiveaims,andincludewhatareknownvariouslyas

civilsocietyorganizations(CSOs),community-basedorganizations(CBOs),grassroots

organizations(GROs),aswellasNGOs(nongovernmentalorganizations).Thesize,scope,aims,

funding,andeffectivenessofthis‘thirdsector’varysubstantially.

Evengiventhisdiversity,thereisconsiderabledebateovertheroleofNGOsinpromoting

democracy.Mercer(2002)callsintoquestionthecommonlyheldidealofcivilsocietyandNGOs

asinherently‘good’fordemocraticdevelopment.Mercer’scriticalreviewoftheliterature

pointstohowsomearguethatNGOscanstrengthenstateandcivilsociety,andothersargue

thatstrengtheningNGOsunderminesdevelopmentofdemocracies.GursteinandAngeles

(2007)definecivilsocietiesinrelationtotheircontributiontodemocraticplanningand

governance.Theirdefinitionisnormative:“densenetworksoforganizationsandinstitutions

thatmediatebetweenstatesandcitizens,whilechallengingandtransforminghegemonicstate

policiesandmarketpractices”(page5).DouglassandFriedmann(1998)pointtotensions

betweenthelocalandtheglobal(or‘agency’and‘structure’)addressedbycivilsocietyas

revolvingaroundthreeinterconnectedstruggles:therighttohumanflourishing,therightto

voice,andtherighttodifference.(Ireturntothefirsttwointhenextsection.)

LocalcommunitiesintheGlobalSouth,oftensupportedbylocaland/orinternationalNGOs,

haveprovidedsitesoftransformationinreducingpoverty,improvinglivelihoodsandcreating

4Asusedhere,civilsocietyrefersto“thatpartofsocial,asdistinctfromcorporate,lifethatliesbeyondtheimmediatecontrolofthestate.Itisthesocietyofhouseholds,familynetworks,civicandreligiousorganizationsandcommunitiesthatareboundtoeachotherbysharedhistories,collectivememoriesandculturallyspecificformsofreciprocity”(Friedmann,2011:140).Thereisextensiveliteratureoncivilsocietyconstructions;myownunderstandingsdrawparticularlyonworksbyAbu-Lughod1998,DouglassandFriedmann1998,Friedmann1992and2011,Mercer2002,andStorper1996.

58

socialbusinesses,andstrengtheningcommunityandenvironmentaldevelopmentprojects

(examplesinBornstein,2003;Bornstein,2006;Carley,JenkinsandSmith,2001;Devas,2004;

Friedmann,1992;Mitlin,2004;MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;Perlman,2007;Yunus,2007).

Recently,concernandcriticismhavegrownconcerningthetransparencyandlegitimacyof

NGOsandtheircontributiontointernationaldevelopmentoutcomes,particularlyinHaitiwhere

mostNGOsarenotknowntothestateandhavenoaccountabilitytoHaitianactors.Themain

debaterevolvesaroundthefactthat,ontheonehand,Haitianscannotrelyonthestateto

providebasicservicessinceitisdysfunctionalandcorruptinthebestoftimesand,andonthe

otherhand,NGOsthatundertakedevelopmentworkandserviceprovisionarenotaccountable

(tothestateorpeople)anddonotcoordinateactivitieswitheachother,whichresultsinhuge

inefficiencies.MosttellingperhapsisthattheplethoraofNGOsinHaitiinrecentdecadesdoes

notappeartohavecontributedtodevelopmentoutcomesonabroadscale(Schuller,2012;

Deshommes,2006).However,giventhatitwilltakemanyyearstoconstructalegitimate,

effectivestateinHaiti(letaloneasocialcontract),NGOslikelyareneeded,buttheyshouldbe

heldaccountable.EffectiveNGOswouldnotonlybuildcapacityandinvestinHaitiandits

peopleforthelongterm,butalsowouldworktoimprovecivilsocietyandcommunity

relationshipswiththestate,providinggoodpracticesthatcouldbeemulatedandscaled.A

questionthatarisesis:Howcanthestatebestrengthenedinconjunctionwiththeconsolidation

ofNGOsinHaiti,whileimprovinglivingconditionsforthepeopleofHaitiandpossibilitiesfor

transformationatcommunitylevel?Iturnnowtoadiscussionofthecommunitylevelandits

potentialasasiteoftransformationtothedevelopmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.

ThecontextofthecurrentsituationinHaitiisthatlongbeforetheearthquakeof2010,people’s

rightsandaccesstodecentlivingconditionswereseverelyrestrained,andsoitisundesirableto

‘reconstruct’whatwas.Rather,thereisanopportunitytoconstructinfrastructure–physical,

politicalandsocietal–anew,whichiswhatFritzDeshommesreferstoasa‘re-foundation’of

Haiti(Deshommes,2012).FormerPrimeMinisterMichèlePierre-Louis(2012)calledfor

deconstructionofthecurrentparadigm--referringtothebasisofproduction,education,access

59

toemployment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure--andreconstruction

ofsociety.Shearguesthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsmustbetterorganizemovementsto

bringaboutchange.Shefurtherarguesto‘buildonsmallsuccessesbyvaluinglocalknowledge’.

Likewise,EricNee(2016)arguesthat:‘tocreateeffectiveandlong-lastingsocialchange,

organizationsandtheprogramstheycreatemustinonewayoranotherbecomeembeddedin

thelocalcommunity.’

AConceptualframeworkforexaminingthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformation

Theconceptualframeworkadoptedintheresearchaddresseslocalchallengesthrougha

structureandagencylens.Locallevelchallengesofdeprivationanddisempowermentcanbe

bestunderstoodthroughcriticalanalysisofstructureandagency,powerdynamics,and

progresstowardscertainrights.Anemphasisonbothagency(oractor)andstructurallevelsof

analysisarecoretoFreiriancriticalconsciousnessandalsotophroneticsocialscienceespoused

byBentFlyvbjerg(2001).Thenotionof‘structure’,drawingonAnthonyGiddens(1979)isas

institutionsthatframesocialinteractions,includingthe‘macro’governance,economicand

socialsystemsaswellasculturalnormsandrulesofbehaviour.‘Agency’,asusedhere,refersto

self-helpfor‘citizendrivenchange’(SheikheldinandDevlin,2015),self-efficacy(Brown,1997),

orwhattheAshokaorganizationreferstoas‘everyoneachangemaker’,inwhicheachperson

feelsempoweredandresponsibletotakeactionthatwouldcontributetopositivesocialchange

(Drayton,2006).AmartyaSen’sdefiningof‘developmentasfreedom’positsthattrue

developmentenablespeopletoleadthelivestheyvaluebyeliminatingconstraintstofreedom,

suchaslackofbasicservices,systemicinequalities,limitedeconomicopportunityandpoverty

(Sen,1999).Locallevelparticipatoryapproachesthatincorporatesociallearningareidentified

asprovidingappropriatemeansforcreatingdialoguethatcouldcriticallyanalyzeandaddress

relationshipsofpowertobringaboutchange(Friedmann,1997;GursteinandAngeles,2007).

Freiriancriticalpraxis,Gramscianhegemony,andHabermasiancommunicativeactiontheories

provideameansforanalyzingpowerimbalances.Flyvbjergianphronesisanalysesthat

emphasizepracticalwisdomandgainingexpertiseovertimethroughlearningfrommultiple

60

cases,arewellsuitedtoaddressingissuesofpower,notonlyincommunitydevelopment

practiceandresearch,butasChrisBrown(2013)argues,alsoinevidence-basedpolicy

development.

Viewingpowerdynamicsthroughthelensofcertainrightshasmerits.The‘righttovoice’and

‘righttohumanflourishing’aretwoofthecivilsocietystrugglesthatDouglassandFriedmann

(1998)castascentraltochangingpowernarrativesandenablingagencyofpeopletocontribute

tostructuralchange.

Righttovoicerefersto“ademocraticstruggleforinclusivenessindemocraticprocedures,fortransparencyingovernmenttransactions,foraccountabilityofthestatetoitscitizensand,aboveall,fortherightofcitizens--allcitizens--tobeheardinmattersaffectingtheirinterestsandconcernsatthelocalleveloflifespaceandcommunity.Itisthusasmuchabouttheprocessandformofengagementofcitizensinthemakingoftheirworldasitisabouttheendstheyseektoachieve”(DouglassandFriedmann,1998:2)Righttohumanflourishingisbasedontheprinciplethat“everyhumanbeinghastheright,bynature,tothefulldevelopmentoftheirinnateintellectual,physicalandspiritualpotentialsinthecontextofwidercommunities”(Friedmann,2011:151).Furthermore,itinvolves“astruggleforincreasedaccesstothematerialbasesofsocialpower--forhousing,work,healthandeducation,acleanenvironment,financialresources--insum,forthebasicconditionsoflivelihoodandhumanflourishing”(DouglassandFriedmann,1998:2).

TheserightsandnotionsofagencyandstructurealigncloselywithHenriLefebvre’s(1996:

1968)‘righttothecity’asarguedbyHe(2015:673),whichadvocatesa‘visionofalifefullylived

forurbaninhabitants’.DavidHarvey(1973)interpretedtherighttothecityasacollectiveright

thatwouldfurthersocialjusticethroughmoredemocraticmanagementofresources,and

ManuelCastells(1977)appliedthetheorytohisworkonurbansocialmovements.Righttothe

cityand,toalesserextent,righttohumanflourishing,havebeenappliedmorerecentlyto

discussionsregardingpublicspace,socialexclusion,migrationpolicies,housing,andcitizenship

(Marcuse,2009;Harvey,2008;AminandThrift,2002).Theserightscanbethoughtofastool

kitsforradicalchangethatenablecollectivecriticalanalysis,whichwouldprovidepossibilities

61

andspaceforpeopletomeettheirneeds,whichwouldmeanclaimingrightsofparticipationas

wellasrightsofappropriation(He,2015).

Myreadingoftheoretical,practicalandHaiti-specificliteraturehighlightstheneedtoadopt

researchapproachesthatidentifycontext-appropriateandinnovativecommunitydevelopment

inHaiti.Suchdevelopmentinitiativesexistinpocketsbut,itisargued,needtoberevealed,

surfacedandanalyzed.

InpresentdayHaiti–sixyearspost-earthquake,amidstgravedifficultiesandofteninhumane

conditionsofdailylifeformanypeople,therearestoriesofpeoplethataremanagingtoself-

organize,planandrebuild(SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).LaurentDubois(2012:

12;emphasisadded)assertsthefollowing.

Thesocialcohesionthathasresultedfrom[Haiti’s]longhistoricalprocesswasmadedramaticallyvisiblebythe2010earthquake….Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotallackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti]isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate,oralongthelinesmanypeoplemightexpectorwantittobe.Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathave

emergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonly

throughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.

ThisarticleexaminesacasethatisattemptingtoworkwithHaiti’s‘complexandresilientsocial

institutions’atlocalcommunitylevelinwaysthatarguablyhavepotentialtocontributeto

transformativeresilience.TransformationinHaiti--anddevelopingtransformativeresilience,

whichisaboutchangingandinnovatingcollaborativelyinresponsetotrauma,andinvolves

forgingnewdevelopmentpathways(Folke,Carpenter,Walker,Scheffer,ChapinandRockström,

2010;Goldstein2012;GothamandCampanella,2010).

Astartingpoint,consistentwithtraditionsofcommunity-engagedscholarlyinquiry,isthat

communitydevelopmenthasthepotentialtocontributetosocialtransformation.Inapost-

disastercontext,awindowofopportunityformorerapidordeeptransformativechangecan

open,ifonlyephemerally(Oliver-Smith,2002;Pelling,2003;PellingandDill,2010;Solnit,2009).

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Suchtransformationcanincludeinstitutionaladaptationsthatwouldbuildtransformative

resilience.Transformationcanbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovationcombinedwith

participatorycollaborativeapproaches,whicharesustainedthroughongoingdialogueprocesses

thatallowforconstantnegotiationbetweenorganizationsandcommunity-levelparticipants

(Healey,2006;InnesandBooher,2010;Moulaert,Martinelli,SwyngedouwandGonzález,2010;

Ostrom,1990).

Transformationisunlikelywithoutsustainedconvergenceofsocialchangeatcommunitylevels

andstructuralchangeatnationalandinternationallevels.Investigatingdynamicsof‘agency’(of

peopleandorganizationsatlocallevel)and‘structure’(intermsofgovernanceandsystemic

inequalities)intransformationinHaitiisalongtermproject.ItisevidentthatHaitihasnotyet

fullytransitionedtoastabledemocracysincethe1987Constitution,andthatHaitihasbecome

increasinglydependentoninternationalaid,reliesonimportedfood,andhasfallenonthe

UNDPHumanDevelopmentIndex.Whatissorelylackingisasolidknowledgebasisofpeople’s

everydaylivedexperiencesinHaitiandevidenceofcommunity-levelchangeovertime.Many

anthropologicalandsocialmovementstudieshavebeencarriedout(notablybyJennieSmith,

2001andBeverlyBell,2013),however,agapremainsinourunderstandingofhowagencyat

locallevelsinteractswithstructurallevelstoeffecttransformativechangethatcouldbe

adaptedandscaledacrosscommunities,particularlyinthepost-earthquakeera.‘Voices’of

localpeople,andtheiragencyorlackofpowertorealizetheiraspirationsforchange,arenot

heard.Thisarticleaddressestheseissuesofagencyandstructureandprospectsforimproved

long-termchangeinHaiti,boththroughitsresearchmethodologyinthefieldaswellasthe

natureoftheapproachtoparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentbeingstudied.Theresearch–

byintent–islinkedtoaprojectofsocialtransformation.

Widespreadpracticesoftransformativeresiliencewillbeessentialtosustainingchangeona

diverteddevelopmentpathwayforHaiti,particularlybecausethe‘socialresilience’thatHaitiis

oftenlaudedforcanbeaeuphemismfor‘self-reliance’.Inordertoharnesspossibilitiesfora

‘transformativeresilience’itisimportanttocatalyzethesocialresiliencealreadyinevidence

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(VernerandHeinemann,2006),otherformsaswell,suchasurbanresilience(Bornstein,

Lizarralde,GouldandDavidson,2013),andcommunityresilience(Engle,Bornsteinand

Lizarralde,2015).Oneformofcommunityresiliencebuildingthathasparticularpromiseis

Haiti’straditional‘konbit’systemofinformalsolidaritycooperativesforcollectiveagricultural,

microcreditandcommunitywork.LouinoRobillard(2013),aleadingsocialactivistinCitéSoleil,

Port-au-Prince’slargestinformalsettlement,documentedcasestudiesofaseriesofkonbit

acrossHaitiwhichshowpotentialforscalingandconnectinginwaysthatwouldcontributeto

communitydevelopmentandsocialchange.

Centralconceptsherearecommunitydevelopmentandsocialtransformation.WhatdoImean

bytheseterms,andhowaretheylinked?Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfield

thatcombinesspatialandmaterialdevelopmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacity

tomanagechange.‘Place’isanimportantdimensionofcommunitydevelopment,including

people’srelationshipswiththeplacestheyinhabitandtheireverydayinteractionsinshared

spacesofcommunities.Communitydevelopmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilize

existingskills,reframeproblems,workcollaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunity

assets,andinvolvesflexibleprocessesguidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help.The

keypurposeofcommunitydevelopmentis,accordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2010:14),

“collectiveactionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld.”Major

stepsincommunitydevelopmentprocessesareoftenidentifyingproblems,engagingpeople

andgroups,assessingthesituationandcontext,exploringpossibilities,planning,prioritizing,

andtakingaction(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993;Ledwith,2011;LedwithandSpringett,2010).

Mystudyofcommunitydevelopmentisbasedonvaluesofsocialandenvironmentaljustice,

socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;KendraandWachtendorf,2007),and

dialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemictransformationthroughinformal

networksandlocalpraxis(asinForester,1999;Freire,2011[1972],Kennedy,2011).

Collaborativewaysofworking,thinking,anddesigninginstitutionsunderliethiscommunity-

engagedsocialresearchapproach(asinOstrom,1990;Healey,2006).JohnFriedmann’s

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alternativedevelopmenttheory(1992)andsociallearningandsocialmobilizationtraditionsof

non-stateactorsinplanning(Friedmann,1987;Friedmann,1992;Friedmann,2011)providekey

foundationsformyperspectiveoncommunitydevelopmentinaninternationalcontext.

Friedmann(1992)alsoreferstoalternativedevelopmentas‘collectiveself-empowerment’ina

similarveintoBrown’snotionof‘self-efficacy’(Brown,1997).Friedmannarguesthatexternal

actors,suchasNGOswithinternationalties,mustbepartofcollectiveactionfortransformative

changetooccur,whilehealsowarnsthatcivilsocietyactors(i.e.individualswithin

communities)needtodevelop‘voices’oftheirown.Expressing‘voice’andlearningthrough

storiesandeverydaylifeiscentraltothiscommunitydevelopmentplanningandresearch

(Flyvbjerg,2001;Healey,2006;Ledwith,2011;Sandercock,2003a;Sandercock,2003b).

Socialtransformationisusedinterchangeablyherewithsocialchange.SimplyputbyMcLeod

andThomson(2009),socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallife.Healey(2006:91)

referstosocialchangeasthe“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin


structuralforces”.Socialtransformation,accordingtoFriedmann(1987:250)istheaimof

radicalplanning,“anactivityinwhichknowledgeisjoinedtoactioninthecourseofsocial

transformation”.Socialtransformationhereisspatiallycultivated,meaningthatpeople’s

perceptionsaboutspaceandtheireverydayinteractionsinthephysicalplacesoftheir

communitiesaredeeplyimportant.OrasFriedmann(1987:297)expresses:“Apolitical

practiceaimedatsocialtransformationcanbeeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-

politicalactionsofordinarypeoplegatheredintheirowncommunities”.Socialtransformation

involvesapubliclearningprocessthatleadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues,

accordingtoLeonieSandercock(2000).Shearguesfurther

…justasinsuccessfultherapythereisbreakthroughandindividualgrowthbecomespossible,sotoowithasuccessfultherapeuticallyorientedapproachtomanagingourco-existenceinthesharedspacesofneighbourhoods,citiesandregions,thereisthecapacityforcollectivegrowth(Sandercock,2000:27).

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Sandercockreferstosuch‘collectivegrowth’inthelanguageofpoliticsassocialtransformation.

CultivatingsocialtransformationandtransformativeresilienceinHaitiancommunitiesisa

criticalchallengethatmanyareattemptingtoaddressthroughrebuildingstrategies,but

successfulandinstructiveexamplesarefew.Thefollowingsectionsetsoutthemethodology

usedtoinvestigateonecommunity’sdevelopmentstrategyforaddressingthischallenge.

Methodology

Thisresearchexploresexperiencesanddynamicsofaneducation-centeredapproachto

communitydevelopmentunderwayinBellevue-La-Montagne.Thecasecommunityisdescribed

inthefollowingsection.Theresearchmethodologycombinescasestudyandparticipatory

approaches,andmystrategyofinquiryfocusesoncombiningbothactorandstructurallevelsof

analysis--understanding‘fromwithin’and‘fromoutside’,whichisconsistentwithphronesis

research(asinFlyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjerg,LandmanandSchram,2012).Integrating‘insider’and

‘outsider’perspectivesprovidefordeeperunderstandingofdynamicsofcommunitychangeand

socialtransformation.

Fromtheoutside,Iobservedinthefieldandconductedinterviewswithnongovernmental

organization(‘NGO’)representatives,includingfromHaitiPartners,YunusSocialBusiness5,

ArchitectureforHumanity,PADF,andFONKOZE.6ResearchcollaboratorsfromHaitiPartners

accompaniedmethroughoutthefieldwork,providingvaluableresearchassistanceand

contributionstoresearchdesign,analysis,andinterpretation.7Insiderperspectivescome

primarilyfromparticipatoryresearchandasociallearningprocesswith12localresidents(see

Engle,2015,forparticipatorymethodologydesignandresults,andEngle,2014,forvideos

documentingtheparticipatoryresearch).

5YunusSocialBusiness(previouslycalled‘GrameenCreativeLabs’)wasfoundedbyMuhammadYunus,winneroftheNobelPeacePrizeforhispioneeringworkinmicrocreditandmicrofinance,mostnotablyasfounderofGrameenBank.6Iconductedsemi-structuredinterviewswiththefollowingindividuals:JohnEngle,HaitiPartners;ClaudineMichel,YunusSocialBusiness;KateEvarts,ArchitectureforHumanity;andStevenWerlin,FONKOZE.7ResearchcollaboratorsfromHaitiPartnersinthefieldwereBenajaAntoineandErikBadger.AlexMyril,KerlineJanvier,MerlineEngle,andNeslieMyrilprovidedregularadviceandfieldassistance.

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Consistentwithphronesisresearch,Iemploynarrativeanalysis,prioritizehearingleastheard

voices,andfavourlearningfromcaseexamples.Casestudyhaslongbeenrecognizedasan

appropriatemethodologicalapproachinarangeofcontextsinsocialsciencedisciplines,and

theiruseisexpandingintherealmofqualitativesocialandinterpretiveinquiry,includingin

planningliterature(seeCreswell2007;Creswell2009;DenzinandLincoln,2005;Flyvbjerg,2001;

Flyvbjergetal.,2012;Patton,2002;Stake,1995;Stake2006;Stake,2010;Yin,2009).According

toYin(2009),carryingoutcasestudyresearchisasomewhatlinearbutregularlyiterative

process.Aftertheinitialplananddesignforthecasestudyaredeveloped,aresearcher

preparesforfieldwork,collectsdata,analyzes,andthensharesresults.Thepreparation,

collection,design,andanalysisphasesarerehearsediterativelyinordertocontinuallyrefine

approachesandupdatedesignandcollectionmethodsasneeded.Iconductedresearchdesign,

reconnaissancevisits,andfieldtestingofmethodsbetween2011and2013.Icontinueddata

gatheringandanalysisremotelyduring2014and2015.

Eachcaseinvolvesaparticulardomain,whichRobertStake(2006)referstoasits‘quintain’or

‘thing’thatisbeingstudied.Inthisstudy,thequintainiseducation-centeredcommunity

development.Thecentralcasehasbeenselectedbasedonapurposive,information-oriented

samplingstrategy,whichcombinesinstrumentalandparadigmaticselection.Itisinstrumental

inthatthequintainanditsissuesaredominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseI

wouldhopetobeable“todevelopametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthe

caseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,2001:79).Importantly,mypositionalityassisterofJohnEngleof

HaitiPartnersishighlyinfluentialinthecaseselection.Thishasaffordedmenotonlyneeded

accesstoinformationaboutthecasefromtheleadNGO’sperspective,butalso,becauseof

John’sreputationasatrustworthypersonandhislong-termresidenceinthecommunity,local

peopleextendtheirtrusttome,whichisfundamentaltomybeingabletoconductin-depth

participatoryresearchinthissetting.Iamconsistentlyawareandself-reflexive,however,that

John’sleadershiproleandreputationinthecommunityaffecthowpeopleseeandbehave

towardsme,whichhasbothpositiveandnegativedimensions,manyofwhichareinvisibleor

difficulttoanalyze.

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Figure2.1providesagraphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign.Theprincipalcaseisa

collectionofcommunitydevelopmentinitiativescenteredaroundanewschoolinBellevue-La-

Montagne.Thecasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentprovidesaportrait

ofthelocalsituationthreeyearspost-earthquake.8AsFigure2.1depictsinthecentralcircle,

theprincipalcaseinvolvedworkatthreetypesofsites:theschoolandsocialenterprisehub,

whichisalsoacommunitygatheringplace;participanthomes,whereweconductedinterviews;

andplacesidentifiedthroughdatacollectionassacredplacesorproblemspotsofthearea.9

Thebottomhalfofthecentralcirclerepresentsdatacollectionmethods.The‘embeddedcases’

representthe12peoplewithwhomIcarriedoutsemi-structuredhouseholdinterviewsand

whotookpartinparticipatoryresearch(alsoseeEngle,2015).Theaimwastoget‘behindthe

scenes’ofthecommunitydevelopmentunderwaytohearandunderstandtheperspectivesof

localresidents.Additionaldatawascollectedthroughdocumentationfromandinterviewswith

NGOs,localleaders,internationalagencyrepresentatives.

OntheleftsideofthecentralcircleofFigure2.1arecircleswithcontextandparticipatory

researchmethods.ThecasesetsouthowtheNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations

cameaboutandwhowasinvolved,basedondatacollectedfrominterviewswithand

documentationfromNGOsinvolvedinthecollaboration.Thecommunitystudycontent

focusedonlearningfromcollaborativeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment

approachesandparticipatoryengagementframeworks.Participatoryresearchmethodswere

incorporatedtounderstandcommunityaspirationsandenableacriticalanalysisofthemain

barrierstorealizingthem.Isoughttounderstandaswellhowrelationshipsofpowershape

communitydevelopmentanddecision-makingprocesses.8Mostoftheinterviewandobservationdatawascollectedduringfieldworkin2012and2013,followingreconnaissancefieldstudyin2011.Thein-depthparticipatoryresearchincludinghouseholdinterviews,participatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingwascarriedoutin2013,followingfieldtestingin2012.AdditionaldocumentsandemailcorrespondencefromHaitiPartnersin2014and2015providedsupplementalinformation.9‘Sacredplaces’and‘hotspots’wereidentifiedinparticipatorymappingprocesses(asinHester,2010),andaredescribedinEngle(2015).Researchparticipantstogetherdesignedandconductedacommunitywalkingtourtomakestopsforcommentaryateachoftheseplaces,whichwasaudio-andvideo-recorded.Analysisandrepresentationofthiscommunitywalkisoutsidethescopeofthisarticle.Anaspirationistoeditthevideotoproduceavirtualguidedcommunitytourinordertodocumentandsharethecommunitydevelopmentandschoolaswellasthelivedexperienceoflocalresidents.

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DuringthefieldworkIinvestigatedthehistoriccommunitycontextandkeyeventsofrecent

years,particularlytheearthquake;localsocial,political,andenvironmentalconditions;the

widerpolicycontext;andimportantsituationalfactors,suchaslivedexperienceoflocal

residents.Idesignedanddocumenteddatacollection,analysis,andinterpretationinawaythat

willfacilitatelongitudinalstudysothatcommunityandsocialchangecanbetrackedregularlyin

theyearsbeyondcompletionofmythesis.Particularlyusefultolongitudinalstudywillbethe

baselinedatacollectedduringhouseholdinterviews(bottomFigure2.1).

Thephronesisquestions(bottomright)areintegratedininquirydesignandaimtoreveal

‘tensionpoints’atstructuralandactorlevelsofanalysiswithanemphasisonnarrative,power

relationships,andlisteningtoleastheardvoices.Themethodsweredesignedtoaddress

furtherquestionsaboutthissetofcollaborations,suchasthefollowing.10Whatarethefactors

thathaveenabledtheseprojectstobecreatedandimplementedwhenmostpost-earthquake

reconstructionhasstalled?Whathavebeenthemainobstaclesandconcerns,andwhatcanbe

learnedfromthem?Howarethesecollaborativeeffortsaffectinglocalpeople,theireveryday

lives,andtheirprospectsforthefuture?Howaretheprojectsgovernedandwhoholdsthe

power?Inwhatwaysarelocalpeoplebenefitingornotfromthecommunitydevelopment,and

whataretheprospectsforsocialchange?Iengagedmethodstoaddressthesequestions,

includinginterviews,documentstudy,observation,andparticipatorymethods.The

participatorymethodsaredocumentedinarticleandvideoformats;seeEngle(2014)andEngle

(2015).

Byusingamixofmethodstoaddresstheresearchquestions,Ihaveexploredwhetherandin

whatwayscollaborativeeffortsunderwayinvolvingparticipationofcommunitiesand

organizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsachieveaimsofsharingpower

andbuildingcapabilitiesoflocalpeopleandgroups.Narrativeanalysisistheprinciple

mechanismIemploytointerpretfielddataandlearningpresentedinthenextsection

describingthecasestudyandthensharing‘storiesbehindthescenes’.Idrawonrelevant

10SeeTable1inEngle(2015)foralistofmethods,timing,samplingandrecordingofdatacollected.

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researchandliterature,suchassetoutaboveinthetheoreticalframeworksection,tointerpret

dynamicsofcommunityandsocialtransformation.Basedonmysynthesizedanalysisof

structure/actorandinsider/outsiderperspectives,Iconcludewithrecommendationsforpolicy

andpracticeinHaitithatareconsistentwiththerecentWorldBankrecommendations

mentionedabove,andmoreimportantly,consistentwithwhatIheardfromHaitians

themselvesandtheirvisionsforchange.

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Figure2.1:Graphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign

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2.2Casestudy:Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-MontagneTheresearchsiteisBellevue-La-Montagne,officiallythe4thsectionofthecommuneofPétion-

ville,whichispartofthePort-au-Princecapitalcityconurbation.Semi-ruralandwithaquickly

growingpopulation,Bellevue-La-Montagneislocatedabout20kmfromdowntownPort-au-

Prince.Itspansabout35km2onasmallpeakplateauwithsteephillsidesandanundulating

terrain,and,asitsnamehints,providesspectacularviewsoverlookingPort-au-Princeand

mountainstothenorth,andtheCaribbeanSeatothenorthwest. Themostcommonpublic

transportationinHaiti,thecolourfultap-tappickuptrucksthatcarryabout15people(7people

linedinbenchesoneithersideofthecabandonepersonattheback),canaccessthelower

elevationsofthearea.Agoodportionofthemountainoussectorhasrockydirtroadsandis

accessibleonlybyfoot,motorcycleor4x4vehicle.Localorganizationsestimatethat

approximately30,000peopleliveinthearea,mostofwhomsupportthemselvesthrough

subsistencefarmingandmarkettradingprimarilyofproduceandanimals.Eventhoughthe

areahassufferedfromincreasingfloodinganddroughtsinrecentyearsandthereisstrong

evidenceofhighpovertyandmalnutrition,itisoften‘offthemap’forinternationalaidbecause

itistechnicallyinthejurisdictionofrelativelywell-offPétion-ville.PeoplespeakHaitianCreole,

themothertongueofallHaitians,andasmallnumberofpeoplealsospeakFrench(theother

officiallanguageofHaiti),English,and/orSpanish,withvaryingdegreesofproficiency.

Bellevue-La-MontagnesufferedsubstantiallossesduringtheJanuary12,2010earthquake.

Severalschoolsandchurchescollapsed,andmorethan300homeswerefullyorsubstantially

destroyedinjustonezoneintheimmediatevicinityofthecasestudyschool,whichisasteep

mountainouspartofthecommunity.Intheyearfollowingtheearthquake,discussionsbetween

Bellevue-La-MontagneresidentsandanorganizationcalledHaitiPartnersbeganregarding

possiblecollaborativestrategiesforrebuilding.EventhoughHaitiPartners’co-founderandco-

director,JohnEngle,hadlivedinBellevue-La-Montagneformorethan15years,theworkofhis

organizationshadalwaysbeenfocusedinotherpartsofthecountry.

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Intheyearjustbeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartners’wasworkingwithschoolsinother

jurisdictionstowardgoalsofmorestudent-centeredpedagogy,improvedinstitutionalcapacity,

integrationofparentsintothelifeoftheschools,andbetterinfrastructure.Atthesametime,

theywerefeelingthatitwastimetobemoredirectlyengagedintheneighbourhoodvicinity

wheretheywerebased,andwhereJohnEnglehadspentsomanyyears.Theybeganslowly

investigatinginterestlocallyincollaborativeeducationanddevelopmentprojects.

Inthewakeoftheearthquake,thedesireandneedtocollaborateonlocalinitiativeswas

heightened,andpeopleintheareacommunicatedtheneedforaschool.Giventheexpertise

andexperienceofHaitiPartnersineducationanddemocraticpractice,theycontinuedopen

discussionsastheylookedforasiteforanewschool,andeventuallyfoundanavailablepiece

oflandinaparticularlyimpoverishedareaofBellevue-La-MontagnecalledBawosya.Overthe

courseofthenexttwoyears(2010-2012),HaitiPartnersheldregularopenpublicmeetings

invitinglocalpeopletosharetheirneeds,concerns,andaspirationsforthearea,andtogive

feedbackonevolvingplansforanewschoolandlearningcentertobebuiltthere.Basedon

earlyestablishmentoftheneedtocreateaschool,thisaimbecamethecenterpieceofthe

developmentinbothliteralandmetaphoricsenses–itisaschool-centeredandeducation-

centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopment.Ibeginwithsomebackgroundonthehistory

andexperienceofHaitiPartnerstosetthestagefortheirdecisionwithcommunitygroupsto

takethisapproach.

HaitiPartners:vision,missionandtheoryofchange

Haitiisthesparkthatcanignitetherestoftheworld.Haiti’shistoryepitomizeshuman

depravity:genocide,slavery,exploitation.Haiti’shistoryalsoinspires:Firstandonly

successfulslaverebellion,aplaceofextraordinaryresilience,aplacewhereartand

creativityflourish.Haitihasbecomesynonymouswith“poorestcountryinthewestern

hemisphere.”HaitiPartnersiscommittedtomakingHaitisynonymouswith“cando”

culture.Inspiteofcountlessodds,Haitiisimprovingbasedontheresilience,

determination,andcreativityofherpeople. HaitiChangemakers,Ashoka(2014)

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Figure2.2:Map:Bellevue-La-Montagne’slocationinHaiti.

HaitiPartnerswasfoundedin2009byco-directorsJohnEngleandKentAnnan.Itwasspunoff

fromBeyondBorders,anorganizationwhichJohnco-foundedwithDavidDiggsin1993.The

workofBeyondBordershadfocusedprimarilyon:supportingalternativeeducationandliteracy

trainingforadultsandforchildrenlivingindomesticservitude(called‘restavèk’children)11;

practicingandtrainingincollaborativeleadershipanddemocraticmethods;andadvocatingfor

universalaccesstoeducationinHaiti.12HaitiPartnersspunoff,inpart,inordertocomplement

theeducationanddemocracyworkwithtwonewstrategicdirections:communitydevelopment

andsocialentrepreneurship.

HaitiPartners’missionisto‘helpHaitianschangeHaitithrougheducation’.Theirapproachis

basedontheassumptionthatforacountrytodevelopandevolve,childrenneedaneducation,

11‘Restavèk’children,literally‘staywith’referstochildrenwholiveindomesticservitudeinHaiti,typicallyinmiserableconditionsofsqualorandabuseandwithoutanopportunitytogotoschool.Thereareapproximately250,000restavèkchildrenin2015.Itisconsideredtobeamodernformofslavery,andaccordingtotheGlobalSlaveryIndex,Haitiisrankedsecondtobottomonalistof162countrieswithmodernprevalenceofslaveryin2014:globalslaveryindex.org.12FormoreinformationonthecurrentworkofHaitiPartnersandBeyondBorders,see:haitipartners.organdbeyondborders.org.Disclosure:theauthoriscurrentlyamemberoftheBoardofDirectorsofBeyondBorders.

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andthatthetypeofeducationchildrentypicallyreceiveinHaitineedstochange.They

advocateforchangingleadershiptobemoreempoweringtopeople,arguingthatHaiti’sbrutal

historyofslavery,acolonialpast,and‘top-down’aidovertheyearshavereinforcedan

authoritarianleadershipthatdisempowerpeople.TheirapproachisgroundedinFreirian

philosophy,andtheybelievethatthebestchanceforchangetocomeaboutisbyworking

closelywithlocalpeopleandinstitutionsthatcantransformacommunity.Theyhaveworkedto

changethetraditionaleducationinHaiti,whichofteninvolvesrotememorizationandcorporal

punishment.

HaitiPartnersconsistsofHaiti-basedandUS-basedorganizationswithboardsofdirectorsand

corestaffteamsinbothcountries.Thereare29staffmembersinHaitiandsixintheUS,

includingprogram,development,communicationsandfinancecoordinators.Morethan200

additionalpeopleareemployedorreceivestipendsintheirschoolsandprogramsinHaiti,

includingteachers,administrators,cooks,collegestudentsandschooldirectors.Thereareover

1,200studentsenrolledinitssevenschools.TherevenueofHaitiPartnersinfiscalyear2014-15

was$1.4million.Otheroutputsofitsworkinschoolsinthatyearinclude:21,429school

parent-servicehoursand1,000treesplantedbystudentsandparents.HaitiPartnershassetup

threesocialenterprises(twopoultryfarmsandabakery)towardfundingsixschools.Haiti

PartnersworkstoequipHaitianswithskillsandcapacitythatwillenablethemtodeveloptheir

potentialandchangetheircountry.

Forus,thekeytochangeistoequipHaitianswithadifferenttypeofleadershipand

educationalmodelwhichisallaboutempoweringothersandhelpingpeoplewhoare

underyoutodeveloptheirpotential.Practicallyspeaking,thismeansworkingwith

primaryschoolstocreateanewmodelofeducationwhichincludesentrepreneurial

training.Italsomeanscreatingsocialbusinessestofundeducationandtrainingand

creatingvocationaltraining.Haitiansneedtofindgainfulemployment.JohnEngle(2012)

Theybelievethattheextremeauthoritarianleadershipmodel,alongwithantiquated

educationalpractices,arelargelytoblameforHaiti’sinabilitytoevolveinapositivewayand

addressthenumeroussocietalchallenges.Childrenaretaughttomemorizewhattheirteachers

tellthem,ratherthantothinkcriticallyandcreatively.HaitiPartnersholdsthatemployeesand

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communitymembersrarelyhaveavoiceindecisionsthatimpacttheirworkandlivesandare

notencouragedtoinnovateandcollaborate.Thefollowingexample,whichcomesfromtheir

experiencewithanemployerwhowantedtopreventemployeesfromlearningtoreadand

write,illustratestheproblem.

Unfortunately,becauseoftheextremetop-downleadershipmodel,whensomeoneis

promotedtoahigherposition,theytendtodiminishorexploitthosebeneaththem.

BecausethevastmajorityofHaitianshavegrownupinscarcity,an‘abundancementality’

isinconceivable.Thus,whensomeoneelsegains,it’sathreattome.Anexampleofthisis

howourliteracyeffortsin2000,inpartnershipwithPétion-VilleRotaryClub,failed,when

weweretryingtohaveHaitianuniversitystudentsteachfactoryworkerstoreadand

write.Ultimately,itwasmid-levelmanagementthatsabotagedthe[literacy]program

becausetheywerethreatenedbythepossibilitythatotherswouldgrowandtaketheir

jobs.JohnEngle(2012)

InordertohelpHaitianstoanalyzeculturaltendencies,includingauthoritarianleadershipand

antiquatedteachingmethods,theydevelopedaprogramcalled‘CirclesofChange’.Itinvolvesa

weeklypracticeoversixmonthswherefacilitatorsmodelacompletelydifferenttypeof

leadershipwithgroupsof15-30educatorsandleadersthroughaseriesofstructureddiscussion

groups.Morethan10,000HaitianshavegonethroughCirclesofChangetrainings.Habitatfor

HumanityaskedHaitiPartnerstousethisapproachinaparticularlychallengingpost-earthquake

context.Theyhadbuiltoneofthelargestpost-disasterhousingsettlementsinthecountryand

wantedtoapplytheapproachtocreateacommunitygovernancestructurethere(seeEngleet

al.,2016;Engle-Warnicketal.,2013forafullanalysisofthecase).HaitiPartnersiscontinually

evolvingbasedoninnovativeideas,projectsandotherinputfromhundredsofHaitianswhoare

partofitsnetworkandwhohaveparticipatedinCirclesofChange.Oneimportantexamplewas

thecreationofsocialbusinessestosupportitspartnerschools,discussedbelow.

VisionandstrategyfortheADECAschool(Children'sAcademyandLearningCenter)ThestrategyfortheChildren’sAcademy(‘ADECA’inHaiti;shortforAcadémiedesenfantset

centred’apprentissage)marksasignificantdepartureforHaitiPartners.

76

Thelong-termgoal[oftheschool]includescreatinganexamplethatservestohelp

changetheeducationalandleadershipparadigminHaiti.Mynearly25yearsofworking

inHaitihasmeconvincedthatthere’sverylittlehopeforsignificantchangeuntilthere’s

atypeofeducationandleadershipthatencouragesandinspiresinnovationand

collaboration.Wealsofeelthatschoolscanbemotorsforcommunitydevelopmentand

lifelonglearning.JohnEngle(2012)

ADECA isabigvision:highqualitypreschool,primaryandsecondaryschools,training

andmeetingcenter,andagricultural/environmental/socialbusinesshub,which

aregroundedinthelocalcommunityandcultivatingcivicengagement,innovation,and

sustainability,andwhichserveasareferenceforHaiti’sMinistryofEducation,NGOs,and

otherschools.HaitiPartners(2015b)

WeoperatetheChildren’sAcademyasanincubatorforideasandapproachesthatare

reshapingeducationinHaiti.HaitiPartners(2015a)Thestrategycamefromtheirexperienceworkingwithpartnerschoolsforacoupleyears,and

whiletheywantedtocontinueworkingwithexistingschoolstodevelopgoodpracticesand

becomemoreeffective,stafffoundthemselvesinachallengingposition.Ontheonehand,they

foundthatthereweremanychangestheyfeltshouldbemadebypartnerschools,butonthe

otherhand,theydidnotwanttobeafunderwhouseditspowerinwaysthatwouldperpetuate

dynamicsofauthoritarianleadershipthatitwasfightingtochange.Theirvisionforeducation

andeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentwasnotclearlysharedamongtheirpartner

schools.Theywantedtorespectlocalautonomyandfeltitcountertotheirphilosophytopush

changes,eveniftheyfeltsuchchangeswereimportant.Sotheydecidedtobecome

practitionersthemselves–tobuildandmanageaschoolinawaythatwouldmodelthe

participatoryeducationandleadershippracticesthattheyhadbeenadvocating.Theyintend

forADECAtoprovideareferencenotonlyfortheirpartnerschools,butalsoforothersacross

Haiti.

Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproachatADECA

TheChildren’sAcademyandLearningCenter(knownas“ADECA”inHaiti)isavibrant

primaryschoolthatservesasourmodelschool.It’saplacewhereeducatorsfromacross

Haiticometoseeaqualityschoolinactionanddiscovermethodsofeducationand

leadershipthathelpthemtransformtheircommunities.(HaitiPartners,2015a)

77

Figure2.3:Geographicsetting:viewfromthesoutheastofHaitiPartners’schoolwithcapitalcityPort-au-PrinceandtheCaribbeanSeainbackground.

EducationinfuseseveryaspectoftheapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatHaitiPartners

hasbuiltwiththecommunityandpartnersatADECA.Thisapproachhasevolvedtocomprisesix

elements:1)theschoolandlifelonglearning;2)socialentrepreneurship;3)planningand

construction;4)environmentalstewardship;5)healthcare;and6)participation.Short

descriptionsoftheseelementsaresetoutbelow,andTable1.providesaims,partnersinvolved,

someactivities,andmainchallengesofeachelement,asreportedbyHaitiPartnersand

consistentwithmyfieldobservationsanddocumentreview.Supportingdetailsandthe

chronologyofaccomplishments,ongoingactivities,andplansforthefutureareprovidedin

Figure2.12:ADECATimeline.

78

1.SchoolasCenterforCommunityDevelopmentandLearningforLife

Buildingondecadesofworkinleadershipdevelopmentandeducation,HaitiPartners

openeditsownschoolin2012.Fromthegroundup,we’rebuildingitasaplacethat’s

cultivatinglearningandinnovationforchildrenandadultsofallages,acenterofactivity

thatbringsthewholecommunitytogether.(HaitiPartners,2015a)HaitiPartnersopenedtheADECAschoolinOctober2012,withthefirstpre-schoolclassof30

three-year-olds.Thosefirst30childrenwillgrowupwiththeschool,aseachyearone

additionalgradeisadded.AsFigure2.12shows,by2020,therewillbeafullprimaryschool

cohort,upto6thgrade.In2021,theplanistostartahighschoolfromgrade7,andcontinueto

addonegradeperyear.Asoffall2015,therewerethreepreschoolgradesandoneprimary

gradewithatotalof155students.HaitiPartnersintendstoenrollanadditional30-60students

peryearuntilthereareapproximately1,000students.Tuitionisaffordableforlocalfamilies.

Themaincontributionofparentstoschooloperationsisfourhoursperweekinunpaidservice.

Currently,schoolparentactivitiesinvolve:cultivatingschoolgardens,maintainingcomposting

latrinesandschoolfacilities,carryingoutbuildinganddiggingprojects,assistingteachersinthe

classroom,andservingascommunityhealthagents.Morerecently,parentsarealso

contributingtheirhourstobecomecommunityorganizersandtrainersofSASA!,aprogramto

endviolenceagainstwomenandgirls,andESK,aninitiativewhichaimstoendchildservitude

andprotecttherightsofchildren.

TheADECAschoolisboththephysicalandmetaphoricalcenterofthecommunity;itisa

gatheringplaceforpeople,ideas,learning,andaction–a‘communityhub’.ThereareEnglish

classestenhoursperweekforyoungpeopleandadults,andachoirof50localyoungpeople,

calledWOZO,practicesorperformsatleasttwiceperweek.Avarietyofothertrainingsand

activitieshappenonaregularbasis.Theschoolhasbecomethecentralhiveofactivityand

eventsforthearea.

79

Figure2.4:ElementsofEducation-centeredCommunityDevelopment:ApproachofHaitiPartners2.EducationandSocialEntrepreneurship

ADECAispreparingandinspiringHaitianstosucceedaschangemakers.

HaitiPartnersEntrepreneurshipProgramreport,2015

HaitiPartnersisworkingtowardsaplanwhererevenuefromsocialbusinesseswillcoverschool

operatingexpenses.ThefirstsocialbusinesswasabakerywhichwasopenfromDecember

2014throughJuly2015.YunusSocialBusinessdevelopedabusinessplanwiththecommunity

andthereseemedtobesufficientdemandandmarketfeasibilitytoestablishabakery.

Unfortunately,thebusinessmodelturnedouttobeflawed,inthattheoperatingcostestimates

80

weretoolow,primarilyduetoelevatedtransportcoststotheremotecommunityanditspoor

roads.Thebakerywasopenforsixmonthsduringwhichtimeithadagraceperiodonitsloan

fromYunusSocialBusiness.Subsequently,HaitiPartners,Yunus,andthecommunity

‘productivecooperative’establishedtoruntheenterpriseworkedonaplantogetherfora

secondsocialbusiness.Asforthebakery,theyhavefoundasuccessfulbakeryoperatorwith

anotherlocationinHaitiwhowillleasetheon-sitespaceandpilotaventuretore-launchthe

bakeryinsummer2016,usingadifferentbusinessmodel.

Figure2.5:HaitiPartners’schoolbuilding,withitsearthquakeresistant,open-airdesign,housesfourlargeclassrooms,ahealthclinicandapharmacy.

HaitiPartnersseesanadditionalpotentialopportunityforsocialenterpriseandentrepreneur-

shipwiththeparentvolunteersatschool.Theybelievethatthatthereisbetterpotentialto

changetheeducationalparadigminHaitiifparentsbuildcollectiveenterprisestosupportthe

schoolasastrategyforlong-termsustainablefunding,ratherthanhaveparentsemployed

elsewheretoearnalivingandpayschoolfeestopayoperatingcosts.Whilethelattermaybe

thelongertermsolution,leadersdoubtthattherewillbeenoughjobsintheforeseeablefuture

forparentstofindemploymentthatwouldmakepayingschoolfeespossible.Also,Haiti

81

Partnersandcommunityresidentsneedmoreexperienceincollaborativeenterpriseandthus

willbenefitfromthetrainingandlearningthathappensattheschoolbasedsocialbusinesses.

In2016,theyarestudyingthefeasibilityofcollectiveenterprises,amongthemanartisan

papermakingsocialbusiness—greetingcards,giftbags,packaging,journals,etc.—from

recycledpaper,cardboard,bananabarkandotherorganicmaterial.Theyhypothesizethatthe

ever-growingnumberofhoursthatparentscontributetotheschoolcouldbeputtomore

productiveuseandtranslatetofunding.Parentscouldprovidelabourtowardmakingproducts

thatgetexportedandsold,generatingfundsthathelpcoverschooloperatingbudgets.They

seebenefitsnotonlyforADECA,butalsoasamodelforotherschoolsandcommunitiesto

follow.

Figure2.6:Insideaclassroom:1stgradeteacher,FrancesseAntoine,guidesastorytimeexercisewithkindergartenersonaplayparachutedonatedbyavolunteervisitingfromtheUS.

82

Figure2.7:Bakeryoperations:setupin2014asasocialenterprisecooperativedesignedtomeetalocalneedandprovideasustainablefundingsourceforschooloperations.

Figure2.8:MuhammadYunus,FounderofGrameenBankandYunusSocialBusinessHaiti,visitsBellevue-La-Montagne,wherehisHaititeamhelpedwithbusinessadviceandfinance.

83

3.Education,CommunityPlanningandConstructionBeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartnerswasnotinvolvedincommunityplanningandconstruction.

Butafterwards,whentheirpartnerschoolsweredestroyedintheearthquakeandneededtobe

rebuilt,theyrealizedthatdestructionandpopulationgrowthmeantthatschoolswereneeded

andthatconstructionpracticesneededtochange.So,theygotintotheconstructionbusiness.

AftercontractingHaitianfirmsforschoolconstructionfortwoyears,theydecidedtopartner

withExtolloInternationaltotrainlocals,supervise,andprovideoversightonearthquake-

resistantconstructionoftheADECAschool.ArchitectureforHumanityHaitiandBARArchitects

ofSanFranciscoarepartnersinsiteplanningandbuildingdesign.

Figure2.9:Renderingofsocialenterprisebuilding:firstfloorhousesbakeryoperations,upperfloorstohousevocationalandteachertrainingfacilities.

Asoflate2015,fivestructureshavebeenbuiltontheADECAsite:themainschoolbuilding

whichhousesclassrooms,ahealthclinicandpharmacy;thefirsttwofloors(ofthree)ofa

buildingtohousethesocialenterprisebakeryandtrainingfacilities;mens’andwomens’

compostingtoilets;andtwosmallbuildingsforadministrativeoffices.Landscapingand

84

vegetablegardenshavealsobeeninstalled.Thirteenlocalpeople(includingfourwomen)were

ontheconstructionteamandreceivedprofessionaltraininginearthquake-resistantmasonry

andcarpentry.Twoadditionalbuildingsareplannedtobebuiltoverthenextfiveyearsto

houseadditionalclassrooms,anauditoriumandkitchen(alsoseeFigure10.).Alonger-term

aspirationofHaitiPartnersistobuildspacetoaccommodateonlineuniversityeducationfor

studentsthatgraduatefromADECAhighschool.

Figure2.10:SiteplanbyBARArchitects:plansincludefiveclassroombuildingsandanopenairamphitheatre.

85

Figure2.11:ConstructionwithExtollo:localpeopleweretrainedinmasonryandcarpentryandemployedtoconstructthebuildings.Schoolparentvolunteerscontributetositeplanningandmaintenancework.

86

Table2.1:Education-centeredCommunityDevelopmentElementsinHaitiPartners’Approach

Keyaims Partners Accomplishments/activities Mainchallenges

1.SchoolasCommunityCenterandLearningforLifeQualityschooleducation;Lifelonglearning;Parentalengagement;Schoolas‘communityhub’

AMURT,LifeisGood,WOZOyouthchoir,WorldBlu

Asoflate2015:155childreninpre-school-Grade1;DailyEnglishlanguagelearningcourses/hangouts;Youthchoirengages50localyoungpeople;YouthgroupmeetseverySunday;underway:vocationaltrainingcurriculum

-Changingmindsetsandculturearoundsharedvision:positive,open,engaged,collaborative,curious,motivated.-Galvanizingparentengagementof4hours/weekinservice+2hours/weekofparenteducation.

2.EducationandSocialEntrepreneurshipEntrepreneurshiptraining;Creationofsocialenterprisesandproductivecooperativestobenefitcommunity&provideschoolrevenue;Growacultureofsocialentrepreneurship

YunusSocialBusiness(formerlyGrameenCreativeLabs),Ashoka

2015:Trained7localpeopleinentrepreneurship;Startedamicro-creditlendingprogramforlocalresidents(calleda‘VillageSavingsandLoan’;Indevelopment:determiningcurriculumtouseforEntrepreneurialPrograminnewtrainingcenter;determiningentrepreneur/financialliteracycurriculumtouse

-Findingrightsocialbusinessideatosupportschooloperations+servethecommunity-Findingpartnerandcurriculumforentrepreneurshipprogram;thenongoingmentorship,coaching,etc.-BuildingmomentumwithCPBM(thecooperativesetuptooperatethesocialbusiness):needgoodpracticesandculture,andgoodleadership.

3.Education,CommunityPlanningandConstructionPlanning,designandconstructionofsiteandbuildings(school,socialenterprise,andother-communityservingbuildings);skillstraininginearthquake-resistantconstruction;andjobcreation

ArchitecturefHumanity,Extollo,Miyamoto,Architects:BAR&KenLinsteadt,Degenkolb&DCIengs

Asoflate2015,4structuresonsite:1)mainschoolbuildingwithclassrooms+healthclinic;2)firsttwofloors(ofthree)of7500s.f.buildingforsocialbusiness,trainingcenterandguesthousetosleep28;3)mens’andwomens’compostingtoilets;and4)smallofficebuilding.Landscapingandvegetablegardensareinstalled.13people(4women)receivedprofessionaltraininginmasonryandcarpentry.

-Lackoflocalgovernmentplanningandlackofbasicserviceprovision(wastecollection,electricity,roadrepair,waterandsanitation,etc.)-Findingfundingpartners-Leadershipstaffingofconstructioncompany-Instillingapositiveculturewithconstructionteam

4.EducationandEcologyImproveag+ecologicalpractices;fostercultureofenviron.stewardship;maintaincompostinglatrines;localreforestation

GiveLove,localorgsandagronomists

Aimfor2016:Createandbeginimplementationofa5-yearprojectthatestablishesenvironmentalstewardshipandhighlyeffectivegardeningpracticesasanorm.

-Findinggoodagronomistpartner.-Findingfundingtodomore.-Identifyingbestwaytocultivateschoolgardenassocialbusiness,eg.:moringa,masketi(castoroil),tilapia,hydroponics,coffee

5.EducationandHealthHealthcareandmedicineforlocals;improvechildnutrition;firstaidtraining;endgender-basedviolence;end‘restavèk’practices

HaitiClinic(localandUSstaff),BeyondBorders,VitaminAngels

Healthclinicsees120-140patientsperweek.Trainingtoendpracticesofviolenceagainstwomenandgirlsandtoendchilddomesticservitude.Trainingofresidentsascommunityhealthagentstovisitneighbours,providefirstaid,delivermedicine,etc.Providemultivitaminsdailytostudentsunder5.

-Students(andotherlocalpeople)needmoreproteinandnutrients.Malnutritionischronic.[Exploringifmoringaand/orTilapiacouldbepartofthesolution.]

6.EducationandParticipationNurturecivicengagementculture;instillvaluesofrespect,learning,collaboration+accountabilityintoedu+communitylife

Dozensoflocalorgs,hundredsoflocalresidents,WorldBlu

Democracybuildingandparticipationarecross-cuttingacrossallelementsabove;ADECAstaffusingWorldBluscorecardassessmentin2016(firstschoolinHaititodothis).CirclesofChange6-monthtrainingsincivicengagementin2011-12with80localresidents.Parentprojects:landscaping,roadwork,classroomaid

-Deepening‘cultureofparticipation’to‘cultureofchangemaking’,inwhicheachpersonfeelsempowered+responsibleforcollectiveaction.

87

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88

4.EducationandEcologyThefirstinitiativeofecologicalstewardship,compostinglatrines,servedthedualbenefitof

providingamuch-neededsanitationsolutionandfertilizerforgardens.ThepartnerisUS-based

GiveLove,whichwasfoundedbyactorPatriciaArquette.GiveLoveisknowninHaitiforits

culturally-appropriatetechnologyanddesign,andinnovativeprocessandmaintenancesystem

forhumanwastecomposting,whichprovidesanexcellentalternativetothetypicalpitlatrines.

Pitlatrinescancontaminategroundwaterandarenotalong-termsolution,andwater-based

sewageisnotpossible.Humanwastecompostprovidesanexcellentandsustainablefertilizer

forcropsinHaiti,wherechemicalfertilizersthatriskdepletingsoilnutrientsovertimeareall

toocommon.

Inpartnershipwithlocalagronomistsandotherorganizations,HaitiPartnersandlocalresidents

aredevelopingafive-yearprojecttobuildonexistingcommunitygardensonsitetoestablish

environmentalstewardshipandmoreeffectivegardeningandproducecultivationpracticesas

theculturalnorm.Afocuswillincludelocalre-forestation.SimilartootherpartsofHaiti,the

Bellevue-La-Montagneareais98.0-98.5%deforested.Environmentalstewardshiptrainingand

ecologicalagriculturalpracticesarebeingintegratedintotheschoolcurriculum.

5.EducationandHealthBeforeHaitiClinicsetupin2013,therewasverylimitedlocalaccesstohealthcareservicesor

medicineinthearea.Hospitalsarefarawayanddifficulttoreach.Careisoftenoflowquality.

Manylocalresidentsreportedthattheywereaccustomedtolivingwithpainordiscomfort,and

thatoftenpeoplewoulddiewhentheybecamesickbecausetheywereunabletoaccess

medicalcare.Giventhechronicchallengeofmalnutritionandrelatedproblemsamonglarge

numbersoflocalpeople,includingchildren,itisessentialtobeabletodirectlyaddressmatters

ofhealth.

89

Asofearly2016,HaitiClinicsees120-140patientsperweek.On-sitestaffincludeaHaitian

physician,dentist,nurseandhealthagent.TheHaitianphysicianhasastrongbackgroundin

communityandpreventativemedicinehavingreceivedmedicaltraininginCubaand,following

theearthquake,aGlobalHealthDeliverySystemsdegreeatHarvard.Inadditiontodaily

outpatientservicesandthepharmacy,anumberofcommunityhealthinitiativesandtraining

programsareunderway.Dozensoflocalresidentsreceivedtrainingtoactascommunityhealth

agentstovisitneighbours,providefirstaid,delivermedicine,etc.Tencommunityhealthagents

areschoolparentswhoapplytheirfourhoursofweeklyschoolservicetothiswork.AtADECA

school,luncheswereoriginallyprovidedtoallchildren,butfundingreductionsprevented

continuingtheprogram.Theyhopetoreinstatemealprovisioninthefuture.Inthemeantime,

multivitaminsupplementscontinuetobeprovidedtopre-schoolchildrenthroughthesupport

ofanorganizationcalledVitaminAngels.

Figure2.13:Humanwastecompostinglatrines:designedbyGiveLoveandmaintainedbylocalpeople,theselatrinesaddressasanitationneed,andtheharvestedcompostisusedincommunitygardensorsold.

90

Figure2.14:Gardeninglesson:Schoolchildrenaretrainedinenvironmentalstewardship,includingecologicalandorganicgrowingpractices.

Asforfood,theschoolprovideshealthysnacksdaily,suchaspeanutbutter,locally-grown

bananas,andhard-boiledeggs.Parentsareencouragedaswelltoprovidechildrenwithsnacks,

includinglocally-grownfruitsandvegetables.

InpartnershipwithBeyondBorders,HaitiPartnersisimplementingprogramstoendpracticesof

violenceagainstwomenandgirlsandtoendchilddomesticservitude.Theyaspireinthefuture

toprovideacceleratedlearningattheschoolfortheformer‘restavèk’children–includingthose

whoweresentawaybylocalfamiliesintoservitude,aswellasanylocalchildrenwhowerein

servitudeanddidnotattendschool.

91

Figure2.15:HaitiClinic:equippedwithoutpatientroomsandapharmacy,theclinic’sdoctorandnurse–alongwithregularlyvisitingvolunteerdoctorsfromtheUS--servethousandsoflocalresidentseachyear.

6.EducationandParticipation

Throughacarefullydevelopedexperientialprogram,calledCirclesofChange,we’ve

promotedleadershipandcivicengagementwithmorethan10,000Haitians.Theyhave

beenexposedtoleadershippracticesthathonorhumandignityandnurturerespect.

They’reinfectingothers.Thisapproachtoleadership,thatiscompletelynewinHaiti,is

helpingtocreatea“cando”collaborativeculturewhereinnovationand

entrepreneurshipcanthrive.HaitiChangemakers,Ashoka,2014Democracybuildingandparticipationenglobeallaspectsofeducationandcommunity

developmentwhereverHaitiPartnersworks.Consistentlyovertwodecades,itsleadersand

associateshavetrainedpeopleinmethodstochangetraditionalleadershipandeducation

paradigmsthroughparticipatorypractices(asdiscussedabove).Theyhaveearnedanexcellent

92

reputationwithinternationalagenciesandcommunityleadersfortheeffectivenessoftheir

participatoryprocesses,asIheardfrommultipleinterviewsources.

Communityinvolvementandengagingparentsinthelifeoftheschoolhavebeencorevalues

andpracticesfromthebeginningofdiscussionsbetweenHaitiPartnersandresidentsof

Bellevue-La-Montagne.Architectssharedearly-stagedrawingswithresidentsinvitinginputand

feedbackeverystepoftheway,frequentlymakingchangesbasedonlearningfromlocal

knowledge.Theyheldpublicopenspacemeetingstoinvitedialogueonthemessuchas‘What

doeseducationmean,andwhatistheroleofaschoolinthedevelopmentofacommunity?’

Evenpriortoembarkingondetailedplanning,designorconstructionfortheADECAschool,Haiti

Partnersinvited80localresidentstotakepartinoneofitssixmonthCirclesofChangetraining

programsincivicengagement,whichwasimplementedin2011-12.Manyofthose80

participantsremainactivelyengagedyearslaterintheschoolandcommunitydevelopment

projects.Somearenowschoolparents,whoareactivevolunteersinimprovingtheschool,

keepingitrunning,andofferingongoingeducationprograms.

HaitiPartnersdrawsonWorldBlu’stenguidingprinciplesfordemocraticorganizationsforits

workincommunities,schoolsanditsownorganizationalpractices.13Aspartofitscommitment,

HaitiPartners’ownemployeesanonymouslyevaluatetheorganizationannuallybasedonthose

principles.Itconsistentlyreceiveshighassessments.Inthespringof2016,staffattheADECA

schoolassessedleadershipusingthismethod,andithasbecomethefirstschoolintheworldto

applyandnowbelistedontheofficial‘WorldBluList’.Relatedly,HaitiPartnersbelievesthat

continuingtomodelparticipatorypracticesandinstillvaluesofrespect,learning,collaboration

andaccountabilityintoeducationandcommunitylifewillhelptofosteracultureof

changemaking.Thiswouldmeanthatlocalresidentswouldfeelasenseofagencytoact,

initiatingprojectswithothersandmakingchangesthatwillimprovelocalsocial,economicand

environmentaloutcomes.

13WorldBlu’stenprinciplesfordemocraticorganizationsarehere:http://www.worldblu.com/democratic-design/principles.php.

93

Inshort,transformativecommunitydevelopmentiswhatHaitiPartnersaimstoachievethrough

itseducation-centeredapproach.Forthem,thatmeansinspiringandpreparingHaitianstobe

changemakers,andsupportingcollaborationsandmovementstorealizethechangetowhich

theyaspire.

Figure2.16:PublicOpenSpacemeetingontheroleofeducationincommunitydevelopment:300peoplegatheredtodiscussthetopictogether;manyledsmalldiscussiongroupsonrelatedmattersoftheirchoosing.

Onthesurface,theseeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwayappearto

besuccessfulinmanyways,butwhatdotheymeanforlocalpeople,aswellaspossibilitiesfor

socialtransformation?Weturnnowtoviewthecommunitydevelopmentfromthe

perspectivesandlivedexperiencesofsomearearesidents.

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2.3Storiesfrombehindthescenes:Whatdoesthedevelopmentmeantolocalpeople?

Iwouldreallyliketoseeachange[inmylifeandthecommunity]butIdon’tseehowto

doit.OnlyGodcanchangethings.

Thissectionprovidesaviewfrom‘behindthescenes’ofthecommunitydevelopmentprojects,

drawingonthelivedexperiencesandviewsof12localresidents.Asdescribedinthe

methodologysectionabove,wecarriedoutindepthparticipatoryresearchwith12localpeople

in2013:twohadchildrenattendingADECAschool14,twowereemployedatADECA,sixothers

hadparticipatedoccasionallyorregularlyinlocalactivities,andtwohadminimalinvolvementin

thecommunitydevelopmentsprojects.The12researchparticipantsarerepresentedasthe

‘embeddedcases’inFigure2.1.Fiftypercentofparticipantswerewomen,andthegroup

rangedinagefrom17to47years.Thenumberofparticipantswascappedat12peopleto

provideforsociallearningduringthecourseofthefieldwork.

Theaimofthisqualitativeresearchwithlocalresidentswastogobeyondwheretheusual

developmentperspectivestopsinordertoexposethedynamicsofcommunitychangeandalso

togaugewhethersocialtransformationisoccurring.Thislattermeansrevealingwhatisless

visiblefromtheoutsideandwhatthecommunitydevelopmentmeanstopeopleandimpliesin

theirlives.Whilebuildingschools,providingqualityeducation,startingsocialenterprises,and

fosteringacultureofenvironmentalstewardshipcancontributetopositivecommunity

transformation,asthecasedescriptionbelowmakesevidentisinitiatedorunderway,adeeper

understandingoftheimplicationsofthesedevelopmentsonlocalpeople’slivesisessentialto

revealingtheextentofsocialtransformation.Iinvestigatedthesedynamicsinthefield

primarilythroughparticipatorymethods(seeEngle,2015)andsemi-structuredin-depth

householdinterviewswithquestionsinsixtopicareas,namely:householdlivingconditionsand

livelihoods;earthquakestoriesandexperiencesoflifesincethen;perceptionsofthecommunity

developmentunderwayandtheirparticipationinchangeand‘voice’indecisionmaking;

subjectivewellbeing;andvisionsandconcernsforthefutureofthecommunity.

14Asofthiswritingin2016,fiveparticipantshavechildrenenrolledattheschool.

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Thefindingsinthissectionarebasedprimarilyonfieldworkin2013,andtoalesserextent

preliminaryfieldworkin2011and2012aswellasremotefollowupin2014-2016.

Incorporatingatemporalaspecttothisresearchenablesstudyofsocialchangedynamicsover

timeandlonger-termimpactsofcommunitydevelopmentandeducationprojects.Therefore,it

isdesignedasQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR).15Datacollectedduringhousehold

interviewsandparticipatoryresearchin2013serveasabaseline;theintentionistogobackto

thesameparticipantseveryfewyearsinordertotrackchangesovertime.

Hearingvoicesoflocalresidentparticipants

Toanalyzeandinterpretparticipants’interviewresponses,Idrewonphronesisinquiry

questions,whichhadalsoinformedthecontext-specificresearchdesign16.Thephronesis

questionsare:1)OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?2)Wherearewegoing

asacommunity,andisitdesirable?3)Whowinsandwholosesandbywhatmechanismsof

power?4)Whatdowewanttodo?/Whatshouldbedone?Thislineofinquiryrevealed

severaloverarchingnarratives,whichIillustratebelowwithdirectquotationsfromparticipants

(translatedfromHaitianCreole).(AlsoseeTable2.2.)The‘tensionpoints’revealedthrough

synthesizingcasedataand‘behindthescenes’participantviewsfollowlaterinthissection.17

15QLR(QualitativeLongitudinalResearch)isaboutemployingqualitativemethodstoexplorephenomenaorcommunitiesovertime.Theunitofanalysisisusuallytheindividual,anditisparticularlyusefulwhenaimingtounderstandchangeovertimebetweenagencyandstructuraldeterminants(McLeodandThomson2009:63-64).Forexample,howpathwaysareconstituted;howchangesandadaptationstakeplace;and/ortheimpactofmajoreventsorchangingcircumstances.16Phronesismeans‘practicalknowledge’orwisdom.‘Phroneticsocialscience’positsthatadifferentandhighlyrelevantkindofknowledgeisproducedthrough‘intimatefamiliaritywithpracticeincontextualizedsettings’(Schram2012:17).17Additionalfindingsexposedthroughtheparticipatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingcarriedoutwiththesame12participants,aswellasthe‘communitycorestory’Iinterpretedfromthesedataaresetoutinaseparatepaper(Engle,2015).

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Table2.2:NarrativesandTensionPointsinBellevue-La-Montagnecase

Phronesisinquiryquestions Narrativesexposed Tensionpoints

OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?

Vulnerability,scarcity,violence

1.MEMORY.Collectivecommunitymemoryexposedtheturbulenthistoryofslavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;anostalgiaforDuvalierera;andabrokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.

Wherearewegoingasacommunity?Isitdesirable?

Communityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality

2.OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualandhouseholdcircumstancesposechallenges,asmanylocalresidents’livedexperienceofhardshipremainsunimproved.

Whowinsandwholosesandbywhatmechanismsofpower?

Senseofpowerlessness,acceptance,resignation

3.CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.Localresidentshavecometoactivelyparticipateandtakegreatprideintheschoolandcommunitydevelopment,however,asenseofagencytobringaboutchangeisnotyetevident.

Whatdowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?

Aspirations:1)collectiveactiontobecomea‘model’community;2)connectionswithothersinHaitiandabroad;3)abetterlifeandfuture(e.g.lowerfoodprices,jobs,education,electricity)

4.RELATIONSHIPS.Dynamicsintherelationshipsofgovernments,civilsociety,NGOsandthe‘internationalcommunity’arefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityandinertia;thereisasenseofparalysisabouthowtostructurallyimprovethesituationandmoveforward.

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1.Narrativesofvulnerability,scarcityandviolence

Thedayoftheearthquake,theskywasdark[January12,2010];wethoughtitwasgoing

torain…mymotherwascooking…thebeanswereinthepot…[andshetoldmeto]‘go

lightthefire’.Iwasholdingthebaby.AllofasuddenIheardthehousego‘tootoot,too

toot’,Ifeltastonehitme…Ifeltthehouseshaking…Ithoughteverythingwasover.I

yelled,‘beprepared,Jesusiscoming!’.Ilookeddowntowardthecityandsawalotof

smoke.Iwenttomyneighbour’shouse,andherchildwaskilled…rockshadfallenonher

bedandcrushedhim.Allthehousesaroundweredestroyed.IfIhadputmybabyinbed

asInormallydidatthattime,hewouldhavebeendead,asthatroomwascompletely

destroyed.Welosteverything.

Following‘Mr.Earthquake’,Ihavebecomeverysensitivetonoise…Iwastraumatized

afterthequakeandmyheartwasconstantlybeatingfast.SometimesIstillhave

headachesfornoreason;Ihadhitmyheadtoo.[Fromawomanwhowasseriously

injuredwhenanironbarpuncturedherbackinthequake,andshedirectlywitnessed

manyotherdeadanddying,includingtwopeoplerightnexttoheronwhomaconcrete

wallfellandseveredboththeirbodies.]

Researchparticipantsweredevastatedbytheearthquake.All12knewpreciselywherethey

werewhentheearthquakeoccurredat4:53pmonJanuary12,2010,andallsufferedgreat

losses.Eachoftheirhomeswasdestroyedinthequake,asweremostlocalresidents’.

Representativeoftheareapopulationinthissense,participantshadlivedinsmallhomesofone,

twoorthreerooms,ofconcreteordirtfloors,metalroofs,andconcreteblockorstone-and-

stuccowalls.Beforeasafterthequake,mosthavenoelectricityandnonehaveindoor

plumbing.Sixyearspost-earthquake,onlyafewlocalresidentshavebeenabletorebuildtheir

homes;noneoftheresearchparticipantshavedoneso.Mosthavemaderepairsorbuiltnew

‘temporary’shelterswithcorrugatedsheetmetalorplastictarps.Whenitrains,thehomes

flood,andinfrequenthurricanestheyworrythattheshelterswillbeblownoverbyhighwinds.

Peopleexpecttofacedisastersregularly–hurricanes,flooding,andperhaps,another

earthquake.Thissenseofprecariousnesspervadesdecision-makingandcontributestoshort-

termthinkingandlackofagencyaboutthefuture.

PeopleofBellevue-La-Montagnewerefirstvictimizedbytheearthquake,andthenagain

byscamsandpromisespost-earthquake[suchastorebuildhomes].

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Furtherdevastationimmediatelypost-earthquakeoccurredwithunfilledpromisesandoutright

scamsbypeoplewhowouldtakehomeowners’cashdepositsforhousingmaterialsandeither

neverbeheardfromagainorbringsmallamountsofcementtoappearlegitimate,andthen

neverreturn.Understandably,peoplewerediscouraged,andfrustratedthattheyhadnoway

ofknowingwhoorwhentotrustothers.GiventhelackofenforceablecontractsinHaiti,

mattersoftrustarehugelyimportanttoalmostallrelationshipsandtransactions,asshownin

theresearch.

Everydaylifeisastruggleformostparticipants.Mostaresubsistencefarmersormarkettraders

wholiveday-to-daytryingtoearnenoughtofeedtheirfamilies.Aregularlyvisitingdoctor

claimsthatmalnutritioninthecommunityischronic18.Whenpeoplehavethemeans,they

makecoffeeinthemorningandeatitwithbread.Oneortwocookedmealsduringtheday

generallyconsistofriceandbeans;alsocornmeal,spaghetti,sweetpotatoes,avocadoes,

mangoes,plantains,tomatoesandpeppersarecommon.Manyreportthattheyandtheir

childrensometimesgotobedhungry.Onlytwoof12participantshavejobswithregular

salaries.Markettradersinthegroupreportedaveragenetincomesofroughly$1–2USfora

day’swork.Thesubsistencefarmerseitherownorrentsmallgardenplots.

Whenwecangetitweeatmeat;alsorice,beans,plantains,corn,sweetpotatoes,

avocadoes,oranges.Wegetthemfromourgardensandthemarket.Weeat2-3times

perday,oronceperdaywhenthingsaretight.Sometimeswegotobedwithouthaving

eaten,wewakeup,makecoffee,andhavenothingelseallday.OragoodSamaritan

comesandbringssomefoodforus,wecookamealandgotobed.Sometimeswedon’t

havesaltoroil,sowejustboilwhateveritis,takesomegreensfromthebushes,andeat

them.Wecan’tbuyoncredit,becausewewon’thavemoneytorepayit.

WhatIheardfromeldersinthecommunity,duringDuvalier,lifewasverygoodbecause

iftheywenttotownwith20[Haitian]dollars,theywouldnotbeabletocarrythegoods.

Butnowifyouhave1,000[Haitian]dollars,youwillbeholdingonlyalittleplasticbagto

carrywhatyoupurchased.100[Haitian]dollarscannotbuyagoodpairofsandals.Life

hasbecomeveryhardforus.

18ThisAmericandoctorwithHaitiClinicseeshundredsoflocalresidentsduringvisitsseveraltimesperyear.Thedoctorcitedmalnutritionthensexualhealthproblemsasthemostpervasiveconcerns,thelatterfoundinnearlyallwomenandgirlsfromage13.

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Thehighcostoffoodrelativetoincomeandthelabourrequiredtomeetdailyneeds--suchas

carryingwater,handwashingclothing,andcharcoalcooking--contributestothedailystruggle.

Additionalcostsforhealthcare,housingmaterials,schoolfees,andfuneralexpensesaddto

people’sdailystrugglesandstressors.Participantsexpresseddesireforelectricity(onlyafew

haveoccasionalaccess)andforbetterroads.Theysufferdisastersetbacks,particularly

hurricanes,atfairlyregularintervals.

Participantsexpresseddesiretoimprovethemselvesandthearea’sreputation.Theyfeela

stigmaasa‘backward’,violentcommunity,andafewexpressedthat‘Godisshiningalight’on

themthroughthelocaldevelopment.Thecommunityischanging;peopleareproudtohavethe

school,theconstructiontraining,outsidersvisiting,andnewconnections.Theywantto‘riseto

theoccasion’.Manyparticipantswanttoshedtheirreputationasaviolent,‘backward’place–

andtochangecertainbehavioursandpracticesofviolence.

WhatIwouldliketoseechange[inthecommunity],Iwouldlikeforustocollaborate,for

ustonotbefighting,becausewe’rebeginningtodevelophere.Therearecertainthings

weshouldn’tdo.Forexample,Ihearnoises,fighting,rockthrowing,andmachetes

hitting.Thatshouldn’tbe,becausenowwehaveimportantpeoplecomingtothe

community.It’suptoustoshowthatwerespectourselves;therearecertainthingswe

shouldn’tdo.

ParticipantswerenostalgicfortheDuvalierdictatorshipera.Theyclaimedthatfoodwasmore

affordableandthattheyfeltsafer.Followingthefallofthedictatorship,in1987Haitibeganits

ongoingtransitiontodemocracy.Assuggestedbelow,peoplefeelthatlifehasbecomemore

difficultandlesssecureduringthisperiod.

DuringDuvalieritwassafer.Youwerenotafraid;you’dseepeopleoutsideplaying

dominoes,drinking.Well,ifyou’reinthestreet[now],you’rewalking,someonecomesup

toyou,heasksyouaquestionandyoudon’tanswerwell,hecrushesyourightthere.

After[President]Aristideleft,theyweregoingaroundinbroaddaylight,killingpeople,

robbingpeople,takingeverythingtheyhad.Althoughpeoplesleptinbushesandtrees,

theyhadtosleepwithoneeyeopened.

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ThereasonitwasbetterandtherewasmoresecurityduringDuvalierwasthattherewere

nogangsatthetime.Maybetherewerebandits,butnogangsyet.IthinktheTVbrought

anumberofthingshereinHaiti.Thebiggestgangsters,theycomehidinghereinHaiti;

therearechildrenoutinthestreets;theyarethemostdangerousones.Thereusedtobe

[tonton]macoutes[whowererecognizablefortheiruniformsandsignaturesunglasses]

before,butnowpeopledon’tknowwhopeopleare.19

Forme,thereisnogovernmentthatdoesn’tmakemistakes.ButIthinkJeanClaude

[Duvalier]andhisDad[PapaDocDuvalier]spent29yearsinpower.TheonlythingIcan

blameJeanClaudeforisthepigshekilled,becausetheywerelikelife.Theykilledourpigs,

theygaveus40[Haitiandollars]foralargepig,20foranaverage,5forasmall.Andour

lifewasfinishedsincethen,becauseitwasourasset.Forme,that’stheonlymistakeIcan

blamehimfor.Aftertheykilledourpigs,theycamewithotherpigsandyouneededalotof

moneytobuyone.

His[Duvalier’s]governmentwasagoodone,youfoundfoodeasily.Itwasagood

governmentaslongasyoudidn’tmaketrouble.

That’swhatwewouldlikefromgovernment–toprovidefood,toprovidepeace,toprovide

jobs.

Iaskedparticipantsifthereweremanytontonmacoutes(membersofDuvalier’snotoriously

brutalsecurityforce)whohadlivedinthisarea,andifso,isthatwhylocalresidentshadasense

ofsecurity?

Thereweremany.Mostofthepeoplearoundherewere[tonton]macoutes.Itwouldbe

betterifwehadthemagain.

19‘Tontonmacoutes’werethemembersofthesecurityforceundertheDuvalierdictatorships.Theywerenotoriousfortheirbrutalityandforperpetratingviolenceandfear,andfornighttimeraidsweremanypeoplewould‘disappear’fromtheirhomesandwereusuallyneverseenorheardfromagain.SomesaythatthesolefunctioninginstitutionoftheDuvalieryearswasthemilitaryapparatus,whentherewereasmanyas300,000tontonmacoutes.Astrikingcontrast:in2015inHaiti,thereareestimatedtobe200,000formaljobsofallsectorsintheentirecountry.

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2.Narrativesofcommunityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality.

All12researchparticipantsreportedthat,ingeneral,theschoolandcommunitydevelopment

representedpositivechangeforthelifeofthecommunityandchildren’sopportunitiesforthe

future.However,onlytwoofthe12haveregularjobsasaresultofthedevelopment,andnone

oftheparticipantshadbeenabletoaffordmaterialstorebuildtheirearthquake-ravagedhomes.

Ofthetenwithoutsalariedjobs,theyreportedthattheirownlivelihoodshavenotsignificantly

changedasaresultofdevelopment;nonetheless,theyhavegreathopesforthecommunity’s

future.Participantsindicatedthattheschoolanddevelopmentprojectsunderwayhavebecome

deeplysignificantforthecommunity’sidentityandpeople’saspirationsforthefuture.

…everyotherlocalityisadvanced,thislocalityhasneverbeenadvanced.Itwasn’tuntil

[HaitiPartners]cametobuildtheschoolhere;thelocalityhaschanged.Icansay,well,

we’renotlivinginthewoodsanymore.That’swhatIsee;wedidn’thaveaschoolnearby,

sometimesoneofmychildrenwenttoschoolupthereinthemountain,whenhewasgoing

totheofficial6thgradeexams,Ihadtotakehimallthewaydown[tothecity]forthe

exams.Moreover,togotothedoctor,youhadtogoallthewaytoPétion-villetoseethe

doctor.Butnow,wehavedoctorsinthelocalityand[nearly]freeofchargeontopofit.

Ourschool,nearby.Andwearegoingtohavebread;everythingwillbecloseby.Inthe

future,youwillhaveasupermarket;ifyouneedcertainthings,you’llbeabletobuythem.

Youseeitisagoodthing.

Participantsexpressedprideandasensethattheirvoiceshadbeenheardindecision-making

aboutthenewschoolandotherdevelopmentprojects.Theyareencouragedbytheattention

fromoutsiders,andexpressedthattheyliketoseeforeignerscomingtovisit.

EverytimeMr.John[HaitiPartners]isdoinganactivity,healwaysinvitesussowecan

brainstormtogetheranddeterminewhatisgoodforthecommunity.

Amidstwhattheyconsidertobepositivecommunitychange,10of12participantsexpressed

thattheirownpersonalcircumstanceshavenotimprovedasaresultoflocaldevelopment.They

donothavethemeanstorebuildtheirhomesandtheirincomeshavenotincreased.Thosewith

youngchildrenwhoattendorwillattendtheschoolarehopefulthattheirchildrenwillhave

betterliveswithmoreopportunityasaresultoftheireducation.

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Anumberofnewjobshavebeencreatedforschoolstaffandconstructionworkers,whichhas

beengenerallypositive,buthashadsomeunintendedconsequencesthatsurfacegender-based

structuralinequalities;inatleastofcoupleofcases,menwhohavejobshaveusedtheir

income/powertohaveadditionalpartnersandchildren,andtheirwivesandolderchildrenare

nowworseoff.

3.Narrativesofasenseofpowerlessness,acceptance,andresignation.Participantssharedstoriesandsentimentsthatrevealasenseofpowerlessnessandresignation

that‘Goddecides,sothereisnotmuchwecando.’BesidesGod,theyexpressedthat,toafar

lesserextent,powercancomefromtheirworkingcollectively(‘puttingtheirheadstogether’)

andfromtrustedinternationalallies,suchasHaitiPartners.Intermsofleadership,avacuum

wasleftwhenthelocalvodoupriest,whowasseenastheprimarylocalleader,waskilled

severalyearsearlier.

There’snotaleaderinthiscommunity;theleaderwehadwasmurdered.Afterthat,

otherslookeddownonus.Somepeopleareangrythattheschoolwasbuilthere;they

saywedon’tdeserveit.Theydidn’tthinksomethinggreatcouldhappenhere…Itwas

Godwhosentthisprojectheretohelpus.

Somefeelalackofagencytomakechange,notonlyforreasonsof‘Goddeciding’orresource

constraints,butalsoduetouncertaintyaboutthefuture,particularlyregardingthenextdisaster,

‘whichcouldhappenanytime’,asmanyparticipantsexpressed.Thissenseofacceptanceand

lackofagencykeepspeoplestuckandacceptingoftheircircumstances,ratherthanorganizing

tofightforsystemicchange.Relatedly,whilethereisevidencethatacultureofparticipationis

evolvinglocally,itisstillfarfromacultureof‘changemaking’,inwhichpeoplefeelempowered,

motivated,andresponsibleforchangingtheirsituation.

Inreportingontheirwell-being,mostindividualsclaimedtobegenerallycontentwiththeirlives,

citingamainreasonbeingthatneithertheynoranyfamilymemberswereinhospital.Most

alsoreportedthattheyfelttheirlivesanddailyactivitieswerevaluableandhadmeaning.

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Thosereportedtobetheleasthappywiththeirliveswereyoungmenwithhigherlevelsof

education(highschool)whowereunabletofindjobs.

Asenseofpowerlessnessisconnectedwiththelackofavailablejobs.Therearefarfewerjobs

thanpeoplewhowantandneedthem,andinsomecasesnewjobscreatedthroughthe

communitydevelopmenthavecausedtensionsandfamilydifficulties.Somepeoplearejealous

ofothersforbeinghiredforcovetedjobs.

Peoplealsodonothaveasenseofpowerorvoicetobeheardbygovernment.Inour

participatoryactormappingsessioninwhichwenamedallorganizations,actors,groups,and

agencieswhohaveanyengagementorprovideservicesinthecommunity,aftertwohoursof

identifyinganddiscussing,notonestateagencyorgoverningbodyhadbeenmentioned–not

evenpolice.Itisworthnotingthatoneparticipantishimselfalocalgovernment

representative!

TheHaitianstatedoesn’teventhinkaboutus,eventhemayorisnotgivingussupport;if

onesectionoftheroadgetsdamaged,wearetheonestofindaway[torepairit],friends,

webuythemsugarandsweetdrinkstogivedrinkstootherpeopletodoit.Thereisno

mayorthinkingaboutuswhereweare,it’slikeweourselvesneedtohaveourownmayor

hereinthe4th[sectionoftheward],orourownpresident.Apresidentnevercamehere,

letalonethemayor.SinceI’maCASEC’sassistant[localgovernmentrepresentative],

whenthereisaproblemwithrobbers,IusuallycallthePétion-villepolicestation;whenI

tellthemwhereIamtheytellmetheydon’tknowtheplaceBlanchard2,Ishouldgodown

tothePétion-villepolicestationtogetthem.Theytellmetheydon’thaveanyfueland

thatifIcanfindsomemenIshouldbringtherobberdowntoPétion-ville.Ifeelhopeless

whenthathappens.

ConsistentwithwhatIhaveheardfrommanyHaitians,participantsdonotexpectthatthestate

willeveractintheirinterests.Thisisrational.Thereisnotevidencethatiteverhas,andthere

isnohistorynorexperienceofthestateprovidingservicestothepeople.Expectationsofthe

stateareverylow.

Aslongasyouhaveapopulation,theyhavesecurity,theycaneat,thepeoplefeeltheyhaveagoodpresident.Nowadaystheydon’tfeelanypresidenttriedtoworktobring

downthecostofliving.TheytaketheirmoneyandhideitinSwissbanks,theywon’tbe

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staying[hereinHaiti],andtheyhaveaplacetogo.Theydon’tworktowardbringing

downthehighcostofliving.

Wherethereisgood,therehastobebad.Agovernmentnevercomesintopowerwith

destruction.Ifnot,you’renotarealgovernment.Here’showithappened.WeHaitian

people,thisiswhatweneed:beating,food,entertainmentandifthereneedstobea

killing,theywillkillyou.Here’showitwasduringthatgovernment.Duvalierhimselfgave

anorderinthemorning,lateriftheorderhadnotbeenfollowed,immediatelytheday

afterhesanctions.Thebanditscausingtrouble,hecallsyoutothe[Presidential]palace,

beforeweusedthenamebandit,hecallsyouandasksyouhowmanypresidentsthereare.

Hesayshe’stheonlyoneandhehasyoutakenawaytobekilled.Whentherestofthem

heardthatyouwentthereanddidn’treturn,theywalkedstraightandstoppeddoingwhat

theyweredoing.ThisishowtheDuvaliergovernmentfunctionedthatmadeitgoodfor

thepopulation.Ifamarkettraderincreasedthepriceoffood,he[Duvalier]decreasedit

immediately–hesettheprices.…Whatdoeshedo?[Duvalier]givesyoufoodatacheap

pricetofillyourstomach,hehasyoubeatenuptokeepyoufrombeingviolentandhe

givesyoumilkandsugaratacheapprice,whatelsedoyouneed?Agovernmentneedsto

givethepopulationfood,drink,entertainment,andbeating.

Onmywaytomymarketstalltheotherday,Istoppedonthesideoftheroadtosell

someonesometomatoes,andapersonfromCitygovernmenthitmeonthearmwitha

stick!It’sforbiddennowtosellinthestreet,youknow.

Onthenotionof‘arighttohumanflourishing’thatIintroduced,onepersonresponded:

Ithinkit’saniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifIt’suptogovernments,

wewillneverflourish.AskthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivinginHaiti,theywill

notbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuchelectricity,howmuch

moneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthatelsewhere,butthe

governmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.

4.Narrativesofaspirationsformoreconnectionswiththeoutsideworld;collectiveactiontobea‘model’community;andabetterlifeandfuture.Participantswereeagertosharetheirviews,lifeexperiences,andearthquakestoriesduringthe

courseofthisresearch,andaskedtobeidentifiedinitsrepresentation.WhenIreturnedand

sharedvideosaboutthemthatIhadproducedandsharedwithothersinthe‘outsideworld’,

participantsseemedpleased.Icarriedout‘probe’interviewstodocumenttheirreactionsand

whether,andhow,theirliveshadchangedintheinterimperiod.Participantsarepleasedand

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proudthatvisitorsfromelsewhereinHaitiandabroadcometoseetheircommunityandnew

school.WhilemanyparticipantsknowofrelativesinotherregionsofHaitiorintheUS,Canada,

orFrance,onlyonepersonof12hadevertravelledoutsideofthePort-au-Princeregion.None

receivesremittancesfromoutside.

Ifitwerenotforthemeetingsrelatedtotheschool,ADECA,Iwouldnotbesittingfaceto

facewithyoutodayforaninterviewandIwouldnotknowyoueither…itisthankstothe

schoolthatwe’reworkinginpartnershipand,asaresult,youandmemeettoday.

Peopleaspiretoliveinacommunitywithqualityschools,healthservices,electricity,roads,

visitors.Whileaspirationsforthecollectiveseemcleartopeople,nonereportedspecifically

whatactiontheypersonallywouldliketotake.Theyspokegenerallyabout‘puttingtheirheads

together’toworkforchange,buttheydidnotgiveevidenceofasenseofagencytomove

forward.Schoolparents,orthosewhoexpectedtobe,showedparticularinterestinengagingin

thelifeoftheschoolandinparticipatinginvolunteeringandeducationactivities.

I’mveryhappyabouttheschool.OnegoodthingformewiththeschoolisthatIbecame

presidentoftheparents’committee.Iamtheonewho,alongwithotherparents,plant

flowersandkeeptheschoolyardnice.Inthefuture,Iwouldlikefortheschoolto

educatethekidswellandforthekidstobeabletospeakthethreelanguages[Haitian

Creole,French,andEnglish],andalsofortheschooltogrowformorechildrentocomein

futureyears.

Ifweallcooperate,infiveyears,wecanhaveavillage–amodelarea.Itcouldhavea

park,aswimmingpool,agrocerystoresothatpeopledon’thavetogoallthewayto

townfortheirgoods;asoccerfield,adanceclubforentertainmentandstressrelief.

Therewillbechurches,schoolsforalllevelsofeducation–preschool,elementary,

secondaryandcollege.

Tenyearsfromnow,Ihopethateveryonewhosehousewasdestroyedwillhaveanew

houseandwillliveinanicecommunityandhaveabetterlife.

TensionpointsrevealedthroughtheresearchInthisdiscussionsection,Iintegrateinterpretationsfromthedescriptivecasestudysectionwith

the‘voices’heardfromlocalpeopletoidentifytensionpoints.‘Tensionpoints’arepowerrelationsthatareparticularlysusceptibletochange,“becausetheyarefraughtwithdubious

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practices,contestableknowledgeandpotentialconflict”(Flyvbjerg,2012:288).Focusingon

tensionpointsiscentraltophroneticsocialscience,andismeanttohighlighthowpower

relationsstandinthewayofaddressingproblems.Theyarerevealedprimarilythroughfield

work(includingparticipatoryresearch,householdinterviewsandobservation),aswellas

documentstudy,andinterviewswithHaitiPartners.Foursuchtensionpoints,asrevealed

throughfieldworkandparticipants’andNGOnarratives,arearound:memory;developmental

outcomes;acultureofchange;andrelationshipsbetweenthestateandthepeople.Eachis

describedbelow.

Tensionpoint1:MEMORY.Collectivecommunitymemoryexposedtheturbulenthistoryof

slavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;anostalgiaforDuvalierera;andabroken

educationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.MostHaitians

havenothadaccesstoadecentqualityformaleducationsystem.Sadly,eventhosethatdo

haveaccesstoeducationareusuallypartofasystemthatisclassistandperpetuatespatternsof

oppressionandmistrust.Ofthosethatdoexpectanythingfromthestate,itistypicallysome

levelofsecurityandaffordablepricesforfood.Thatishowmanyjudgearegime,whichwere

thereasonsthatmostresidentsinterviewedgaveforbeingnostalgicfortheDuvalieryears–

theywerelesshungry,andtheyfeltsafer.Itwasdifficulttohaveacriticaldialogueabout

Duvalieryearsgiventhehardshipsoflifetodayforlocalresidents.Thetensionsaroundhistory

andmemorysuggestthatitwillbeimportantforHaitianstodevelopculturally-relevant

curriculaandeducationprogramsaboutHaiti’spastandpresent,thatincorporateFreirian

criticalconsciousnessanalysis,aspartofthecountry’spathtowardaqualityandaccessible

educationsystem.

Tensionpoint2:OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualand

householdcircumstancesposechallenges,asmanylocalresidents’livedexperienceofhardship

remainsunimproved.Itisagreedbyvisitorsandlocalsalikethatcommunitychangeis

underwayinBellevue-La-MontagnearoundtheADECAschoolandassociatedinitiatives.

However,changeforindividualresidentsandhouseholds,forthemostpart,isfarlessapparent.

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Asof2013,onlyafewofhundredsofimmediatelylocalhouseholdshadbeenabletorebuild

theirearthquake-destroyedhomes.AccordingtoaregularlyvisitingAmericandoctor,most

peopleintheareasufferfrommalnutritionandmanystruggletomeetbasicneedsonadaily

basis.Whatdoesthismeanforsocialchange,inalongertermperspective?Research

participantsreportedthatitwasfinewiththem,fornow,thatthecommunityisadvancing

whiletheircircumstancesremainunchangedforthemostpart,andtheyhypothesizethatover

time,asthecommunitychanges,theirindividualandhouseholdcircumstanceswillimproveas

well.ThoseparticipantswithchildrenwhoattendADECAorwillattendADECA,andthosewho

areemployedatADECAaremostoptimistic.Allparticipantsseemedtoderivehopeandasense

ofpridefromtheattentionthatthenewschoolandcommunitydevelopmentbringsfrom

visitorsfromoutsidetheareaandabroad.Andtheysensethattheirreputationamong

surroundingcommunitiesisimproving.

Whilethecommunityasawholeisimprovingintermsofeducation,amenitiesandconnections

withoutsiders,livingconditionsandcircumstancesofmostindividualresidenthouseholdsdo

notseemtohaveimproved.Inpart,thesetbackoftheearthquakecontributestothis.Likewise,

whilethereseemstobeevidenceofcommunitytransformationinthecasestudy,whether

socialtransformationisoccurringisunclear.Thisstudyisdesignedasqualitativelongitudinal

research(QLR)toenabletrackingchangesinhouseholdoutcomesovertime.Arelatedtension

withparticipantsiswantingabetterlifefortheirchildren(along-termaspiration),juxtaposed

withpotentialdisastersandlosingeverything(short-termfear).Peoplevaluecommunitywell-

beingovertheirownpersonallivingconditions.All12participantslosttheirhomesinthe

earthquake,andnonehavebeenabletorebuild,primarilybecausetheylackresourcesfor

materials.Yet,theyaresopleasedthattheirkidscanattendabeautifulnewschoolandthat

otherpeopleinsurroundingcommunitiesareimpressedbythelocaldevelopment.

Tensionpoint3:CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.Local

residentshavecometoactivelyengageincommunitydevelopmentactivities,however,asense

ofagencytoinitiatechangeisnotyetevident.Thousandsofpeoplehavebeeninvolvedin

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participatoryactivitiesledbyHaitiPartnersandotherlocalgroups,takingpartinpublicOpen

Spacemeetings,weeklySundaycommunitymeetingstodiscussdesignandimplementation

plans,healthtraining,andcommunitygardeningprojects.Thereisevidenceofagrowing

cultureofparticipation,wherepeopleattendmeetingsandtrainings,areactivelyinvolvedin

communitydevelopmentactivities,expressthemselvesandfeelthattheirvoicesareheardand

takenintoconsiderationindecisionmaking.Thekeychallengenowistoevolvethatcultureina

waythatpeoplewouldhaveastrongersenseofagency,orself-efficacy,andwouldtake

collectiveactiontoexpressthemselvesnotonlytoHaitiPartnersandlocalcommunitymembers,

butalsotolocalgovernment,largerorganizations,andothersinpowerworkingoutsidethe

communityandwhoseworkaffects(orcouldaffect)theirlives.Importantly,anevolutionto

sucha‘changemaker’culturewouldmeanthatlocalpeoplewouldinitiatetheirownprojects

including(social)enterprisesandotheractivitiesthatdemonstrateastrongersenseofagency

fortakingcollectiveactiontobringaboutchange.

Tensionpoint4:RELATIONSHIPS.Dynamicsintherelationshipsofgovernments,civilsociety,

NGOsandthe‘internationalcommunity’arefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityand

inertia.Haiti’stumultuoushistoryandperpetuallackoffunctioninginstitutionsthatoperatein

thepublicinteresthaveleftavoid,andhencealackoftrustbypeopleininstitutionsofthe

state,asclearlyreflectedinparticipants’commentsandparticipatorymappingmethods.There

issimplynotaperceptionthatgoverninginstitutions–Haitianorinternational–haveprovided

sustainedsupportinawaythatwasintheinterestsoflocalpeopleorcommunitiesbettering

themselves.Historicalevidenceshowsthat,thoseinpowerhavetypicallybeentop-downin

theiraidregimesinwaysthatwouldperpetuatedependence.AtworstHaitiangovernments

havebeenpredatoryorruthless,whileinternationalagencieshaveactedmoreintheirhost

countries’ordonoragencies’countries’interests,thanintheinterestsof‘ordinary’Haitians.

Thishasledtoasituationwherepeopletendnottotrustinstitutionsandhavenoexpectation

thatagovernmentwouldeveractintheirinterests.Ifaidisbestowed,itisoftencarriedoutin

ashort-term,‘relief’perspective,andisnotaboutbuildingcapacityofresidentssothattheycan

changetheirlonger-termlivelihood,education,ordevelopmenttrajectories.HaitiansIspoke

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withjudgeagovernment’ssuccessbasedonwhetherfoodwasaffordableandtheyfeltsafe

undertheregime.Bythesemeasures,participantswerehighlynostalgicforDuvalieryears.A

numberoftontonmacouteslivedinthearea,whichseemstohaveprovidedasensea

protectiontolocalpeopleduringtheDuvalierdictatorshiperafrom1957-1986.Peopleinthis

areafeellesssecureinthepost-dictatorshipyearsfrom1987tothepresent,whichcoincide

withtheyearsoftransitioningtodemocracyandattemptstowardadecentralizedstate.

Inthiscontext,peoplehavebecomehighlyreliantonthemselves,theirneighboursandsocial

networksforbasicsurvival.ThatHaitiansare'sociallyresilient'hasbecomeaeuphemismfor

‘self-reliant’.Andlivingconditionsappeartohavedeterioratedinthepost-earthquakeperiod

forthevastmajorityofpeople.Duringthesameperiod,Haitihasbeenreducedtoa‘virtual

trusteeship’oftheinternationalcommunity,accordingtoRobertFatton,Jr.(2014and2016),

whocharacterizesHaitiasoneofahandfulofcountriesontheplanet(andtheonlyinthe

Americas)whichhasfallentothe‘outerperiphery’oftheworldeconomicsystem.Withthis

backdrop,bringingaboutsocialtransformationatcommunitylevelisextremelychallenging,yet

equallyimperative.Fundamentaltosocialtransformationischangingrelationshipsand

improvingaccountabilityaswellastransparencyofstateagencies,NGOsoperatinginthe

country,andimportantly,renderinginternationalagenciesresponsiblefortheresultsoftheir

policiesandpracticestoordinarycitizensofHaiti.

Thiswouldimplymovingfromgoalsof‘socialresilience’inHaitito‘transformativeresilience’,

whichwouldbecultivatedthroughpracticesof‘transformativecommunitydevelopment’,such

astheADECAcase.‘Transformativecommunitydevelopment’meanscommunitydevelopment

whichiscontributingnotonlytocommunitytransformationbutalsotosocialandsystems

transformation.GlimpsesofsystemstransformationareunderwayatADECA,suchasforging

newrelationshipswithpoliceandgettingtheminvolvedattheschoolwitheducationprograms.

Muchmoreisneededifstate/societyrelationshipsaretobeimproved.

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InthenextsectionIaddresshowtensionpointsrevealedinthiscasecanbeaddressedthrough

existingandpotentialleversoftransformation,whichareinstructiveforbroaderpolicyand

practicechangeinHaitiaswellassystemicchangeproposalsputforwardasprioritiesinthe

report‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015).]

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2.4Leveragepointsfortransformation‘Leveragepoints’insystemstheoryare‘placeswithinacomplexsystem(acorporation,an

economy,alivingbody,acity,anecosystem)whereasmallshiftinonethingcanproducebig

changesineverything’(Meadows,1997:1).Leveragepointsrepresentpossibilitiesfor

transformativechange.Ihaveidentifiedexistingandpotential‘leversoftransformation’based

onsynthesizinganalysesof:thetensionpointsrevealedfrom‘outsider’and‘insider’

perspectives;literatureinthetheoryandmethodologysectionsabove;andmyresearchinHaiti

(notablyEngle,2014;Engle,2015;Engleetal.,2016;Engleetal.2013)aswellasmyown

professionalexperienceincommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.Learningfromthe

Bellevue-La-Montagnecasepointstoanumberofpossiblestrategiestoactivateleversof

change.

LeverofTransformation1:Education

Theslaverebellionhistoryandstruggleforindependencein1804tobecometheworld’sfirst

blackrepublicseemtobewidelyknowninHaiti.However,thereappearsalackofacollectively

understoodandshared‘criticalconsciousness’aboutsubjugationandoppressionperpetratedin

variouswaysparticularlyinthe20thcenturythrough,forexample,theAmericanoccupation,the

genocideofHaitiansbyDominicans,andtheextentoftheDuvalierbrutality.Alsothereseems

tobealackofinformationamongHaitiansaboutothercountrieswithsimilarstruggles,and

aboutHaiti’sroleintheworldandwhatithasincommonwithmanyothercountries,suchas

formerdictatorshipstransitioningtodemocracyandwhichalsohavesufferedongoing‘conflict-

poverty’traps.Bycreatingcontext-appropriatecurriculaandmechanismsforsharinghistorical

knowledgeandengagingincollectivecriticalanalysis,Haitianswouldhavetoolstotogether

forgepathwaystowardreducingtheirvulnerabilitiesandstrengtheningresilience.

Beyondthecontentofeducation,asmentionedpreviously,traditionaleducationinHaitidoes

notencouragecriticalthinking,creativity,questioning,orsolutions-basedthinking,butrather

hasbeenoneofrotememorizationandoftencorporalpunishment.Theparticipatoryapproach

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Table2.3:LeversoftransformationfromcommunitytostructurallevelsinHaiti

NarrativesexposedinBellevue-La-Montagne

case

TensionpointsRevealed

Leversoftransformation:communitytostructurallevels

PrioritiesforHaiti(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015)

Vulnerability,scarcity,violence

1.MEMORY.Turbulenthistoryofslavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;nostalgiaforDuvalierera;brokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.

Education:Developculturally-relevantcurriculaandeducationprogramsaboutHaiti’spastandpresent,thatincorporateFreiriancriticalconsciousnessanalysis.Expandthereachofcharacterstrengtheningandvalues-basededucationalandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproachesandpracticesofHaitiPartnerstoexistingandnewschoolsinHaiti,includingpublicschools.Relatedly:Strengthenliteracyskills,improveeducationsystem,andincreaseaccesstoeducation.

Reducing

vulnerabilities

andbuilding

resilience.

Communityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality

2.OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualandhouseholdcircumstances.

PlaceIdentity,NetworksandResearch:Support,connectandprofileplace-basedexamplesofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentacrossHaitithatarecommittedtoqualityplanningandarchitectureandshowpromiseoftransformativechange/transformativeresilience,andtrackchangesinindividualandcommunityoutcomesovertimethroughlongitudinalstudy.

Senseofpowerlessness,acceptance,resignation

3.CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.

SocialEntrepreneurshipandSocialInnovation:Investinsocialenterprisecreationandfosteracultureofsocialinno-vationatcommunitylevel,andnationallythroughnetworks.Buildon,strengthenandshareADECAaspirationalmodelofsocialenterpriseforfinancialsustainabilitytosupportschooloperations,providejobs,training,andlong-termsocialandeconomicdevelopment.

Creating

greater

economic

opportunities

andbetter

jobs.

Aspirationsforconnections,a‘model’community,andabetterlifeandfuture

4.RELATIONSHIPS.state,society,NGOsandinternationalcommunityrelation-shipdynamicsfraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountability,inertia.

State/SocietyTrustandAccountability:Buildnewstate-societyrelationshipsthatengendertrustandengageoutsidersconstructively--suchasinternationalagenciesandNGOs,butthatdonotcontinuetoinstitutionalizedependenceandexploitation.

(Re)building

thesocial

contract.

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toeducationatADECAisdirectlycountertotraditionalwaysandinvolvescultivatingaloveof

learning,integratingparentsintothelifeofschool,andworkingtochangetheeducational

systemtoonethathelpschildrendevelopstrongcharacterthroughvalues-basededucation.

Valuesofmutualrespect,integrity,compassion,empathy,trust,andcollaborationarecentralto

theapproachandaimtocontributetostrengtheningethicalcitizenshipandleadershipfroman

earlyage.Also,apositivecultureoflearningandlifelongeducationpervadeseachelementof

thecommunitydevelopmentatADECA,whichisslowlytakingholdintermsofsocialattitudes

andpractices,asevidencedthroughlocalresidents’engagementinregulardialoguetoreview

andplanthecommunity’sfutureandtheirownrolesinit.

LeverofTransformation2:PlaceIdentity,NetworksandResearchTheimportanceoflocationand‘place’–includinghistory,environmentalconditions,amenities,

andvisualimagery–contributetocollectiveidentityamonglocalresidents.Placematters.

Bawosyaisnow‘onthemap’becauseofthenewschool,localdevelopment,andvisitsfrom

outsiders.Localpeopleexpressedaplaceattachmentandpridetolivethere,whenuntil

recentlytheyfeltshame.Thecontext-sensitiveandhighqualityplanning,architecture,and

constructioncontributetotheplacedimension.Earthquake-resistantconstructionand

excellentsiteandbuildingdesignoftheschool,socialenterpriseandtrainingfacility,

compostingsanitation,andrecreationareaandgardensarehallmarksofthiscaseandprovide

importantexamplesforothercommunities.Toaddresswhatisperceivedasunevenoutcomes

amongindividualsandforthecommunityasawhole(e.g.highqualityconstructionofthe

school,andpoorhousingandlivingconditionsoflocalresidents),itwouldseemimportantto

connectthiscasecommunitywithothersinHaitiwhichareattemptingsimilareffortssothat

theycanexchangeexperiences,learnfromeachother,andpotentiallyjoinforcestoeffect

widerpracticeandpolicychange.Establishingnetworksofcommunitydevelopment

practitionersthataretakingeducation-centeredapproacheswouldpotentiallyleadtomore

examplesoftransformativechangeinHaitiancommunitieswheretransformativecommunity

developmentandtransformativeresilienceseemtobeoperative.Profilingandnetworking

suchcommunitiesandsupportingamovementamongthemwouldhelptoinformandinspire

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others.Learningexchangescouldbetopicspecific,suchasecologicaleducationand

agriculturalpracticesthatdrawonandimprovelocalknowledge.Researchdocumentationof

learningandexchangescouldthenbesharedwithadditionalcommunities.Inaddition,

researchovertimewithinandacrosscommunitieswillbecriticaltounderstandingdynamicsof

changewhichistrulytransformational.ConsistentwithandbuildingontheWorldBankgoalof

reducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience,Haitimustmovebeyond‘socialresilience’,

whichisalreadyapparent,toatransformativeresiliencethatwouldpermanentlyaltersocial,

economicandenvironmentalpractices,beginningatthecommunitylevel.Field-based

community-levelresearchovertimewillbeimportanttotrackwhethercommunity

developmentinterventionsarehavingapositiveimpactonthelivesoflocalpeopleaswellason

broadersocietalsystemsandstate/societyrelations.

LeverofTransformation3:SocialEntrepreneurshipandSocialInnovationWhileestablishinga‘participatory’cultureisanimportantsteptowardfacilitatingasenseof

agencyamongpeople,itisnotsufficient.Ifthegoalisa‘changemaker’culturewhereeach

personhasasenseofself-efficacyandempowermenttoinitiatechange,thenitisimportantto

buildacultureofsocialentrepreneurshipandsocialinnovationinlocalcommunitiesand

schools,andtoproviderecognitionandinvestmentatnationallevel.Also,directinvestmentin

socialenterprisecreationatcommunitylevelwillhelptoinspiresuchpractices.Aculturally-

relevantmeansfordoingthiswouldbetobuildonandrecognizethevalidityandpowerofthe

‘konbit’culturedescribedinRobillard(2013).BeginningDecember2015,HaitiPartners

supportedlocalcommunitymembersindoingjustthatthroughthecreationofseveralVillage

Savingsandloansgroups.HaitiPartnersseesthisasakeystrategytohaveanimpactonlocal

individualsandtheirfamilies.Groupparticipantsareprovidedwithaccesstocreditaswellas

trainingonhowtosaveandspendmoneywell.AsofMarch2016,100localpeopleare

members,andHaitiPartnersintendstoscaletheinitiativefurther.Theyseeitasacritical

strategytonurturechangemakerculture.

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Asof2016,thereissomeevidencethatacultureofcollectivechangemakingmaybeslowly

emerging.Notonlydoschoolparentsvolunteerfourhoursperweekasdescribedpreviously,

butrecently,youngpeopleandadultsintheEnglishlanguageclassandthe49membersofthe

localsocialenterprisecooperativedecidedtocommitto4-8servicehourspermonthfor

collectivecommunityprojects.

Anadditionalwaytosupportsocialinnovatorswouldbetorecognizeandrewardsocial

innovationsandtoconnectsocialentrepreneurswhoareworkingatthecommunitylevel.

Supportingthekindofcommunity-drivensocialentrepreneurship,suchasHaitiPartners’work

withYunusSocialBusinessandPADFincreatingsocialenterprisesandcooperativebusinesses,

suchasthebakeryintheBellevue-La-Montagnecase,providesonelong-termstrategyfor

creatingbettereconomicopportunitiesandjobsinHaiti.

LeverofTransformation4:State-SocietyTrustandAccountabilityGiventhatthereisnohistoryorexperienceofatruesocialcontractinHaiti,itisessentialto

buildnewstate-civilsocietyrelationshipsthroughnewformsofengagement.Giventhelong

historyandcurrentsituationwhereinternationalagenciesholdsomuchpowerinHaiti,they

mustbepartofthesolutioninitiallybutnotlong-termifHaitiistobreakitshistoricpatternsof

‘top-down’aid.Relatedly,internationalNGOstypicallylackaccountabilitytoeithertheHaitian

stateorlocalcommunities.MostofthemarenotevenregisteredinHaiti.HaitiPartners

providesanotableexceptiontothispattern.Itisimportanttoincreasetheaccountabilityof

NGOsoperatinginHaitiinasystematicway,sothatlocalembeddedness,transparency,and

truelong-termcapacity-buildingandinvestmentarethenorm,ratherthantheexception.Local

NGOsofferanopportunitytobuildbetterinter-connectednetworksofcommunitiesthathavea

directvoiceinpolicymaking.Haitiwillremainextremelylimitedifafunctionalandaccountable

stateisnotestablished,butitisnotsomethingthatcanbebuiltovernight.Becauseformal

institutionsareunreliableandtypicallydysfunctional,informalinstitutions--suchas

relationshipsoftrust,reciprocity,andrespect--arecentraltosocialinteractionsandsuccessful

developmentengagement.Also,buildingasocialcontractbetweenpeopleandthestatecould

116

benurturedbyconnectingtocommunitylevelparticipatorypracticeandresearchandto

academics,governments,andpartnersinsideandoutsideofHaiti.Asappropriate,this

collaborativeworkcandrawonnewtechnologiesparticularlyinareaswhereHaitihasbeenable

toleap-frog,suchasmobiletelephones,mobiledatacollectionandcitizenscienceapplications.

2.5ConclusionIsBellevue-La-Montagneonapathwaytotransformativecommunitydevelopment,andwhat

learningfromthiscaseisinstructivefordevelopmentpracticeandpolicyinHaitiandsimilar

contexts?Theeducation-centeredandhighlycollaborativecommunitydevelopmentapproach

thatHaitiPartnershastakenatBellevue-La-MontagneisinnovativeandappropriateforHaiti

andthelocalcontext.Theparticipatorycommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwaytherehave

placedconstructionofanewschoolandeducationattheheartofrebuildingefforts.Education

andparticipatorypracticesareembeddedinallaspectsofthecommunitydevelopment--

includingsocialentrepreneurship,healthcare,environmentalstewardship,community

agriculture,siteplanningandbuildingconstruction.Theseeffortsinvolveparticipationof

peopleandorganizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsthatappeartoaim

tosharepowerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeople,andtocreate,change,orpreserve

structuresandinstitutionsconsistentwiththeinterestsoflocalpeople.Multiplemethodsand

narrativeanalysis,includingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods,exposethevalidityofthat

propositionfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.Findingsrevealthehighlyfragilenatureof

state/societyrelations,theimportanceoftrust,newprideandpossibilityforthecommunity,as

wellastensionpointsthatpotentiallythreatenthelong-termsustainabilityofdevelopment

projects,suchasdifferencesbetweenoutcomesforthecommunityasawholeandindividual

households.

Nonetheless,theBellevue-La-Montagnecaseshowspromisingresultssofarintermsof

communityamenities,education,localcohesion,hope,pride,jobs,training,andconnections

withothersinHaitiandelsewhere.Itisevidentfromthiscasestudythatcommunity

transformationisoccurring,andglimpsesofsocialtransformationseemtobepresent,butitis

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earlydaystoassessclearly.Theformerdoesnotrequireachangeinculturenecessarily,while

thelatterdoes,andithappensmoreslowly.Followinghouseholdlevelchangesovertimewill

beimperativeinordertoclearlyunderstandtheextenttowhichsocialtransformationisin

process,particularlyinwaysthatcontributetotransformativeresilienceandlong-term

sustainabilityofthecommunitydevelopmentprojects.Critically,socialtransformationthat

wouldrenderthecommunitytransformationresilientandlastinginthefaceoftheabsenceof

HaitiPartners,isnotclear.IfHaitiPartnersweregonetomorrow,wouldthecommunity

developmentunderwaycontinueinitscurrenttrajectory?Havethegainsmadeduringthefirst

fiveyearsofworkofthisremarkableeffortrenderedthecommunitymoreresilient?Whileitis

tooearlytoassesswithcertainty,itisclearthatthereispotentialfortransformativecommunity

development--thatis,communitydevelopmentthatleadstopermanentchangesinvaluesand

institutions.TheintentionistocarryoutQualitativeLongitudinalResearcheveryfewyearswith

thesame12participanthouseholds.

Followinglocalresidents’storiesovertimewillenabletrackingofoutcomesanddynamicsof

socialtransformation.Forexample,toreturntoLisa’sstoryfromtheopeningquoteofthis

article,wewillfollowherandherchildren’slivedexperiencesandoutcomesovertime.Lisa

currentlyhastwochildren–bothenrolledatADECAschool.Sheearnsalivelihoodof

approximately$1perdayasasubsistencefarmerandmarkettrader,andisanactiveparentat

theschool,andaboardmemberofthenewlocalcooperativesetuptocreatesocialbusinesses

toprovidesustainablefundingforschooloperations.Lisacurrentlyliveswithherchildrenand

partnerinonesmallroomofhermother-in-law’stworoommetalshanty,andshedreamsthat

theywillhavetheirownhomeoneday.Herhopeisforherchildrentocontinuewithaquality

educationthatshecouldnot,andtoworkwithotherstocreateacommunitythatwouldserve

asamodelforallofHaiti.Bytrackingresultsrelatedtotheseaspirationsandthesocialand

economicoutcomesofLisa’sandotherlocalchildren–andperhapsoneday,theirchildren’s

children--wewillmakevisiblewhether,andtowhatextent,thiseducation-centeredapproach

tocommunitydevelopmentcontributestosocialtransformationoverthelongterm.

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Atpracticalandpolicylevels,learningfromthiscasecaninformdesignandimplementationof

improvedstrategiesforparticipatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentthat

provideimportantrolesforlocalpeopleandcivilsociety,andanuancedroleforinternational

organizationswhichissensitivetopowerdynamics.Suchdevelopmentstrategieswould

similarlygive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglesforchangeandwouldactivatekeylevers

oftransformationsuchasthoseidentifiedinthiscase,including:1)education;2)placeidentity,

networks,andresearch;3)socialentrepreneurshipandsocialinnovation;and4)strengthening

trustandaccountabilityamongthestate,civilsocietyandNGOs.Theseleversareinlinewith

themedium-termprioritiesforpolicyactionproposedbytheWorldBankinits2015report,

‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’,whichare:(re)buildingthesocialcontract;creatinggreater

economicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;andreducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience

(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015).Theseworthyandimportantgoalswillneedtobevigorously

pursuedatalllevelsifsignificantprogressistobemadetowardthem.Thelocalcommunity

levelhasaparticularlyimportantroletoplay,giventhelackoffunctionalformalinstitutionsof

thestateandtherelianceofpeopleonthemselves,neighbours,andcommunitiesinorderto

meettheirbasicneeds.

Thiscaseprovidesanexampleofstrategiesforchangeatcommunitylevelthathavethe

potentialtocontributetochangingnarrativesinHaiti,andofHaiti.Byscalingandconnecting

similarcommunitylevelinitiatives,Haitimaycreateanarrativeofsocialtransformationthat

wouldpermanentlychangeitsdevelopmenttrajectoryandoutcomesforcommunitiesacross

thecountry.Ithasthepotentialtoprovideabeaconforotherouterperipherycountriesand

marginalizedsocieties.Education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,asexemplifiedinthe

Bellevue-La-Montagnecase,showspromiseasonepathwayforscalingtowardsuch

transformation.

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PrefacetoChapter3:ParticipatoryPracticeandResearchVideos

Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopment

andsocialchange

Thischapterispresentedinvideoformat.ItconsistsoftwoversionsofavideoIproduced.

Figures3.1and3.2arethe13-minuteand6-minuteversions,respectively.20Thevideos

representapartoftheresearchcarriedoutattheprincipalcasestudysiteofBellevue-La-

Montagne.Theyprovideabriefoverviewofthepost-earthquakesituationandarationalefor

carryingoutparticipatoryresearchtoinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.

Eachvideoincludesinterviewfootagewithasamplingoflocalresidentsaswellasphotographs

takenbyresearchparticipants.Thetwovideosaresimilar,exceptthatthelongerversion

providesmoreinformationabouttheresearchmethodologyandfindings.

20Bothvideoversionsmayalsobeaccessedonlineat:vimeo.com/jayneeworviatheVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.

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PrefacetoChapter4:ParticipatoryMethodsPaper

CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunitydevelopmentthroughparticipatorymethodologies

andqualitativelongitudinalresearch

Chapter4isfocusedonmethods–particularlyparticipatoryphotography–carriedoutat

Bellevue-La-Montagne.Ihaveanalyzedtheresultsgeneratedbycarryingoutthemethods,as

wellasthestrengthsandweaknessesofthemethodsthemselves.Thestudyisdesignedas

qualitativelongitudinalresearchinordertoexposedynamicsofsocialchangeovertime.

Whentheearthquakehit,Iwasworkinginthefield.WhileIwasturningtheground,I

wasliftingthepickaxe,IfeltIwasswinging,somethingwassweepingmeaway.Ididn’t

knowwhattodo,soIdroppedthepickaxe.Ilaydownontheground.Therewereother

peopleathome,Iheardthemcallingme.Iaskedwhatwaswrong.Theysaidthey

didn’tknow.Ilearnedthehousewasdestroyed.Iaskediftherewerepeopleinside.

Theysaidtherewasnoone.Everybodywasoutside.IsaidthankGod,ifeveryonewas

outside,therewasnooneinside,toheckwithit.Noproblem,wecanbuildhouses,but

wecan’tbuyhumanbeings.Aslongasyouwerenotinside,iftherewasfoodinside,

everythinginsidegotbroken,that’snotaproblem.AllIcareaboutisthatyouwerenot

inside.


ThewayIseeit,fiveyearsfromnow,ifeveryoneinthecommunityputstheirheads

together,wework,wecollaboratewithoneanother,itcanbecomeavillage.Inthe

sensethatthisareawillmakeanameforitselfandwillbeconsideredamodelarea.I

thinkwecouldhaveapark.Sincethisareaisnotneartheocean,therecouldbea

swimmingpool...Amarketwherepeoplecanbuyeverythingtheyneed,theywon’t

havetogodowntownfortheirgoods;asoccerfieldforthemtoplay,adanceclub

wherepeoplecanaccessentertainmentandgetridoftheirstress.Then,Ithinkthere

willbechurches,theschool,alllevels–pre-school,elementary,secondary,college.


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Chapter4:CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?

Investigatingcommunitydevelopmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch

4.1IntroductionIntheaftermathofanydisastersocialandpoliticalchangecancomeaboutfromeithernew

powerstrugglesor‘fromthenewsenseofselfandsocietythatemerges’(Solnit,2009:21).

ManyhadhopedthatsuchwouldbethecaseinHaiti,followingthecatastrophicearthquakeof

January12,2010;theearthquakeleftsome220,000peopledeadand1.5millionhomeless,and

itdestroyedmostbuildingsofcentralgovernmentandthousandsofschools,hospitals,andlocal

institutions.

Followingthedisaster,formerPrimeMinister,MichèlePierre-Louis,calledforthe

deconstructionofthecurrentparadigminHaiti–thebasisofproduction,education,accessto

employment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure;shethencalledfor

reconstructionofsociety.Shearguedthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsshouldleadthewayin

theseeffortsbyvaluinglocalknowledge,andbuildingonsmallscalesuccesses(Pierre-Louis,

2011;emphasisadded).OnecommunitytakingthisapproachiscalledBellevue-La-Montagne,

locatedinthemountainssouthofPort-au-Prince.Incollaborationwithinternationalandlocal

civilsocietyorganizations,primarilyHaitiPartners,theyadoptedaparticipatoryapproachto

communitydevelopment,onewhichhasinvolvedongoingdialoguewithcommunityresidents

aboutwhatisneededtobuildabettercommunity.

Fiveyearspost-earthquake,thehopedforsocialchangeisnotclearlyevidentinBellevue-La-

Montagne,norelsewhereinHaiti.Accordingtomany,Haitianreconstructioncanonlysucceed

ifeffortsentailimprovedcollaborationswithHaiti’scomplexandresilientsocialinstitutions

(Dubois,2012).Morebroadly,internationaldevelopmentresearchersrecognizetheimportance

oflocally-based‘people-centered’approaches,‘participatorydevelopment’and‘agency’

(Friedmann,1992;KortenandKlauss,1984;Mohan2008).However,socialinstitutionsinHaiti

122

havesubstantiallyeludedconventionalstrategiesofinternationaldevelopment.Qualitative

analysesthatinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentinacontext-specificanddistinctlyhuman

wayarelacking.Suchanalysesareneededinordertorevealpatternsofsocialchangein

communities,whichisalong-termandoftenelusiveendeavour.

Thisresearchisdesignedtoinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangeusing

methodsthatrecognizelocalsocialinstitutions,thatvalueanddrawoutlocalknowledge,and

thatelicitnarrativesfromresidentsabouttheirlivedexperienceandcommunitydevelopment

processesunderway.Frequentlyininternationaldevelopmentresearch,theeffectsofwhat

wouldappearontheoutsideas‘positive’communitydevelopment(e.g.,creationofnewjobsin

thecommunity)areinvisible.Theunseenrealityforlocalpeople(e.g.,mixedconsequencesof

newjobs)andeffectsoncommunitiescanbesurprisinganddevastating.

Anaimofthispaperistoaddressagapinliteraturethatprovidesmethodslinkingcommunity

developmenttosocialchange,particularlyinapost-disastersettingoffragilityandextreme

poverty,andinacountrycharacterizedbyFatton(2014)asthe‘outerperiphery’oftheworld

economicsystem.Moregenerally,thisresearchquestions:Underwhatconditionsdoes

communitydevelopmentleadtosocialchange?And,whatnewinsightscanbegainedabout

thisquestionfromexperiencesinHaiti?Whatresearchmethodsareappropriateandusefulfor

elicitingthiskindofinformation?

Themethodologyforthispapercombinesparticipatorymethodsandnarrativeanalysiswitha

qualitativelongitudinalresearch(‘QLR’)‘sensibility’(ThomsonandMcLeod,2015).Thisstrategy

attemptstogive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethemainbarriersto

realizingchange,includinghowpowerrelationshipsshapecommunitydevelopmentand

decision-makingprocesses.Iusemethodsofparticipatoryphotography,participatorymapping,

communitywalks,probe-basedandhouseholdinterviews,focusgroups,andvideointerviews.

Thisresearchmethodologyhasasitslensparticipatoryandtransformativetheoriesthathave

embeddedvaluesofsocialjustice,sustainability,participation,andanideologyofequality

123

(Freire,1972andLedwith,2011).Thefocusisonexposingwhatparticipatoryphotographyand

participatorymappingcanrevealaboutearlyoutcomesincommunitydevelopmentand

potentialforsocialchangeinthiscommunity.

Inthefollowingsections,Idescribetheparticipatorymethodsusedandtheircontext-specific

designthataimedtoexposenuancedrealitiesoflivedexperienceandthecommunity

developmentunderwayinBellevue-La-Montagne.Ithendiscussboth1)learningfromthe

participatorymethods:includinga‘communitycorestory’,themesthatemergedandwhatthey

exposeaboutthedynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange;and2)learning

aboutthemethods:whatarestrengthsandshortcomingsofthemethodsinthisparticular

context,andwhatdoesthemixingofmethodsreveal?First,Iturntothefieldsettingandmy

positionalitywithinit.

FieldsettingandresearcherpositionalityTheresearchsiteisBellevue-La-Montagne,asemi-ruralareainthemountainssoutheastof

Port-au-Prince,whichsufferedsubstantialdestructioninthe2010earthquake.Fiveyearslater,

fewpeoplehadbeenabletorebuildtheirhomesandmostnowlivein‘temporary’shelters

madeofmetalsheetsandplastictarps,orstillintheirpartially-destroyedhomes.Construction

ofcommunityfacilitieshasbeenmoresuccessfulwithresidentscollaboratingwithlocaland

internationalorganizations,oneofwhichisHaitiPartners.21Throughparticipatorypractices,

residentsdecidedonaneducation-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatincorp-

oratessocialenterprise,sustainabilitygoals,andcommunityhealth.Theybeganwithbuildinga

newschool;thefirstphaseofconstructionwascompletedin2012,andasof2015,153students

wereenrolledfrompre-schoolthroughfirstgrade.(SeeChapter3.)

21Otherpartnersinvolvedincommunitydevelopmenteffortsinclude:1)ArchitectureforHumanityandBARArchitects,forsiteandbuildingdesign;2)ExtolloConstruction,forconstructionofbuildings,aswellastrainingandjobsforlocalpeople;3)Miyamotoforseismicstructuralengineering;4)GiveLove,fortoiletcompostingsystems;5)HaitiClinic,forhealthcare;6)YunusSocialBusiness(formerlyGrameenCreativeLabs)forsettingupsocialenterprises;7)AMURT,forteachereducation;and8)BeyondBordersfortrainingtoendchilddomesticservitudepracticesandgender-basedviolence.Forfurtherdetails,seeEngle(2015),whichprovidesadetailedcasestudyaboutBellevue-La-Montagne’sschool-centeredcommunitydevelopment.

124

HaitiPartnersisasmallnot-for-profitorganizationwithofficesinHaitiandtheUS.The

foundersareAmericanswhohaveworkedinHaitiformanyyears,earlierasBeyondBorders,

andhaveanetworkofhundredsofHaitiancolleaguesineducationandcommunityleadership

acrossthecountry.22Theirworkhasfocusedonparticipatoryeducationanddemocracy

building.AfounderofHaitiPartners,JohnEngle,haslivedinBellevue-La-Montagnesince1990,

iswellknowntolocalresidents,andismybrother.Fromaresearchperspective,thisfamily

connectionisdouble-edged.Ononehand,Iwouldnotbecarryingoutthisresearchifitwere

notforthisfamilyconnection,giventhedifficultyofgainingaccessandtrustoflocalpeopleas

anoutsider.Ontheotherhand,John’sleadershiproleandreputationinthecommunityaffect

howpeopleseeandbehavetowardsme.MostHaitiansrelyheavilyonreputationand

relationshipsoftrusttoconductdailytransactionsandmeettheirbasicneeds.Becausepeople

trustJohn,ashissister,Iamautomaticallyconsideredtrustworthybymostpeople.

Beyondmattersofaccess,Iselectedthiscommunityforstudybasedonapurposive,

information-orientedsamplingstrategy,whichcombinesinstrumentalandparadigmatic

selection.Itisinstrumentalinthattheissuesofthecommunityandlearningwhichismore

widelyapplicablearedominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseanintentionis“to

developametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthecaseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,

2001:79),whichispost-disastercommunitydevelopmentthatisparticipatory,collaborative,

andeducation-centered.

Inresearchdesignandinthefield,Ihavebeensensitivetomypositionalityasawhitemiddle-

classwomanfromtheglobalnorthworkinginapredominantlyblacksocietywherepositionsof

powerareoverwhelminglyheldbymen.Iamconsciousofthehistoryofslaveryandoppression

bywhitepeopleinHaiti’spast,andoftheongoingimperialismofthe‘internationalcommunity’

exacerbatedinthepost-earthquakeperiodthroughpolicyandstructuralinterventionsthat

havereducedHaiti’ssovereignty(Deshommes,2012;Fatton,2014).

22JohnEngleandDavidDiggsco-foundedBeyondBordersin1993andservedasco-directorsuntil2009,atwhichtimeJohnEngleandacolleague,KentAnnan,spunoffHaitiPartnersasanindependentorganization.

125

ParticipatorymethodologytoexplorecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangeThissectionoutlinesacentralpropositionofthisresearch,anddescribesthemethodologyand

methodsthatwerecarriedoutinthefieldtoexplorethatproposition.

Existingliterature–bothacademicandpractitioner,aswellasmyprofessionalworkindiverse

settingssuggeststhatcommunitydevelopmenthaspotentialtocatalyzesocialchange(Oliver-

Smith,2002;Pelling,2003).Moreover,inapost-disastercontext,awindowofopportunityfor

suchchangeseemstoopen,ifonlyephemerally(PellingandDill,2010;Solnit,2009).Social

change,includinginstitutionaladaptations,canbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovation23

combinedwithparticipatorycollaborativeapproacheswhicharesustainedthroughongoing

dialogueprocessesthatallowforcontinualnegotiationbetweenorganizationsandcommunity

participants(Healey2006,InnesandBooher,2010;Moulaertetal.,2010;Ostrom,1990).Haiti

Partnersandlocalresidentsaimforsuchchange;agoalofthisresearchistoexplore,fromthe

residents’viewpoint,howthatisworking.Iturnnowtoexplainwhatismeanthereby

communitydevelopmentandsocialchange.

Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfieldthatcombinesspatialandmaterial

developmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacitytomanagechange.Community

developmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilizeexistingskills,reframeproblems,work

collaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunityassets,andinvolvesflexibleprocesses

guidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help.Thekeypurposeofcommunitydevelopment

is“collectiveactionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld”,

accordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2010:14).Communitydevelopmenthereisbasedonvalues

ofsocialandenvironmentaljustice,socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;

KendraandWachtendorf2007),anddialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemic

changethroughinformalnetworksandlocalpraxis(asinFreire,1972;Kennedy,2011).

23Socialinnovationrefersto‘newideasthatworktomeetpressingunmetneedsandimprovepeoples’lives’(Mulgan2007:7).Moulaertetal.2010assertsthatdemonstratingthatprocessesofsocialinnovationareoccurringprovidesthelinkagebetweencommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.

126

Socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallifeandinvolvesapubliclearningprocessthat

leadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues(McLeodandThomson,2009;Sandercock,

2000).Socialchangeinvolves“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin


structuralforces”Healey(2006:91).Socialchange,accordingtoFriedmann(1987:250,297),is

spatiallycultivatedinlocalcommunities:“Apoliticalpracticeaimedatsocialtransformationcan

beeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-politicalactionsofordinarypeoplegatheredin

theirowncommunities.”

ParticipatorymethodologywithaQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR)sensibilityParticipatorymethodologiesarenowwellestablishedinfieldssuchaseducation,urban

planning,humangeography,publichealth,andcommunitydevelopment(Forester,1999;

Somekh,2006;LedwithandSpringett,2010;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000).

Theyareappliedaswellininternationaldevelopmentandinpost-disastercontexts(Mitlinand

Satterthwaite,2004;NakkiranandRamesh,2009;Narayanasamy,2009;andÖzerdemandBowd,

2010).24AccordingtoCreswell(2007:102),therationaleforaqualitativestudyisthat‘aneed

existstoaddtoorfillagapintheliteratureortoprovideavoiceforindividualsnotheardinthe

literature.’WiththisarticleIaimbothtoaddtoexistingliteratureonpost-disasterand

participatorystrategiestowardsocialchange,aswellastoelicitnarrativesandprovideavoice

forthosenotheard,namelycommunityresidentsinHaitiwhohaveenduredtremendous

hardship,mostrecentlyasaresultofthe2010earthquake.AccordingtoLedwithandSpringett

(2010:93),participatoryresearchentailsthat

researchers,actingasfacilitatorsandguardingagainsttheirownbiases,seekto

minimizeanypowerdifferentialsbetweenthemandtheresearched.Theresearchdesign,

therefore,isflexible,abletorespondtochangingcontextsandemergentfindingsasthey

arise.Methodsareoftenvisualandinteractivetoallowparticipantswithall

backgroundstoparticipateinbothgeneratingandanalyzingthedata.

24Participatorymethodologiesininternationaldevelopmentincludeparticipatorylearningandaction(PLA)andparticipatoryruralappraisal(PRA).

127

Withregardtosocialchange,itisnotpossibletoconvincinglyarguethatdynamicchange

processesareoccurringwithoutatemporalaspecttotheresearchstudy.Iconductedfield

workoverseveralyears,whichprovideslimitedunderstandingofchangeovertime,butthe

researchisdesignedwithaneyetocarryingoutqualitativelongitudinalresearch(QLR)withthe

sameparticipantslongerterm.QLRisconnectedtoarecent‘temporal’turninsocialscience

research,whichcanprovide‘strikinglydifferentinsightsintopolicyproblems’(Thomsonand

McLeod,2015).25

Thestrategyofinquiry,therefore,focusesonunderstandingfromwithinandfromoutsideand

engagesparticipatoryapproacheswithinawideraimor‘sensibility’ofqualitativelongitudinal

research.26Consistentwithphronesisresearch(asinFlyvbjerg,2001andFlyvbjergetal.,2012),

guidingquestionstoelicitnarrativesfromthepointofviewofparticipants,werethefollowing:

1. OfwhatstoryorstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?

2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Andisitdesirable?


4. What,ifanything,dowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?

Iusedmultiplemethodsatthreelevelsofengagement:individual,collectiveactivities,and

institutions(SeeTable4.1;formatadaptedfromMdee,2010).Thescopeofthisarticleis

limitedtoworkwithindividualsandcollectiveactivities.Withindividualswelistenedtolocal

perspectives,oftencomingatthesamequestionsfrommultipleanglesinordertotriangulate

datacollectedandanalysis.

25JanicePerlman’sFavela(2010),whilenottechnicallyQLR,providesanexcellentexampleofresearchthat‘revisits’familiesinRiodeJaneirofavelas40yearsaftertheoriginalinterviewswereconducted.Thestudyprovidesuniqueinsightsaboutchangesthatoccurredindozensoffamiliesattwopointsintime,fortyyearsapart.However,becauseparticipantswerenotinterviewedintheinterveningperiod,thestudydidnotenableadaptivelearningovertimethatmighthaverevealedtrendstopointtowardchangesthatmighthavebeenmadealongthewayinlocaldecisionmakingandpolicy.26Thedetailedcasestudyandagency-structureanalysisisaseparatearticle(Engle2015).

128

Tab

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plin

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# p

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an

ts:

year)

Reco

rdin

g (

lan

gu

ag

e)*

Part

icip

ator

y ph

otog

raph

y (2

012,

201

3)Sel

f-se

lect

ed (

20:

2012

); P

urpo

sive

(12

: 20

13)

mix

of ag

e, g

ende

r, an

d le

vels

of

enga

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ent

in c

omm

unity

deve

lopm

ent

Phot

ogra

phs

Part

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ator

y m

appi

ng:

Mob

ility

(20

13)

Han

d-dr

awn

map

s sh

owin

g da

ily t

rips

and

spa

tial

co

nnec

tion

s

Hou

seho

ld in

terv

iew

s (2

013)

Aud

io,

phot

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phs,

inte

rvie

w for

ms

(Hai

tian

Cre

ole)

Eart

hqua

ke s

tory

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rvie

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(201

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013)

Purp

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: 20

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12:

2013

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aitian

Cre

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Prob

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aitian

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rvat

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ld n

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(20

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par

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com

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wal

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tou

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guid

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Info

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col

labo

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2013

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Key

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: 20

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glis

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Part

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129

Collectiveactivitieswereintendedtorevealinterfacesofstructureandagency(asinFlyvbjerg

2001).Table4.1setsoutthemethodsusedtoinvestigateeachlevelofengagement.Column

twoliststhemethodswhichwereimplementedandthetimeframe.27Thethirdcolumn

providesthesamplingstrategyandnumberofparticipants.Thelastcolumnindicatesthemain

recordingmediaused,andwhereapplicable,theoriginallanguageofthedata.

Participatorymethods

Participatorymethodsrepresentasubsetofmyresearchmethodsandarethefocusofthis

article.Thesemethodsrecognizethatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,localknowledge

systemsthatareofteninvisiblefromtheoutside,particularlytoforeigners.Theyhavethe

potentialtoyieldmoreaccuratedatabydrawingoutandhearingthevoicesofthosewhoare

impoverishedandexcluded,therebydeepeningunderstandingaboutcommunitydevelopment

impactsonlocalpeopleandpowerdynamicsatplay.Inordertomaximizethepotentialof

participatorymethods,Idesignedtheminawaythatisspecifictothelocalcontext.Iused

primarilyparticipatoryphotographyandmapping,andIchosetoworkwiththesamegroupof

12peoplethroughoutinordertofacilitatesociallearningofthegroup(Friedmann,1987).The

12participants,ofwhomsixwerewomen,rangedinagefrom17through50.Somehadbeen

involvedinthecommunitydevelopmentprojectsunderway,andsomehadnot.Thelevelof

formaleducationvariedfromzeroyearstopost-highschooltraining.

Inmethoddesign,Idrewonqualitativeresearchsources(Berg,1998;Crang,2005;Denzinand

Lincoln,2005;ÖzerdemandBowd,2010;Patton,2002;ReasonandBradbury,2001;and

Somekh,2006),participatoryplanningliterature(SandercockandAttili,2012;Sarkissianand

Bunjamin-Mau,2009;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000),aswellasmyown

experiencepracticingthesemethods.Table4.2providesthescheduleforthemainphaseof

fieldwork.Interviewsanddialoguecirclesservedasmeansforcollectiveanalysisofdata

27Thepresentarticleislimitedtodiscussionoftheparticipatorymethods.Descriptionsanddatacollectedfromadditionalmethods,suchasprobeandhouseholdinterviews,areprovidedinaseparatecommunitycasestudyarticle(Engle2015).

130

gatheredthroughphotographsandmaps.Communitywalks–includingalocaltourandawalk

totheregionalmarket–weredecideduponcollectivelybyparticipantsandresearch

collaborators.Ascolumntwohighlightsinbold,activitiesweredesignedtoaddressphronesis

researchquestions.

Participatoryphotography

Participatoryphotographyinvolvesprovidingcamerastoparticipantstorecordtheirlived

experiencesandperceptions.Ithasbeenusedfordecadesinurbanplanningpractice,andwas

usedbyPauloFreireinthe1970sasameansfordialogueandconscientisation(critical

awarenessofone’ssocialrealitythroughreflectionandaction).Morerecently,ithasbecome

widespreadinmultipledisciplines,particularlypublichealth,geographyandcommunity-based

participatoryresearch(CBPR),whichbroughtaspecificsetofstepstoparticipatoryphotography,

andnameditPhotovoice(WangandBurris,1997).28

InBellevue-La-Montagne,Iusedparticipatoryphotographyastheprimarystructuringelement

foraddressingtheresearchquestionsandforcommunicatingtheresearchprojectto

participants.Giventhepotentialbarrierstoclaritybetweenresearcherandparticipants,such

asdifferencesinlanguage,culture,worldviews,andlifeexperiences,Iusedphotographyasa

commonlanguageandframedtheworkas‘Photodialogue’(‘DyalògFoto’inHaitianCreole).

Priortothemainphaseofparticipatoryphotography,Isentinvitationletterstothe12

participantstoexplaintheresearchandexpectations.Onceinthefield,Itookthefirstfullday

withparticipantstoreadthroughtogethertheethicsconsentformsanddiscussindetailwhat

wewereembarkingontogether.Thesecondandthirddaysoffieldworkweredevotedto

photographytrainingwithaprofessional.Intheweeksthatfollowedweinterspersedphoto-

takingexerciseswiththemethodsbelow(alsoseeTable4.2).

28Photovoiceisatypeofparticipatoryphotographythathasprescribedstepswiththefollowingaimsinknowledgeproduction:(1)enableparticipantstodocumentandreflectontheircommunity'sconcernsandstrengths;(2)facilitatecriticaldialogueandlearningaboutimportantissuesthroughgroupdiscussionofphotographs;and(3)beheardbypolicymakers(WangandBurris1997).

131

• Dialoguecircles(akintofocusgroups)todiscussphotosandexploretopicsinaforumdesignedforknowledgegeneration,collectivesensemaking,andsociallearning;

• Probe-basedinterviewswhereIshowedparticipantsvideosofthemselvesfromthepreviousyeartoinvitereactionsandprobehowtheirlivesandthecommunityhavechangedsince;

• Earthquakestoryinterviewswhichwerevideo-recordedtohearearthquakeexperiences

andwhatlifehasbeenlikesincethedisaster;and

• Householdinterviewsineachparticipant’shometocollectbaselinedataonhouseholdmembers,housingtypes,livelihoods,socio-economicconditions,education,earthquakestory,communitydevelopmentinvolvementandperceptions,andsubjectivewell-being.

Participatorymapping

Participatorymappingisaprocessinwhichparticipantspresentinformationinaspatialform.It

caninvolvemappingmanykindsofenvironmental,social,oreconomicinformation,suchas

landuse,healthconditions,resources,skills,orvulnerabilities.InthisresearchIcarriedout

threemappingprocesses:mobility,places,andactors,inordertoaddresstheresearch

questionsandprovidemeansfortriangulationofdataandmethods.Idrewonparticipatory

ruralappraisal(PRA)methods(primarilyNarayanasamy,2009)todesignmappingexercises

specifictothelocalcontextandresearchaims.

1) Mobilitymapping.Mobilitymapsaredrawninordertoexposethemovementpatterns

ofindividualsorgroups.Forthisresearch,Ichosetohaveeachofthe12individual

participantsdepictonamap:1)whereeachpersontravelsonadailyandweeklybasis;

2)whethereachpersonhasconnectionsoutsidetheregion–elsewhereinHaitior

overseas,andifso,whethertheyhaveanycontactwiththeseconnectionsorreceive

remittances;and3)whetherparticipantshavetravelledoutsideofthelocalregion,and

ifso,where.

132

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133

2)Placesmapping.Inordertoexplorehowparticipantsperceivetheireverydayspatial

surroundings,wemappedthegeographicplacesandspacesofthecommunitytogether.We

usedchalkontheconcreteflooroftheschooltoindicatethemaingeographicfeaturesofthe

area,aswellasroads,sacredplaces(churches,vodoutemple),theirhomes,community

facilities(school,dancehall,cockfightpit,healthclinic),andthewatersource.Wethen

transposedthemaptopaper,madecopies,andinvitedparticipantstoworkingroupsofthree

todiscussthemapsandtodevelopacommunitywalktrajectory,i.e.howtheywouldliketo

sharethestoryoftheircommunitythroughawalkingtour.Participantsdecidedwhichplaces

andhomeswouldbevisitedandwhowouldprovidecommentaryateachstop,andthen

rehearsedthetourtogether.

3)Actormapping.Thegoalofactormappingwasto1)identifybysectorallofthe

organizationsandagenciesoperatinglocally;and2)togetherassesstherelativeimportanceto

thecommunityandeffectivenessoftheworkofeachorganization.Wecarriedouttheprocess

collectively,andagreedtogroupactorsaccordingtosectorsof:education,health,environment,

spirituallife,finance,andacatch-all‘otherservices’.Wehadadiscussionabouteach

organization,sectorbysector,anddepictedgroupassessmentstogetheronthefloor.Apaper

starinthecenterrepresentedthecommunity.Eachactorwasidentifiedbyacircle;thelarger

thecircle,themoreimportanttheactortothecommunity.Anextstepwastoplaceeachcircle

onthefloorinrelationtothecenterstaraccordingtohoweffectivelyitworks–thecloserto

thestar,themoreeffectiveinthecommunity.Theproductisa‘mapping’ofallactorsinthe

communityincludingtheparticipants’collectiveassessmentofeachactor’slocalimportance

andeffectiveness.

4.2Learningfromthemethods:communitycorestoryandthemesrevealed

Oneofthechallengesofmakingsenseofdatafromparticipatorymethodsisthequantityand

multipleformsittakes;inthiscase:transcriptsfromdialoguecirclesandinterviews,audioand

videorecordings,photographs,maps,andfieldnotes.Inordertomakesenseofthevarious

134

data,storiesandtopicsheardinthefield,Idecidedtouseprimarilynarrativeanalysisand

thematiccoding,andItestedmyinterpretationswithresearchcollaborators.Therearea

varietyofwaysthatthefindingscouldberepresented;thefollowingnarrativeisbutone(also

seeTable4.3.)Inkeepingwiththe‘listeningtostories’themeofthisresearchandwitha

‘sensibility’oflong-termstudyofsocialchangeinthiscommunity,Isharethefindingsasa

meta-narrative,or‘communitycorestory’followedbyadiscussionofthree‘socialchange

dynamics’revealed.

CommunityCoreStory

Wehavewoventogetherfindingsfromthemethods--individualstories,imageandmapping

analysis,andcollectivedialoguesessions--andsearchedforpatternstocreateameta-

narrative,or‘communitycorestory’(seealsoDunstanandSarkissian,1994).Thisnarrativeis

oneinterpretationandisbynomeansacompleterepresentationofallthequalitativedata

collected.AsanextstepinthislongitudinalresearchIwilltakethiscorestorybacktothe

community,asameansforboth‘memberchecking’thatIhaveunderstoodwhatparticipants

intended,aswellasabasisfordiscussionabouthowlifehaschangedintheinterveningperiod

andhowparticipantswouldwanttohavethecommunitycorestoryevolveovertime.Thecore

storyconsistsofsixvignettes:‘forgotten’place;the‘goodyears’;violenceandinsecurity;never-

endingtransition;theearthquake;andcommunityprideandconnections.Eachvignetteis

brieflydescribedinfirstpersonplural–intendedtorepresentvoicesofcommunityresidents,

anddirectquotationsfromparticipantsprovidesampleillustrations.29

v ‘Forgotten’place.Weareconsideredbysurroundingcommunitiestobe‘backward’,and

somesaywe’reviolent.Wearea‘forgotten’place–developmenthappenedaroundus,but

nevercamehere.Whenpeoplearesickhere,theylivewithpain,ordiebecausehealth

clinicsaretoofarawayandmedicineistooexpensive.Ifweneedthepoliceandcallfor

them,theyusuallysaytheydon’tknowwhereweare,ortheywantustopayfortheirfuelto

29AllparticipantquotesinthisarticlearefromJuly2013.Ihavenotattributedparticipantnamesinkeepingwithacademicethicsnorms.

135

comefindus.Wedon’thavemoneyforthat.Someofourkidsgotoschool,someofthetime,

butit’shardbecausetheschoolsarefarawayandcostmoney.Sometimeswehaveto

choosewhethertoeatorsendourkidstoschool.

…everyotherlocalityisadvanced,thislocalityhasneverbeenadvanced.Itwasn’t

until[HaitiPartners]cametobuildtheschoolhere;thelocalityhaschanged.Icansay,

well,we’renotlivingthewoodsanymore.That’swhatIsee;wedidn’thaveaschool

nearby,sometimesoneofmychildrenwenttoschoolupthereinthemountain,when

hewasgoingtotheofficial6thgradeexams,Ihadtotakehimallthewaydown[tothe

city]fortheexams.Moreover,togotothedoctor,youhadtogoallthewayto

Pétionvilletoseethedoctor.Butnow,wehavedoctorsinthelocalityandfreeof

chargeontopofit.Ourschool,nearby.Andwearegoingtohavebread;everything

willbecloseby.Inthefuture,youwillhaveasupermarket;ifyouneedcertainthings,

you’llbeabletobuythem.Youseeitisagoodthing.Researchparticipant,2013

v ‘Goodyears’underDuvalierdictatorships.WhenPapaDocandthenhisson,Jean-Claude,

Duvalierwereinpower(1957-1986),lifewasmuchbetterhere.Wecouldaffordtoeatand

weweresafer.Thetontonmacoutes[Duvaliers’police,manyofwhomlivednearby]only

gaveyoutroubleifyouweremakingtroubleyourself.Aslongasyoumindedyourown

business,lifewasmuchbetter.

DuringDuvalieritwassafer.Youwerenotafraid;you’dseepeopleoutsideplaying

dominoes,drinking.Well,ifyou’reinthestreet[now],you’rewalking,someonecomes

uptoyou,heasksyouaquestionandyoudon’tanswerwell,hecrushesyourightthere.


v Post-Aristideviolenceandinsecurity.Followingthecoupd’étatandexileofAristideinthe

early1990s,lifebecameinsecure.Foodpricessurged,therewaslittleopportunityto

improveourlivelihoods,andcriminalsoftencameupthroughourvillage.Onthebrightside,

duringthattime,in1997,theGermanyEmbassypaidtohavewaterpipedhere.

AfterAristideleft,theyweregoingaroundinbroaddaylight,killingpeople,robbing

people,takingeverythingtheyhad.Althoughpeoplesleptinbushesandtrees,they

hadtosleepwithoneeyeopened.Researchparticipant,2013

136

v Never-endingtransition.Throughoutthe2000s,foodpricesincreased;wehadregular

disastersetbacksthataffectedourhomes,roads,andcrops–primarilyhurricanesand

floods;andwecontinuedtolackconnectionstotheoutsideworld.Fewofushadtelephones

oreverlefttheregion.Wecontinuetodaytolackelectricity,goodsanitation,goodroads.

Democracyanddecentralisationofgovernmentnevercameaboutasexpected.

Iusedtobuyasmallcanisterofricefor5cents,afterthecoupd’étatagainstAristidein

1991,itstartedincreasing.Aristidehadanotherterm,hewonandthenhadanother

coupd’état.Ifthericecost10cents,itincreasedto20.TherewasanotherPresident,

thenAristidecameagainin2004,thesmallcanisterofricecost5dollars,agallonof

fuelwasabout50gourdes.Assoonasheleft,itincreased,anditkeptincreasing.

Everythingincreasedthatway.That’sbecauseofthecoupsd’état.Aslongasthereis

noPresident,goodscannotenterinthecountryandbecauseofthatthemarkettraders

increasedprices,buttheydidn’tdecreasethemwhengoodsstartedcomingin.It

continueslikethisuntilnow;wedon’tknowwhatitwillbeliketomorrow.Research

participant,2013

v Theearthquake.The2010earthquake[knownas‘goudougoudou’]wasdevastating.We

sufferedhugemateriallosses;someofuswereinjuredorsawothersdie.Mostofushad

smallonetothreeroomhomes;nearlyallweredestroyed,andnoneofuscanafford

materialstorebuild.Scamartistsmadeitworseintheaftermath.Wepaidwhatmeagre

moneywehadforthepromiseofmaterials,whichnevercame.Whoknowswhenthenext

quakeorotherdisasterwillcome?

Whentheearthquakehit,Iwasworkinginthefield.WhileIwasturningtheground,I

wasliftingthepickaxe,IfeltIwasswinging,somethingwassweepingmeaway.Ididn’t

knowwhattodo,soIdroppedthepickaxe.Ilaydownontheground.Therewereother

peopleathome,Iheardthemcallingme.Iaskedwhatwaswrong.Theysaidthey

didn’tknow.Ilearnedthehousewasdestroyed.Iaskediftherewerepeopleinside.

Theysaidtherewasnoone.Everybodywasoutside.IsaidthankGod,ifeveryonewas

outside,therewasnooneinside,toheckwithit.Noproblem,wecanbuildhouses,but

wecan’tbuyhumanbeings.Aslongasyouwerenotinside,iftherewasfoodinside,

everythinginsidegotbroken,that’snotaproblem.AllIcareaboutisthatyouwerenot

inside.Researchparticipant,2013

137

PeopleofBellevue-La-Montagnewerefirstvictimizedbytheearthquake,andthen

againbyscamsandpromisespost-earthquake[suchastorebuildhomes].Research

participant,2013v Communityprideandconnections.Withtheconstructionoftheschool,thehealthclinic,

thebakeryandallthetrainingandparticipationactivitieshappeninghere,wefeelless

forgottenandhaveasenseofprideandhopeforthefuture.Ourcommunityisimproving,

andsurroundingcommunitiesnolongerlookdownonus.Eventhoughfoodpricesarestill

high,thereislittleopportunityforwork,wehavedroughtsandfloodsthatthreatenour

crops,andwestillhavenotbeenabletorebuildourhomes,wearegratefulfortheschool

andtheothercommunitydevelopmentprojects,andwethinklifewillbebetterforourkids

becausetheywillgetagoodeducationandhaveconnectionswiththeoutsideworld.We

don’texpecttheHaitiangovernmenttoevercareaboutusorprovideserviceshere,butwe

willworktogetherandwithtrustworthyinternationalpartnerstobuildabettercommunity.

Iamsohappyaboutthenewschool.ThegoodthingformewiththeschoolisthatI

becamepresidentoftheParents’Committee.Iamtheonewho,alongwithother

parents,plantsflowersandkeepstheschoolyardniceandclean.Inthefuture,Iwould

likefortheschooltoeducatethekidswellandforthekidstobeabletospeakthethree

languages[French,HaitianCreoleandEnglish]andalsofortheschooltogrowformore

childrentocomeinthefuture.Researchparticipant,2013

Theschoolisagreatthingforthecommunity…Thereare10-year-oldchildrenwhogo

tootherschoolswhohaven’tlearnedcertainthingsthethree-year-oldswhogotoour

schoolhavelearned.Researchparticipant,2013

ThewayIseeit,fiveyearsfromnow,ifeveryoneinthecommunityputstheirheads

together,wework,wecollaboratewithoneanother,itcanbecomeavillage.Inthe

sensethatthisareawillmakeanameforitselfandwillbeconsideredamodelarea.I

thinkwecouldhaveapark.Sincethisareaisnotneartheocean,therecouldbea

swimmingpool...Asupermarketwherepeoplecanbuyeverythingtheyneed,they

won’thavetogodowntownfortheirgoods;asoccerfieldforthemtoplay,adance

clubwherepeoplecangetentertainmentandgetridoftheirstress.Then,Ithinkthere

willbechurches,theschool,alllevels–pre-school,elementary,secondary,college.Researchparticipant,2013

138

SocialChangeDynamicsThereareanumberofthemesaswellascommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangedynamics

thatwererevealedfromtheparticipatorymethods,andwhicharelistedinTable4.3.Some

themesareintegratedintothecommunitycorestoryabove;otherrecurringthemesfrom

dialoguecirclesincluded:post-earthquakehousingchallenges,multipleandconflictingviewson

religionandspirituality,folkloretraditions,andthechallengesassociatedwithdeathofloved

onesandfuneralrites.Intermsofsocialchangedynamics,thefollowingthreedimensions

camethroughstronglyindatainterpretation(andarehighlightedinboldinTable4.3).

1. Peopletendtovaluecommunityoutcomesoverindividualwellbeinganddespite

challengesofeverydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetterfuturefor

theirchildren.Theyhavegreataspirationsforcommunitychange,eventhoughpeoplehave

seriouseconomicstruggles,andmanysufferfrommalnutrition.

You’llfindsomepeoplewhocanaffordcoffeeinthemorning,andothers,evenamong

ushere,whocan’t.Researchparticipant,2013

Participantsareproudtovaluecommunityandcollaborationoverindividualgain.Some

participantsexpressedthattheyfelttheircommunityhadbeen‘chosen’byGodforthe

schoolandotherdevelopmentprojectsunderway,andtheyshareanewsenseofpride

andhopeforcommunitychange.Theyareencouragedaswelltohaveforeignvisitorsto

theirarea,astheyclaimthatno‘blan’(whitepeople)hadvisitedregularlyinthepast.

Iwouldliketoseeallofuslivelikebrothersandsisters;forinstance,ifIhavean

opportunityormoney,Isharewithothersortheotheroneshareswithme.OrifIhad

50gourdes,andthatladyneeded25gourdesandsheaskedmetolendher25gourdes,

Iwouldlikeforustoremainfriends….Tomorrow,ifsheneeds25gourdesagain,she

willhaveit.It’scalledcollaboration.Youneedmetoday,Ihelpyou;tomorrowIneed

you,youhelpme,youneedme,youhelpme.Weneedoneanother.Research

participant,2013

139

2. Participantsfeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardincommunitydevelopmentprocesses

andthattheyhavecontributedtoshapingdevelopmentdecisions.Thissenseofagency

seemedtobeempoweringtopeople,andtheyunanimouslyexpressedthattheyfeltthat

theiropinionscountedandtheywerewelcomeatthetablebyHaitiPartnersregarding

communitydevelopmentprojects,andthatdecision-makingprocesseswereopenand

transparent.Alsonoteworthy,HaitiPartnersreceivedthehighestratingspossiblefrom

participantsintheactormappingprocessforbothitsimportancetothecommunityand

effectivenessinitswork.

Everytime[HaitiPartners]isdoinganactivity,theyalwaysinviteussowecan

brainstormtogetheranddeterminewhatisgoodforthecommunity.Research

participant,2013

3. Participantsdonotexpectthestatewilleveractintheirinterests.Thestateof

state/societyrelationsislamentable.Peopledonotrelyonthestateforeventhemost

basicneedsofcleanwater,sanitation,andhousing,norforservicesofpoliceprotection,

health,education,roadrepairs,orelectricity.Appallingly,manypeopleexpectthestateto

beviolent.PerhapsbecauseHaitianshavenohistoryorexperiencewithatruesocial

contract(Tippenhauer,2010),andthestatehasbeenreferredtoas‘predatory’(Fatton,

2002;Locher,1990)peopledonotexpectthatthestatecouldbeaforceforgood.

Participantsexpressedthat,forthem,positivechangewillonlycomeaboutthroughtheir

workingcollaborativelyandmoreeffectively,includingwithinternationalorganizations.

Oneparticipantdescribedarecentencounterwithalocalgovernmentworker.

Onmywaytomymarketstalltheotherday,Istoppedonthesideoftheroadtosell

someonesometomatoes,andapersonfromCitygovernmenthitmeonthearmwitha

stick!It’sforbiddennowtosellinthestreet.Researchparticipant,2013

Iquestionedwhetherpeopleshouldbeabletoexpectgovernmentstoupholdhumanrights

ortoprovideservices.

140

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141

Whatwewouldlikefromgovernment–toprovidefood,toprovidepeace,toprovide

jobs.Researchparticipant,2013

Aslongasyouhaveapopulation,theyhavesecurity,theycaneat,thepeoplefeelthey

haveagoodPresident.Nowtheydon’tfeelanyPresidenttriedtoworktobringdown

thecostofliving.TheytaketheirmoneyandhideitinSwissbanks;theywon’tbe

staying[hereinHaiti],andtheyhaveaplacetogo.Theydon’tworktowardbringing

downthehighcostofliving.Researchparticipant,2013Idon’tknowiftherewillcomeagovernmentthatwillrespecthumanrights,butIdon’t

thinktherewilleverbeagovernmenttorespecthumanrightsinHaitisince1986.

Researchparticipant,2013 Iintroducedthenotionofthe‘righttohumanflourishing’asinFriedmann(2000).

Ithinkit’saniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifit’supto

governments,wewillneverflourish.Askthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivingin

Haiti,theywillnotbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuch

electricity,howmuchmoneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthat

elsewhere,butthegovernmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.Research

participant,2013

ItistruethatvastnumbersofHaitiansare‘invisibletothelegalsystem’,meaningthatthey

donotpossessofficialdocumentation,suchasabirthcertificateoridentitycard,letalonea

bankaccount.Thisrepresentsyetonesymptomoftheimmensechallengeofstate/society

relationsinHaiti.

Thissetoffindingsonstate/societyrelationsofwhichwehaveonlybeguntoscratchthe

surface,hasimportantimplicationsforstructureandpolicy,ananalysisofwhichisoutsidethe

scopeofthisarticle.Furtheranalysisofstructure/agencydynamicsinthiscaseisprovidedin

Engle(2015),andrecentworksthatexploreindepththetopicoftheroleofthestateinHaiti

areFatton(2014and2016),andSinghandBarton-Dock(2015).

142

IssuesAhead

Aqualitativelongitudinalresearchsensibilitygivescloseconsiderationtotemporalaspectsof

research,andatransformativetheorylensentailsanalyzinginteractionsoftheagencyofpeople

withrespecttobroaderstructuresandinstitutions,aswellasfavouringparticipatorymethods

withpotentialtocontributetocriticalconsciousnessanddirectaction.Followingaresomeof

thequestionsthatsuchaperspectivebegsregardingfutureresearchatthelevelof:1)thecase

community;2)Haiti;and3)otherpost-disasterandouter-peripherycontexts;aswellas4)the

potentialforchangeaffordedthroughthepracticeofparticipatorymethods.

• Whatwillthiscommunitylooklikeinfivetotenyearsandhowcan/willlocalpeopleand

participatoryprocessesshapeitsevolution?

• Whatagencydopeoplehavetoimprovestate/societyrelationsandmajorsystemicandstructuralchallengesinHaiti?

• WhatlearningfromthisparticularcommunityisinstructiveforothercommunitiesinHaitias

wellasforHaitiangovernmentandinternationalagenciestoinformcommunitydevelopmentpolicies,practicesandfundingmechanisms?

• Howcanthisresearchbenefitthiscommunity,Haiti,andotherpost-disasterorouter-

peripherycountries?• Howtoexpose,aswellascontributeto,socialchangeandbettercommunitydevelopment

outcomesthroughparticipatoryresearch?4.3Learningaboutthemethods:strengthsandshortcomingsencounteredInparticipatorymethodologies,anaimisnotonlytocollectdataandconductanalysisto

generateresults,suchasthethemesandcommunitycorestoryinthelastsection,but

importantlytocontributetochangethroughtheprocessofcarryingoutthemethods.Inow

turntowhatwehavelearnedinthatprocessaboutthemethodsthemselves.Wedraw

attentionheretostrengthsandshortcomingsofeachparticipatorymethodandthenreflect

143

morebroadlyonbenefitsanddrawbacksofmixingmethods.Table4.4providesasummaryof

thestrengthsandshortcomingsofthemethods;adiscussionofasubsetofthepointsfollows.

Withparticipatoryphotography,wehadthebenefitoftestingandlearninginafirstphaseof

fieldwork,beforeredesigningandimplementinganimprovedversiononeyearlater.We

learnedinphaseonethattheuseofcamerasandphototakinginHaitihasspecialmeaning.

ManyHaitiansareaccustomedtobeing‘subjects’ofphotosbyoutsiders,butmostrarelyhave

anopportunitytoholdcamerasthemselvestotaketheirownphotosofwhattheychoose.

PhotosofthemselvesandlovedonesarecherishedbyHaitians,butaretooexpensiveformost

peopletoafford.Wealsofoundthatphotosenabledpeopletoseethemselves,theirlives,and

theirworkdifferently.Oneparticipantremarkedthatthewoodenchairshehadmadewere

evenmorebeautifulinphotographs,andthatseeingtheminthiswayledhimtolookathis

workdifferentlyandtakemoreprideinhiscraft.Intermsofouradaptivelearningaboutthe

methodbetweenphases,participantsexpressedinphaseonethattheywouldhaveappreciated

using‘real’camerasinsteadofthe‘toy’(disposable)camerasprovided.Inphasetwo,weused

digitalcamerasandprovidedprofessionalphotographytraining,whichsubstantiallyimproved

theexperienceforparticipantsaswellasthequalityofdatacollectionandresearch.

Twoofthemainstrengthsofparticipatoryphotographywere1)thephotographsthemselves

providevisualdocumentationofcommunitylifefromparticipants’perspectives;and2)the

photographsprovideameansforelicitingdialogueasparticipantsareinvitedtodiscusswhy

theytookphotographsandwhattheymeantothem.Thiscreatesspaceandopportunityfor

deeperdiscussionontopicsandacriticalanalysisofcommunitydevelopmentunderwayaswell

aslargerissuesofunintendedconsequencesofcommunitydevelopmentefforts.Themain

themesthatemergedthroughdialoguecirclesarelistedinTable4.3.

Thethreetypesofparticipatorymappingwerequitedistinctandhaddifferentstrengthsand

weaknesses.Themethodsmighthaveprovidedmorelocally-usefuldatawithhighertechnology

144

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toolssuchasgeographicinformationsystems,particularlyforplacemapping.Theactor

mappingmighthaveproducedslightlydifferentresultsifthethirtylocalorganizationshadbeen

analyzedforimportanceandeffectivenessbyindividualsorsmallgroups,ratherthan

collectivelyasagroupof12participants.Ontheupside,theactormappingexerciseproduceda

comprehensivelistofallagenciesandorganizationswhoseworkaffectsthecommunity,which

providednewknowledgetomanymembersofthegroup.Participants’collectiveanalysisofthe

actorsservedasawaytoexposekeyissues,notablythegravelackoflocalpublicservicesand

lamentablestate/societyrelations,whichweresubsequentlyfurtherexploredindialoguecircles.

Withrespecttothebenefitsofmixingmethods,havingaflexibleapproachandrepertoireof

methodsavailableinthe‘toolbox’enabledustoadjustaccordingtowhatwashappeninginthe

field.Ifanimportanttopiccameupthatwefeltwarrantedfurtherexploration,orweneededto

allowdifferentperspectivesfromthesamerespondentstoprovidewindowsintocommunity

socialrelationsandpowerdynamics,wecouldbringoutanothertool.Thistriangulationofboth

methodsandanalysisforexploringthesamethemesfromadifferentperspectivewasalsoan

importantmechanismforvalidatingdata.Andnotleast,theimportanceofthorough

preparationsandorganizationwithadetailedplanandscheduleforallresearchactivities,

protocols,andmaterialsshouldnotbeunderstated(asinTable4.2).Thepointistobeflexible

tochangetheplanasneededbasedonfieldlearning.

Intermsoftimespentinthefield,designingmultiplephasesoffieldworkwithperiodsoftime

inbetweenforreflectingonfindingsandmodifyingresearchdesignwasawaytobuildin

adaptivelearning.Thiswashugelybeneficial,notonlyforimprovingthequalityoftheresearch

design,butalsoforstrengtheningrelationshipswithparticipantsandbuildingtrust,which

contributedtoimprovedresearchresults.

Hearingandsharingstorieswasakeystrengthofthemethods.Asisusualinparticipatory

methodologies,Iputemphasisonstoryandnarrativeanalysistolearnfromlocalknowledge.

Whystory?Young(1995)arguesthatstoryisparticularlyhelpfulincross-culturalsettings

146

wheretheresearchistryingtogainunderstandingofparticipants’waysofseeingandsituated

knowledges.Sandercock(1998)claimsthatourattentiontopeoples’storiescanbe

empowering,byvalidatingandrespectingpeoples’localknowledgeandmovingforwardto

enableacontextofmutuallearning.Storycanhavethepowertocommunicatewaysof

knowingthatareespeciallyappropriateinparticularculturalsettings,suchasthosewith

predominantlyoraltraditions(Sandercock,2003a).Oneofthemostimportantwaysofacquiring

knowledgeinHaitihastraditionallybeenthroughstoriesandstorytelling.Patton(2002)claims

thatnarrativeanalysiscanprovidewindowsintoculturalandsocialmeaningsbyaddressingtwo

foundationalquestions:Whatdoesthisstoryrevealaboutthepersonandworldfromwhichit

came?Howcanthisnarrativebeinterpretedsothatitprovidesanunderstandingofand

illuminatesthelifeandculturethatcreatedit?AccordingtoFlyvbjerg(2001),thereisaforward-

lookingreasontostudystories.Heclaimsthatnotonlyisnarrativeourmostbasicformfor

makingsenseofourexperiencesalreadylived,butalsothatnarrativescanprovideaforward

glance,andhelpustoanticipatesituationsbeforetheyareencountered,andenableusto

envisionalternativefutures.Usingstoryandnarrativeinqualitativeresearchisnowwell

establishedinthefieldsofplanningandhumangeography(forexample,seeBerg,1998;Birdet

al.,2009;Crang,2005;Creswell,2007;Eckstein,2003;Patton,2002;Sandercock,2003b;

SandercockandAttili,2012;Throgmorton,2003;andWilesetal.,2005).

Myexperiencewithparticipantswasthatframingthisresearchprojectas‘story’washelpful,

becausestorytellingtendstocutacrossculturesandclassdistinctions.Describingaresearch

aimas‘thehearingandunderstandingofyourandyourcommunities’stories,andlearning

effectivewaystoretellthosestories’,wasmorecomprehensible,ethicallyandculturally

appropriate,andfactualthansayingexplicitlyorimplicitly,‘Iamheretostudy(orteach)you.’

Alongwiththepoweroflisteningtoparticipants’storiescomesrisks.Forexample,promisingto

sharecommunitystorieswiththe‘outside’worldcanraiseexpectationsforwhatmighthappen

asaresultoftheresearch.Otherrisksandethicalissuesarewoventhroughouttheresearch

designandfieldwork.Inordertobecontinuallyreflexiveaboutethicalissuesaswellasthe

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effectsofourpresenceinthefield,IdebriefedwithHaitianresearchcollaboratorsattheendof

eachdayinthefield,andwecollectivelyanalyzedexperiencesanddiscussedtogether

adjustmentsthatmightbemadethefollowingday–whethermodifyingthemethodsor

exploringtopicsfurtherindialoguecirclesorinterviews.

4.4Conclusion

Participatoryresearchrecognizesthatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,local

knowledgesystemsthatresearchershavenotwellorfullytapped.Wehaveseenthatengaging

participatorymethodsinHaiti’spost-disastercontextenabledhearingfromtheleastheardand

elicitinglocalknowledge,providingawindowintodynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentand

socialchange,whichistypicallyopaquetooutsiders.Byinvitingresearchparticipants’active

engagementthroughphotography,dialoguecircles,mapping,communitywalks,video,and

variousinterviewtypes,wefacilitatedself-expression,sociallearning,andsharingofstories,

views,ideas,hopes,aspirations,andfears.Themethodsthemselvesprovidedpossibilitiesfor

change,beyondthedatathattheyrevealed.

Participatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingexposeda‘communitycorestory’and

severalrecurringthemes:1)Participantstendtovaluecommunityoverindividualwellbeing,

anddespitestruggleswitheverydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetter

futurefortheirchildren;2)Peoplefeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardandthattheyhave

contributedtoshapingcommunitydevelopmentdecisions;and3)Peopledonotexpectthe

statetoactintheirinterests.Wehaveseenadarksideofstate/societyrelationsexposed

throughparticipatoryresearch,inacommunitythatfacesmultiplepressuresofcopingina

disasteraftermathinconditionsofextremedeprivationandavirtualabsenceofthestate.

Thesemethodshaveaffordeduswaysofthinkingandcollaborativetools,notablyFreirian

criticalconsciousnessanddialoguecircles,toilluminatepossibilityregardingthekindofchange

thatisnecessaryifHaitiistoalteritsdevelopmenttrajectory.Giventhatparticipatorypractices

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arereinforcedinongoingdevelopmentinthiscasecommunitybylocalorganizations,primarily

HaitiPartners,andweplantorevisitthecommunityovertheyears,wecanstudythenature

andextentofsocialchangeovertimeinparticipanthouseholds,aswellasthebroaderimpacts

ofcommunitydevelopmentprojects.

Bydesigningcontext-specificparticipatorymethodswithanunderlyingQLR(qualitative

longitudinalresearch)sensibility,wewereabletomakevisiblesomeemergingchallengesand

dynamicsofsocialchange.Aflexible,iterativeresearchdesignentailedmakingdaily

adjustmentsinthefieldwhenneededbasedoncircumstancesortorevisitimportantquestions.

Also,bytestingparticipatorymethodsinafirstphase,wecouldadaptivelylearn,redesignthe

researchandmodifymethodsforamorein-depthphaseoffieldworkthefollowingyear.

Thecombinationofresearchfindings,experiencesinthefield,andrelationshipswithresearch

participantsandcollaboratorsprovidesasolidspringboardforcontinuingtolearnfrompeople’s

livedexperiencesovertime.Anaimistoexposedynamicsofsocialchangeovertheyearsthat

willtrackconditions,perceptions,andoutcomesofparticipants,theirfamiliesandlocal

communities.Wehopetocontributetoimprovedcommunitydevelopmentpolicy,research,

andpracticeinHaitiandbroaderstructuraltransformationwherecitizens’voicesareheardand

communitiesareempoweredtorealizetheiraspirationsforchange.

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Figure4.1:AddendumtoChapter4,ParticipatoryMethodsPaperTwelvelocalresidentsofBellevue-La-Montagnetookpartinthisparticipatoryresearchproject.Eachparticipantispicturedinthefollowingpagesalongwithoneillustrativephotographthats/hetooktorepresentsomeaspectornarrativeofdailylifeoranaspirationforchange.Participants’photosprovidedatoolforincitingdialogueontopicsrelatedtocommunitydevelopment.Theresearchaimwastoaddressthefollowingquestionsofphronesisresearchfromtheperspectivesoflocalpeoplethroughtheparticipatoryresearchprocess.

1. OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?

2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Isitdesirable?


4. Whatdowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?

AllphotographsweretakeninJuly2013,andparticipants’agesindicatedareasofthatdate.ThestudywasdesignedwithQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR)inmind,asweintendtofollowovertimetheoutcomesoftheseresidentsandtheirhouseholdsandfamilies.

150

CindyJosef

ThekitchenatCindy’shome.Cookingoverawoodcharcoalfireis

typicalinHaiti

CindyJosef,23yearsold,hangingoutonatreealongtheroad,paintedwithHaitiancolours.

151

FrancesseAntoine

AnativeflamboyanttreewhichFrancessepassesonherwalkhomefromschool.Sheisengagedasavolunteerin

environmentalandreforestationwork.

FrancesseAntoine,28yearsold,seenhereleadingatourofthe

ADECAschoolwheresheisateacher.

152

GuerlineErnest

Guerline’s‘dreamhome’.Thisisoneofonlyseveralnewhomesthatwerebuiltintheareatoreplacedestroyedhomesfollowingtheearthquake.Funds

wereprovidedthroughalocalNGO.

GuerlineErnest,27yearsold,inherhomemadeofplastictarpswithwoodbranchestoprovide

structure.Twoofhersonslivewithherinthisone

roomshelter.

153

JacquelineSt-Vaudré

Jacqueline’sdaughteratthecommunitywatersource.Thesefaucetsarethedrinking,cookingandwashingsourceforresidents.Whenitisnotworking,residentswalkanextramileorsotothenextsource.Thesignonthetreereads

‘Landforsale’withatelephonenumber.

JacquelineSt-Vaudré,47yearsold,inhertwo-roomhome.Oneofher

kidshidesatthedoorway.

154

JacquesLucet

Jacques’homeandkitten.Hishousewasdestroyedintheearthquakeandhisfamilynowlivesinthistemporaryshelterofmetalandplasticbuiltonthefoundationoftheoriginalhouse.HeisadevoutChristianandwantstolettheworldknowsowrotehismessage‘IloveyouJesus’inEnglish.

JacquesLucet,31years

old,poseswithhismotherfollowinga‘Photo

Dialogue’sessionandcommunitywalk.

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Marie-AngeMeristyl

Marie-Ange’ssonandnieces,picturednexttohertemporarymetalhome;herfamilyjokinglyrefers

toitasthe‘albatross’.Herhomemadeofconcreteandstonecollapsedintheearthquake.

Marie-AngeMeristyl,32yearsold,poseswithherparticipatoryphotography

cameraintheschool.

156

MesilusBien-Aimé

Mesilusstageshisowndeathforthecamera.Inthebackgroundishishomethatwasdestroyedintheearthquake.Hisfamilyisseparatedstayingwith

friendsuntilhecanrebuildhisownhome.

MesilusBien-Aimé,49

yearsold,nexttoacoffinhebuilt.Heisawoodworkerandfurnituremaker.

157

PatricksonBien-Aimé

Patrickson’sfriendposeswithadonkeyinfrontofthegagè,orcockfightpit.

PatricksonBien-Aimé,17yearsold,enjoyingtunesonhismobilephone.

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ProphèteAntoine

Thelocalmambo(vodoupriestess)infrontofthecommunityvodoutemple,agatheringplaceforhealing,ritualsand

entertainment.Likethecockfightpit,theroleofthevodoutempleinthecommunityiscontroversialamongparticipants.

ProphèteAntoine,47yearsold,withhisdaughterandnewgranddaughter.

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SherlyneBien-Aimé

Motorcyclesandfour-wheel-drivevehiclesarethesolemodesofmotorizedtransportwhichcanreachtheschoolcommunity.MotorcyclesareincreasinglyusedinHaitiaspublictransport.

SherlyneBien-Aimé,25yearsold,withhertwo

daughters.

160

TalamasJean

Talamas’daughtersweepsuptheareaoutsideherhome.

TalamasJean,47yearsold,onawalkwiththeauthortovisithishomeforaninterview.Heisalocal

governmentrepresentativeofthearea.

161

YolandeBien-Aimé

Yolande’smother,nowdeaf,inherkitchen.Yolandebegangoingtomarketeverydaywithhermotherwhenshewasthreeyears

oldandneverhadtheopportunitytogotoschool.

YolandeBien-Aimé,45yearsold,walkinghomefrommarketwithproducetoresell.Thevisittothemarketwasoneoftheparticipatoryresearchactivitiesofthegroup.

162

ParticipatoryresearchgroupphotosinJuly2013:1)onthefirstphotographytrainingday;and2)thefinal

daytogivecertificates,invitefamilymemberstoviewtheparticipantphotoexhibit,andto

celebrate!

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PrefacetoChapter5:CommunityGovernancePaper

ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborativedialogueina‘communityofdesperation’

Thischapter’stopicisthecollaboratively-designedcommunitygovernanceprocessatHabitat

SantoVillage,whichisthesecondarycasestudyofthisthesis.HabitatSantoVillagewasbuiltby

HabitatforHumanityHaitionthesiteofatentcampattheepicentreofthe2010earthquake.

Acollaborativedialogueprocess,called‘GoodNeighbour’,wascarriedoutatHabitatSanto

Villageoverthecourseofsixmonthswiththeaimofdesigningalocalgovernanceprocessand

structurethatwouldprovideforcommunitysustainabilitywhenHabitatforHumanitywasno

longeronsite.Withco-authorsLisaBornsteinandGonzaloLizarralde,Ianalyzedtheprocess

throughthelensofcollaborativerationalitytheorybasedbothonparticipantperceptionsand

expectedcontributionstothecommunityovertime.Findingsrevealthatthiscommunity-

orientedapproachofparticipatoryandadaptivegovernancebuildsonsocialresilienceinHaiti

andinstitutionalizesengagementoflocalgovernmentwithcommunitygroupsandNGOs.

Theseresultscontributetoabetterunderstandingofcommunitygovernance,collaborative

approachesduringpost-disasterreconstruction,andnarrativeresearchthatvalueslocalvoices.

…Collaborativeprocessescanleadtochangesinthelargersystemthathelpmakeourinstitutionsmoreeffectiveandadaptiveandmakethesystemitselfmoreresilient.Theseprocessesdonotjustproduceimmediateoutcomeslikeagreementsandjointactivities,butparticipants’experienceswiththemoftenleadthemtoextendcollaborationtoothercontexts.Participantslearnmoredeeplyaboutissuesandotherinterestswhichtheytransfertotheirorganizations.Theydevelopnewskills.Theybuildnewnetworksthattheyusetogetnewsortsofthingsdonethattheycouldnothaveotherwiseconsidered.Astheyextendtheirambitionsandactivities,theydiscoverthatthenormsandstructuresoftraditionalgovernmentconstrainadaptationandimpederesilienceinresponsetostresses. JudithInnesandDavidBooher(2010:10)

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Chapter5:ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:

Creatingcollaborativedialogueina‘communityofdesperation’5.1IntroductionOn January 12, 2010 in Léogâne, Haiti, Marie Veronila Antoine was at home with her three

children.At4:53pma7.0earthquakeviolentlyshookthehouse,andasitcollapsed,sheandher

childrenmanagedtoescape.Herhusbandperishedwhenanearbybuildingcollapsed.Mariehad

notimetogrieve;shefacedstrugglesofdailysurvival.Shelosther incomefromteachingata

schoolthatwasnowgone.Sheimprovisedatent‘home’forherfamilyonlandinnearbySanto.

Marie coiuld no longer afford to sendher children to school, and the youngestwas sick from

conditionsoflifeinthetent.Mostofthefamily’smaterialpossessionswerestolen.Itwouldnot

beuntiltwoyearsaftertheearthquakethatMariewouldfinallyhaveahouseinHabitatSanto

Village.1

InHaiti’s2010earthquake,morethan200,000peoplelosttheirlivesandanestimated1.5

millionpeoplelosttheirhomes.Adevastatedlandscape,widespreadpoverty,andafragilestate

arebutsomeoftheproblemsthatcomplicaterecovery.Threeyearslater,mostsubstantial

reconstructioneffortshavestalledpriortoimplementation.Equallytroubling,ofthepost-

disasterhousingprojectsthathavebeenimplemented,fewaddressgovernanceina

comprehensiveormid-tolong-termmanner.AnotableexceptionisHabitatSantoVillage,a

reconstructionprojectthatexceedsthescale–and,seemingly,thesuccess–ofmostefforts.

ThispaperinvestigatestheHabitatSantoVillage(orSanto)inlightoftherelationshipsbetween

effortstobuildthesettlementandmechanismsformaintainingappropriatelivingconditionsfor

residentsovertime.Qualitativedatafrominterviews,observations,andlocalproject

documentationsupporttheanalysis.Threeaspectsofourresearchareemphasizedinthispaper.

First,thedataongovernanceisanalysedinlightofInnesandBooher’s(2010)collaborative

rationalitytheory;thecriteriaofanalysisinclude:diversityandinterdependenceofactors,

1InterviewwithMarieVeronilaAntoine,HabitatSantoVillageresident,July,2012.

165

authenticdialogueandcollectivelearning,andsystemadaptationsassociatedwithshared

identities,meanings,andheuristics.Second,weexplorehowprojectsthatfocusonlocal

governancecontribute,ornot,towidereffortstobuildstatecapacity,anessentialneedinHaiti,

wherethestateisoftenviewedaslackinglegitimacyandeffectiveness.Wecloselydocument

theiterativeprocessesofcreatingagovernancesysteminthenear-absenceofastate.Our

researchprovidessupporttoassertionsintheliteraturethatspecificgovernanceelementscan

contributetoenhancedadaptivecapacityandsocialresilienceinthecontextofHaiti,where

community-levelgovernancecontributessubstantiallytoreconstructioneffortsandtowider

governanceprocesses.Third,attheendofthepaper,wereflectonmethodsappropriatetothe

topicsunderstudy,arguingthatthenarrativesofparticipantsinthegovernanceprojectprovide

invaluableinsightsintoitsfunctioning,associatedlearningandthegradualenhancementof

governancecapacity.

5.2AnalyticalFrameworkHaiti,intheaftermathofthe2010earthquake,facesaset‘wicked’problemsthatincludea

dysfunctionalstatewithinstitutionsthatneitherservepeople’sneedsnorfitthepostdisaster

context;veryfragilesocial,political,andenvironmentalcircumstances;andanoveralllackof

consensusregardinggoals,prioritiesandhowtoaddressthesecomplexproblems.Most

housingprojectsdevelopedafterthedisasterhavefailedtorecognizetheimportanceof

developinglonglastingstructuresandmechanismsofgovernancethatcanmakethem

sustainableinthelongrun(Aquilino,2013).However,giventherecognizedandproven

strengthsofHaitiansociety,isitpossiblefornewformsofcollaborationtodevelopwherethe

resilientsocietalinstitutionscanbeharnessedtocontributetochange?LaurentDubois(2012)

contendsthatcollaborationamongstcomplexsocietalinstitutionsisneededforHaitian

rebuildingtosucceed.2Inlinewiththatobservation,wesoughtananalyticalframeworkfor

2 Dubois (2012: 12) argues that successful reconstruction depends on collaboration with social institutions:“Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotal lackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti] isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate…Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathaveemergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonlythroughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.”

166

assessingtheprocessesandmechanismsforcollaborationamongcommunitygroups,local

governments,andinternationalorganizations.

Moreover,Santocanbecharacterizedasa‘communityofdesperation’.Intheimmediate

aftermathoftheearthquake,peopleatSantowere‘throwntogether,findingthemselvesin

geographicalproximityandeconomicinterdependence,whichmeansthattheactivitiesand

pursuitsofsomeaffecttheabilityofotherstoconducttheiractivities’(Young,1995:141-142).

Forsucha‘polity’tooperateasafunctionaldemocracywithgoodcommunication,Young

arguesthata‘minimalunity’ofthreeconditionsisneeded:‘significantinterdependence,

formallyequalrespect,andagreementonprocedures’(1995:142).WealsodrewonHealey’s

callforattentionto‘thepotential,intheevolutionofnewcollaborativeforms,towidenthe

rangeofvoicesandvalueswhichgettoshapegovernanceagendas’(2006:323).Consistent

withHealey’sclaimthat‘therearenostandardanswerstothespecificationofthesystemic

institutionaldesignofgovernancesystemsforinclusionaryparticipatorydemocraticpractice’

(2006:294),wesoughtaframeworkthat,ratherthancomparingthedesignofthegovernance

systemagainstaprescribedmodel,allowedassessmentofhoweffectivelythegovernance

approachfacilitatedcontext-specificcollaboration.

Theseaimsledtoadoptionofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010:1)approaches,

whichcallfor‘thinkingdifferentlyforanageofcomplexity’inordertoaddresswickedproblems

associatedwithurbangovernance.Thetheoryofcollaborativerationalityisemergingasan

alternativetoinstrumentalrationalitythathasdominatedplanningthoughtandpractice(cf.

North,1990).3InnesandBooher(2010)buildanargumentaboutthevalueofcollaborative

decisionmakingprocessesbasedoncollaborativedialogues.Thelogicofthisargumentconsists

ofthreeparts,foreachofwhichexamplesareprovidedlater.First,some,butnotall,

collaborativeprocessesarecollaborativelyrational;thosethatareinthelattercategoryare

characterizedbyadiversityofinterests,aninterdependenceofinterests,andauthenticdialogue3CollaborativerationalityisgroundedintheworkofJürgenHabermas(1981)andcommunicativerationality,andinlessonsfrompractitionersinvolvedinmultiplestakeholderandcross-sectoralcollaborativegovernanceprocesses.Forexample,Hollander(2011)examinesrecentweb-basedtechnologiesforurbanplanninginlightofcollaborativerationality.

167

(seeFigure5.1).Second,processesofcollaborativerationalityofferindividualandcollective

learningopportunitiesthathavethepotentialtostrengthenacommunity’sadaptivecapacity

andresilience.Third,theseprocessesmayproducesystemicchangesthatleadtoinstitutions

beingmoreadaptiveandeffective.

InnesandBooher(2010)suggestthatcollaborativerationalitybringsaboutfourresults:1)

participantsdiscoverthereciprocalnatureoftheirinterests;2)participantsdevelopnew

relationshipsthatengendertrust;3)bothsingleanddoublelooplearningoccur;and4)asa

resultofthisindividualandcollectivelearning,‘secondandthirdordereffects’or‘adaptations’

occur.Adaptationsoftentaketheformofdevelopingsharedidentities,sharedmeanings,new

heuristics,andinnovativepracticesandmechanismsforgovernance.

Figure5.1:DIADTheory(Diversity,Interdependence,andAuthenticDialogue)NetworkDynamics

Source:Innes&Booher(2010:35) Thegovernanceprocessesunderstudyarethosethatarelikelytoleadtotransformationof

existingpatternsofsocietalinteractionatthelocalscale,andtherebycontributetothe

functioningofpoliticalprocessesofterritorial,socialandeconomicmanagementinare-built

Haiti.Asdefinedintheliterature,thistypeofgovernanceistermedcommunitygovernance,

referringtopoliticalgovernanceofaterritory(usuallyfairlysmall)thatallowsforahighdegree

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ofdemocratizationbygivingcitizensparticipationrights,decisionmakingpower,andoften

directcontrolthroughinstitutionssuchascommunitycouncils(Somerville,2005).4Otherterms

usedinthewiderliteratureincludeparticipatorygovernanceandcollaborativegovernance,

usedinterchangeablywithcommunitygovernanceinthispaper,whichemphasizetherolesof

NGOs,communityorganisationsandgovernmentingovernance,drawingontheoriesofsocial

mobilization(Friedmann,1987;Friedmann,1992),inclusive,participatorygovernance(Healey

2006)andcollaborativegovernance(InnesandBooher,2010).Communitygovernancealso

includeselementsofwhatFungandWright(2003:5)refertoas‘empoweredparticipatory

governance,’meaningthatgovernancerelieson‘thecommitmentandcapacitiesofordinary

peopletomakesensibledecisionsthroughreasoneddeliberationand…attemptstotieactionto

discussion’.Adaptivegovernanceisadistinctprocess,oneinwhichformalandinformal

institutionsevolvetobetteruseandmanagesharedresourcesincollaborative,flexible,

learning-basedways(Ostrom,2005;InnesandBooher,2010).

5.3MethodologyAqualitativeresearchmethodologywasadoptedbecauseofitspotentialtoenable

understandingofcomplexitiesandrichnessofhumanexperiencewithinitsowncontext,andof

meaningsandprocessesthatprovidestructuretosocio-spatiallife(Herbert,2010).Our

methodsofdatacollectionduringfieldworkinJuly2012canbebroadlycategorizedas

interviews,observation,anddocumentstudy.Becausethegovernanceplanwascompletedand

thefirstVillageCouncilelectionsheldsubsequenttofieldvisits,wecontinueddatacollection

remotelythroughdocumentgatheringandfollow-upinterviewsbytelephoneandemail.The

followingparagraphssetouthowandwithwhomeachmethodwasemployed,followedbyour

approachtodataanalysis.ThreedifferentsetsofinterviewswereconductedinHaiti:with

NGOs,withresidents,andwithlocalgovernment.5Duringfieldwork,fourNGOinterviewswere

4Ourfocusisoncommunitygovernance,thestructuresofco-existenceinsharedspaceaimedatservinglong-termneeds,asopposedto‘projectgovernance,’whichreferstostructuresinplacetomanageaprojectduringdesignandbuildingphases.5AllinterviewswereconductedbyJayneEngle,withassistancefromAlexMyril.NGOandlocalgovernmentinterviewswereconductedinFrenchorEnglish,andresidentinterviewswereconductedinHaitianCreole.Fieldinterviewswereaudio-recordedandtheresidentinterviewswerevideorecorded.

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conductedwithstaffofHabitatforHumanity(‘HfH’)6andHaitiPartners(‘HP’)7.Twointerviews

wereconductedwithfemaleresidentsofSanto,andadiscussionwasheldwiththeMayorof

Léogâne.Theinterviewscouldbecharacterizedas‘semi-structured’withHabitatforHumanity

andHaitiPartnersrepresentatives;as‘open-ended’withSantoresidents;and‘unstandarized’

withthelocalmayor.8InformaldiscussionswerecarriedoutwithadditionalSantoresidents

andNGOstaffduringneighborhoodwalks.Observationandvisualdataconsistoffieldnotes,

photographs,andvideo.

Wecollectedplans,reportsandpromotionalmaterialfromthreeNGOsinvolvedwiththe

project:HabitatforHumanity,HaitiPartners,andArchitectureforHumanity(‘AfH’).AfHplayed

akeyroleinplanninganddesignofSantofromearlystagesoftheprojectin2010andprepared

amasterplan.9On-sitestaffsharedprojectdocuments,includingahouseholdsurveyand

beneficiaryselectioncriteria.HaitiPartnersprovidedaccesstoalldocumentationoftheGood

Neighborcommunitygovernanceproject,includingpedagogicalmaterialfortrainings,notes

fromparticipatoryanddialoguesessions,monthlyprojectreports,andtheHabitatSantoVillage

GovernancePlan,consistingoffoundingby-lawsofthegoverningbody,SIDDEVAS(‘Dedicated

citizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’)andtheGoodNeighborCodeofConduct.

Ouranalyticstrategyreliesontheoreticalpropositionsalongwithlearningfromnarratives(Yin,

2009:130).Afirstpropositionisthat,inspiteofgoodintentionsandmajoreffortsonthepart

of many organizations and aid bodies, it has been difficult to carry out substantial

reconstruction projects in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake, in part due to challenges of

governance(Bornstein,Lizarralde,Gould,andDavidson,2013).Second,ouranalyticstrategy

emphasizes learning from community narratives, as revealed in interviews, observations, and

documents.Wehaveheardfromresidentsthroughinterviewsanddiscussions,andparticularly

6HabitatforHumanityHaitiistheleadorganizationofconstructingHabitatSantoVillage.InterviewswereconductedwiththeHfHcountrydirectorandcommunityengagementstaffwhoworkonsite.Informaldiscussionsprovidedsupplementalinformation.7HaitiPartners,asmallerNGO,wascontractedbyHfHin2012tocarryoutdialoguetrainingandparticipatoryprocesseswithSantoresidents,andtoprepareacommunitygovernanceplan.8SeeBerg(1998)forinterviewdefinitions.9TheSantoVillagemasterplanmaybeaccessedat:openarchitecturenetwork.org.

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through their involvement in the Good Neighbor governance project. The theoretical

propositionbehindthisfocusonnarrativesisthatstorieshavethepowerto‘revealculturaland

socialpatternsthroughthelensofindividualexperiences’(Patton,2002:116)andto‘notonly

givemeaningfulformtoexperiencesalreadylived,butalsoprovideaforwardglance,helpingus

anticipate situations before we encounter them, allowing us to envision alternative futures’

(Flyvbjerg, 2001: 137). According to Young (1995) and Sandercock (1998) the use of story is

particularly appropriate in cross-cultural settings where the researcher is trying to gain

understandingofparticipants’waysofseeingandsituatedknowledges.

Weanalyzedthedatausingatwo-tieredapproachtocodingthefollowingsetsofdata:1)field

notesummaries;2)HaitiPartners’draftnarrativereportandtheSantoGovernancePlan;3)

notesfromthreeOpenSpacesessions;4)by-lawsforthenewly-establishedSantogoverning

body,SIDDEVAS;5)notesfromthefirstmeetingoftheSantoVillageCouncil;6)theGood

NeighborCodeofConduct;and7)interviewtranscripts10.

Ourdataanalysiscombinedthematiccodingwithnarrativeinterpretiveinquiry.Weused

thematiccodingasanorganizationandrigordevicetoanalyzedataaccordingtothe

collaborativerationalitytheoreticalframework,andalsoasabackupmethodfordrawingout

descriptivepartsofthedata.Thefirststepwasan‘initialcoding’involvingreadingtheeight

datasets,andmakingnotesofinitialimpressions,emergingpatterns,andidentifying‘patches’,

orquotationsthatcaptureimportantmeanings.Inthesecondstageofcodingwere-readall

dataandidentifiedwherethefollowingthemeswerepresent:generaldescriptivedata;theme

1:diversityofactorsandindependenceofactors;theme2:authenticdialogueandcollective

learning;andtheme3:systemadaptationsandsystemicchangesthroughsharedidentities,

meaningsandheuristics.Thethematicanalysisprovidesasystematicbasisforlookingacross

10InterviewswereconductedbyJayneEngle,withresearchassistanceandHaitianCreoletranslationbyAlexMyril.EightinterviewswithNGOsandresidentswereaudio-recorded,andseveralwerealsovideo-taped.ResidentinterviewswereconductedinHaitianCreole,thelocalgovernmentinterviewwasconductedinFrench,andNGOinterviewswereconductedinFrenchorEnglish,basedonthechoiceoftheinterviewee.Informaldiscussionswereconductedwithseveraladditionalresidents.SupplementaldocumentswerecollectedfromHaitiPartnersinNovember2012,andfollow-upinterviewswereconductedbyemailthroughDecember2012.

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thedatatointerpretivelyanalyzethenarrativesthatemerge.Findingsofthisinterpretive

analysisarediscussedinthenextsection.

5.4TheHousingProjectThirtykilometreswestofHaiti’scapitalPort-au-Prince,withintheLéogânecommune(county)

oftheOuestdepartment(region),isthedistrictofSanto(Figure5.2).Locatednearthe

epicentreofthe2010earthquake,Santo’svisibility,proximity,topography,andsecurityledtoa

largeparcelofitslandbecomingatentcampfollowingthedisaster.Inthemonthsafterthe

earthquakeHabitatforHumanity(HfH)wasgranted$3millionfromtheInter-American

DevelopmentBank’sMultilateralInvestmentFunds(IDB-MIF).Grantfundingwasdirected

towardsassistingearthquake-affectedfamiliesthroughincome-generatingtrainingand

constructionoftheirownhomes.Léogânewasthefocusoftheseeffortsasitwasunderstood

tobetheareamostaffectedbytheearthquake11.HfHestablishedtheHabitatResourceCenter

andcommunityengagementteamonaplotoflandcededbythegovernmentfortheprojectin

Februaryof2011.Theprioritywastoconstructhousingandrelatedamenitiesforthosemade

mostvulnerablebytheearthquake,whichbecametheselectioncriteriaforHfH’snewhomes.

Figure5.2:MapofLéogâne,Haitiand2010EarthquakeEpicentre

11InterviewwithClaudeJeudy,HaiticountrydirectorforHabitatforHumanity,July,2012.

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InpartnershipwithArchitectureforHumanity,HfHcarriedoutaparticipatoryprocessto

developamasterplanforwhatwouldbecomeHabitatSantoVillage.Developedin2011,the

planincluded:500homesforabout2,500residents,schools,acommunitymarketplace,

recreationalfacilities(e.g.,asportscenter,playgrounds,andpublicspaces),anddesignated

spaceforbothagriculturalplotsandecologicalcorridors.Thefirstbeneficiaryfamilieswere

trainedinfinancialliteracy,disasterriskreductionandbasicconstructionskillsinAugustof2011.

Inadditiontothesefamilies,570localcontractorsandworkersunderwenttraininginimproved

constructiontechniques.12Thefirst155familiesmovedintonewly-builtresidencesinFebruary

2012;homeshadastandardformat–detached,26squaremetersoffloorarea,builtwitha

timberframe,fibercementsidingforwalls,aconcretefloorandacorrugatedmetalroof.

Individualhouseholdlatrinesandsharedwaterserviceareprovidedinbackyards.(SeeFigure

5.3.)Noelectricalserviceisprovidedtohouses,howevertherearesolar-poweredlightslining

allvillagestreets.Followingmove-in,residentsquicklybegantodecorate,furnishand

landscapearoundtheirhomes(seeFigure5.4).

AsofMarch2013,300homeshadbeenconstructedatSanto.(Fundshadnotbeensecuredto

constructtheoriginallyplannedforadditional200homesortheplannedcommunityfacilities,

suchasschoolandcommunitycenter).Withthisproject,HabitatSantoVillageisthelargest

permanenthousingsettlementconstructedinLéogânesincetheearthquake.13Althoughthere

havebeensomeconcernsthathousesizesaretoosmall,thatlatrinesinitiallywerepoorly

designedforlocalusers,andthatthedesignofthesettlementconstrainsaccommodationof

extendedfamily,(withamodifiedgridformatthatdiffersfromtraditionalHaitianlakou

settlementforms),theprojectisseenas‘asymbolofnewfoundstabilityandpermanencefor

familiesstartinglifeanew’(ShelterCentre,2014).

12InterviewwithMimzDiño,communityengagementofficer,HabitatforHumanity,July,2012.13InterviewwithClaudeJeudy,July,2012.

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Figure5.3:OriginalSitePlanofHabitatSantoVillage(2011)

Source:ArchitectureforHumanity,HaitiRebuildingCenterFigure5.4:TypicalHousesandStreetscapeasBuilt(2012)

Source:JayneEngle

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5.5CommunityGovernanceinHabitatSantoVillageMarieVeronilaAntoinewasamongthefirstfamiliestomoveintoherSantohome;shedescribes

receivingthehousekeyasoneofthehappiestmomentsofherlife.Marieparticipatedinthe

GoodNeighborGovernanceProject.OnSeptember13,2012,shepresentedherselfasa

candidateofthenewHabitatSantoVillageCouncil,andshewasdemocraticallyelectedasits

firsttreasurer.

ThissectionsetsoutthebroadercontextforMarie’sevolvingstory:thebeginningsofHabitat

SantoVillageCouncil,andthestructureandprocessoftheGoodNeighborGovernanceProject.

HabitatforHumanityrecognizedtheneedtodevelopacommunitygovernanceprocessand

structure,giventhescaleandintensityoftheproblemofthousandsofpeoplelivingintentsor

T-shelters17,includingsitesimmediatelyadjacenttotheVillage,inadditiontoconflictsarising

amongVillageresidents.Santowasa‘communityofdesperation’wherepeoplecametogether

tosurvive,similartoothertentcampsandpost-disastersettlementswhichdonotorganically

evolve.HfHcontractedHaitiPartnersinApril2012,twomonthsafterthefirstresidentsmoved

in,tocarryoutacommunitygovernanceprogram,whichbecameknownas‘BonVwazen’in

HaitianCreole(‘GoodNeighbor’inEnglish).HaitiPartnersisahybridNGO-CSO

(nongovernmentalorganization-civilsocietyorganization)withsisterorganizationsbasedin

HaitiandintheUS.

Subjecttoanincreaseinscopeandbudgetthatpermitteduseoftwoofitscornerstone

dialogicalandparticipatorymethods--CirclesofChangeandOpenSpace--,HaitiPartnersagreed

totakeonthecommunitygovernanceproject18.InspiredbyPauloFreireandhisseminalwork,

PedagogyoftheOppressed(2011,original1970)theunderlyingprinciplesoftheGoodNeighbor

projectincluded:1)villageresidentsbeingtrainedtogethertodevelopcollaborationand

dialogueskills;2)trainingcontentinitiallycomprisingconceptualandvalue-basedmaterial;and17‘T-shelters’referstoTransitionalShelters,TemporaryShelters,transitionalhouses,consistingprimarilyoftent-likematerials.Manyhavenotwithstoodpost-earthquakehurricanes.18TheCirclesofChangemethodisbasedonReflectionCirclespracticesofTouchstones(touchstones.org).OpenSpace,knownofficiallyasOpenSpaceTechnology,referstoagroupfacilitationmethod(openspaceworld.com).

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3)thetrainingmaterialsevolvingoverthecourseofthesix-monthprojecttoreflectparticipants’

collaborativelearningandthespecificsofdesigningcontext-appropriateproceduresand

mechanismsforgoverningthevillage.Assuch,residentsthemselvesdesignedtheprinciplesand

practicesforagovernancesystem,withstafffromHaitiPartnersfacilitatingtheprocess.20

TheobjectivesandmilestonesfortheGoodNeighborprojectcanbeseeninTables5.1and5.2.

ThemainoutcomeoftheprojectistheGovernancePlan,consistingofthefoundingby-lawsof

thegoverningbody‘SIDDEVAS’(DedicatedCitizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSanto

Village)andaCodeofConduct(therulesandregulationsthatparticipantsdeveloped

collaboratively).Figure5.5depictsthecommunitygovernancebodiesandstructure.

Table5.1:GoodNeighborProjectObjectivesNurtureacommunitycultureofrespect,inclusion,transparency,andauthenticdialogue.

Developaleadershipstructure/decisionmakingbodyinSanto.

Carryoutactionplanning.Establishcommunitygovernancepolicies(rulesandregulations).

MobilizeagroupofleaderswhocanmonitorSanto.

Carryoutcommunityeducation.

Table5.2:GoodNeighborProjectKeyMilestonesDate MilestoneEventMay7,2012 GoodNeighbortrainingsoncommunicationanddialoguebegin

June25-29,2012OpenSpacesessionsontheme:‘What’sthelong-termdreamforSantoVillageandwhataretheimmediatechallengesthatneedtobeaddressedintheshort-term?’

September13,2012

Officialestablishmentbymorethan100residentsofthegoverningbody:‘DedicatedCitizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’(SIDDEVAS)anditssub-committees

FirstelectionsoftheVillageCouncil

AdoptionofCodeofConduct(rulesandregulations)developedbyparticipants

October15,2012 GraduationceremonyforGoodNeighbortrainingparticipants

October18,2012 FirstmeetingofVillageCounciltosetprioritiesandactionplanforfirsttwo-yearterm

20InterviewwithAbelardXavier,leadfacilitatoroftheGoodNeighborproject,HaitiPartners,July,2012.

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TheGoodNeighborprojectthroughacollaborativerationalitylens

Inordertoassessboththedynamicsoftheprojectanditspotentiallonger-termimpacts,Innes

andBooher’s(2010)collaborativerationalityDIADtheoryisemployedhere.TheGoodNeighbor

projectisanalysedinlightofthreeelementsofeffectivecommunitygovernancepreviously

noted:diversity,interdependence,andauthenticdialogue.

Diversityandinterdependence

Inordertoallowfor‘robustideastodevelopandforthesystemtobuildacapacitytoadapt

overtime,’adiversityofinterests,values,perspectives,skills,andtypesandsourcesof

knowledgeamongactorsmustbeincludedinaparticipatoryprocess(InnesandBooher,2010:

36).Interdependenceimpliesthatactorsdependoneachotherinareciprocalwaywithinsuch

processes.

Membersofall155householdswereinvitedbytheGoodNeighborprojecttotakepartin22

weeklytrainingsessions.Theseparticipantsrepresentedapproximately50percentof

households,withagesrangingfrom16to60plus.Approximately60percentofthegroupwere

women.Participantswerenotpaidfortheirinvolvement.

AccordingtotheirgeographiclocationwithinSanto,participantsweregroupedfortraining

sessions,meaningtheyhadinterdependenciesofsharingwatersourcesandthecommonland

inthesharedcourtyardbehindtheirhomes.Anexaminationofprojectmeetingnotesand

interviewshighlightsthatparticipantsknewthatcollaborativeeffortsandcoalitionswere

neededinordertodealwiththeirproblems.Thisinterdependencerequiredforcollective

changeisformalizedinofficialprojectdocuments,withthestatedpurposeofSIDDEVASbeing

‘collectiveactionforthebenefitofall’andtheCodeofConductspecifyingsecurityisdependent

onresidentslookingoutforeachother.SIDDEVASmembershipconsistsofnearlyequal

numbersofmenandwomenofawiderangeofagesandincludesresidentsofadjacent

communities.SeatsontheVillageCouncilarereservedforrepresentativesoflocalgovernment,

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HfH,andan‘otherlocalorganization’.21Inreviewingmeetingnotes,itwasclearthatVillage

Councilmembersshowedanuancedunderstandingofinterdependencies,particularly

concerningdiscussionofhowtohandlearesidentbreakingrulesthroughunauthorized

constructionofnewtoilets,andconcernsaboutprecedent-setting.Negotiatingrolesand

relationshipsofpower,authority,andenforcementisclearlypresentineverydaylifeatSanto.

Inourinterview,thedirectorofHfHpointedoutthatacultureofinterdependencybetween

residentsandgovernmentindemocracybuildingtakestimetodevelop.Thiswasparticularly

relevantgiventhatwhileHfHandHaitiPartnersrepresentativestookfullpartintheGood

Neighborproject,localgovernmentdidnotparticipateinthetraining.However,GoodNeighbor

staffmembersmetonoccasionwithlocalgovernmentofficialstoprovideupdatesanddiscuss

villageissuesandrelationships.Also,localgovernmentsignedonasafullpartneroftheHabitat

SantoVillageCouncilwithseatsonboththeVillageCouncil(SIDDEVAS)anditsEthicsCommittee.

Tocreatenewideas,changeparticipants,andtransformworldviews,authenticdialoguemust

beatthecoreofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010:97).Newinstitutions,both

formalandinformal,arecreatedthroughthecultivationoffacetofaceinteractionsthat

promotenewwaysofthinkingandtalking.Effectivedialogueemergesasparticipantslearnand

practicehowtocommunicateproductively.Thistypeofdialogueisnotmerelyconversation,

andisnotintuitiveinlargegroupsettings,butratheritmustbetrainedandrepeatedlyputinto

practice.TheimportanceofauthenticdialogueismadeexplicitintheGoodNeighborproject,

withthetermbeingusedinthefirstprojectobjective(above).

21HaitiPartnerswasinvitedbythenewgoverningbody,SIDDEVAS,tooccupytheseatof‘otherlocalorganization’forthefirstgovernanceterm.

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Figure5.5:CommunityGovernanceStructureEstablishedThroughtheGoodNeighborProject

*LocalAuthority

Source:HaitiPartners

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Authenticdialogueandcollectivelearning

ThetrainingforCirclesofChangeclearlyspecifiestheaimofcollectivelearninganddialogue,

usingselectedtextsasabasisforlearningcommunicationanddialogueskillsduringthe22-

weektrainingprocess.ThesetrainingmaterialsandthemethodofCirclesofChangeis

consistentwithInnesandBooher’sdefinitionofauthenticdialogue.Workingwithlocal

residents,HaitiPartnersworkedtobuildformalandinformalinstitutionsinagradual,deliberate,

collectivelearningprocess,withtrainingsteachingdialogueskillsthatbuiltonlearningfrom

weektoweekandcontributedtoresidentsdecidingtogetherhowtogovernthemselves.The

organizationalstructure,thecontentofby-laws,therules,themechanisms,andtheleadership

roleswereultimatelydecidedupontogether.

CollectivelearningandauthenticdialogueinteractedinanumberofwaysduringtheGood

Neighborproject.Forexample,residentsproposedtopicsduringtheOpenSpacesessions,

whichtogetherwithsmallgroupdiscussionsservedasthebasisfordesigningtheCodeof

Conduct.Theby-lawsofSIDDEVASindicateaclearvalueonlearningandeducation,statingthat

itisthedutyoftheVillageCounciltopromoteeducationandparticipatoryleadership.Afurther

examplecanbeseenduringthefirstvillageelections,whentheparticipantsappliedlearning

fromthetraininginpresentationsgiventopersuadeotherstheywerequalifiedfortheseat.

Overall,participantsclaimedthatGoodNeighbortrainingtaughtthemabouttransparency,

democraticpractice,respect,punctuality,conflictmanagement,livinginharmony,whilealso

givingthemimportantskillsforlistening,publicspeaking,advisingothers,andbuilding

consensus.

Sharedidentities,meanings,andheuristics

Bydevelopingandcultivatingsharedidentitiesandmeanings,whicharereinforcedthroughnew

andsharedheuristics,socialinnovation,systemicchangeandsystemadaptationscanoccur.

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Withinthissection,wenowturntodiscusssharedidentitiesandmeaningsthatemergedand

wereconsolidatedduringtheworkoftheGoodNeighborproject.

ThroughobservationoftheGoodNeighborprocessesandduringindividualinterviews,the

emergenceofsharedidentitiesandsharedmeaningswasapparent.Indentitiesasearthquake

survivorsandasresidentsoftheHabitatSantoVillagewhohadco-constructedtheirownhomes

weresharedamongGoodNeighborparticipants.Participantsdiscussed,debated,andlearned

howtodialoguetogetherconcerningtheirsharedvalues,aspirations,andeverydaychallenges

duringtrainingsessions.However,suchprocesseswerenoteasy.AsoneHfHstaffmember

pointedout,thiswasinpartbecause‘peopleinSantoarenotusedtolivingtogether’.Santodid

notorganicallyevolve.Rather,itisacommunityofpeoplebroughttogetheroutofdesperation.

However,itwasrevealedthroughinterviewandobservationaldatathattherearecommonly-

heldparticipantvalues,including:solidarity(theimportanceofrelationships,community

cohesion,harmony,equality,fairness,andgenerosity);education(foroneselfandone’s

children);havingavoiceindecisionmakingaboutthecommunity;meetingbasicneeds(housing,

health,water,food,livelihoods,sanitation);asenseofpersonalresponsibility;andnotleast,an

adherencetospirituality.

Foureventsinparticularstandoutinthedataasbeingpivotaltoconsolidatingsharedidentity

andmeaning—theOpenSpacesessions,theGraduationCeremony,thefirstelection,andthe

foundingoftheSIDDEVASorganization.Inbothcontentandprocess,theOpenSpacesessions

contributedtocultivatingstrongersharedidentities,meanings,andheuristicsamongresidents,

andwithHfHandHaitiPartners.ParticipantsinthevariousCirclesofChangegroupsagreedthe

themefortheOpenSpaceserieswouldbe‘What’sthelong-termdreamforSantoVillageand

whatimmediatechallengesneedtobeaddressedintheshortterm?’Agreeduponcontentfor

smallgroupdiscussionsalsodemonstrateevolvingsharedmeaning,withthemostpressing

sharedconcernsbeinglatrinesandsecurity,followedbyhealthcare,education,livelihoods,food,

water,andelectricity.Additionally,sharedidentitywasexpressedinagraduationceremony,as

manyparticipantstoldstoriesorsangsongsaboutwhatthetrainingexperiencemeanttothem.

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SharedmeaningwasalsocreatedbetweenGoodNeighborparticipantsduringelectionsandthe

creationofSIDDEVAS.ParticipantswereabletostandasVillageCouncilcandidatesandtovote

inelections.SharedidentitywasformalizedbysigningonasFoundingMembersofSIDDEVASin

theorganization’sby-laws,thesebeingcollaborativelydevelopedandrefined.Aftertheelection,

thenewlychosenheadoftheVillageCouncilandtheCountryDirectorofHabitatforHumanity

exchangedopenlettersofwelcomeandgratitudewiththeSIDDEVASsigningtomarkthe

significanceofthismomentintheVillage’shistory.

Itwasalsoapparentthattherewerenewandevolvingheuristics.Bypromotingdialogueand

communication,theparticipantspracticednewheuristicsduringtraining,andthroughspecial

eventsbetweensessions.Newheuristicswerealsointernalizedandpracticedineveryday

communitylifeoutsideofsessions.Asoneparticipantnoted:‘twopeoplewerehavingan

argumentandallIhadtodotoendtheargumentwastoremindthemwhatthey’velearnedin

theGoodNeighbortraining.’

Collaborativerationalityinpractice

InnesandBooher(2010),asnotedintheframeworkdiscussionabove,identifyconsequences

emergingfromcollaborativelyrationalprocesses:sharedandreciprocalinterests;new

relationshipsof‘collaboration’and‘trust’;singleanddoublelooplearning;and,longer-term

systemic‘adaptations’.OurresearchsuggeststhattheGoodNeighborProjectisaformof

collaborativerationalitythatisfosteringpreciselythesekindsofchangesatthemicro-levelof

communityinteractionsingovernance.

Indeed,collaborativelyrationalprocesseslikethosewithintheGoodNeighborprojecthavethe

potentialtosupportadaptationsandsystemicchangethroughthedevelopmentofshared

heuristicsamongparticipants.TheGoodNeighborGovernanceProjectpromotedasenseof

individualandcollectivecapacities,newskillsaswellasdemocracybuilding.Thesecanalllead

togreatergovernmentaccountabilityinprovidingbasicservices,whilealsoincreasingthe

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expectationsofcitizensconcerningtheirrightsandresponsibilities.Toachievesystemchanges

atthecommunitylevel,organizationaladaptationswereneeded,withbothHabitatfor

HumanityandHaitiPartnersundergoingsystemadaptations.SantowasHfH’sfirstforayinto

communitydevelopmentinits27yearsinHaiti.Likewise,HaitiPartnersforthefirsttime

adapteditsworkineducationandparticipatorydialoguetocommunitygovernance.The

potentialofHabitatSantoVillagetoprovidecommunitygovernanceisclearlydemonstratedin

thisproject.Bystrengtheningsharedmeaningandheuristicsovertime,andbuildingonthe

institutionsthatresidentscreatedinSIDDEVAS,thereisclearpotentialforlong-termsystemic

change.Morebroadlyspeaking,thecollectiveactionheuristicsemerginginHaiti(insomecases

re-emerging)requirefurtherconsolidationsothatcitizenvoicescaneffectivelyreach

governmentstructures,therebycontributingtosystemicchangeneededinHaitifromthelocal

communitytothemacrogovernmentscale.

Strengtheningcollaborativerationalityhasthepotentialtoalsocontributetothetranslationof

existingsocietalstrengthsintogovernancecapabilities.SocietyinHaitiisconsideredtobe

resilientanditspeoplehighlycapableinmanyways,butgiventheabsenceofformal

institutionstoprovidethemostbasiclevelofservices,suchstrengthsaredirectedtowards

survival.Newformsofcollaboration,suchastheonesthathaveoccurredtosomedegreeinthe

GoodNeighborGovernanceProject,canbringtogethercommunitygroups,NGOsand

government.AstheearlyfindingsfromSantosuggest,collaborativerationalityprocesseshave

thepowertostrengthenindividualandcollectivecapabilitiesforsocialresilience.

Investmentincommunityvs.statecapacity:afalsedichotomy

ThisexaminationofthelocalparticipatorygovernanceprocessunderwayinSantooffers

importantinsightintowiderunderstandingsanddebatesconcerningstatecapacityfor

governance.Characterizedas‘failed’,‘fragile’,‘predatory’,‘dysfunctional’,‘defunct’,and‘in

nearcompletecollapse’(Fatton,2002;Locher,1990;Menkhaus,2010;Brinkerhoff,2007;Heine

andThompson,2011;WorldBank,2006),thecountryhasbeengovernedbyauthoritarian,

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dictatorial,military,andoccupationregimes.Assuch,‘therehasneverbeenanexecutionofa

truesocialcontractinHaiti’(Tippenhauer,2010:505).Governmentinstitutionsarenotreliable

formostHaitians,unabletosupplybasicneeds(potablewater,sanitation,security,healthcare,

andeducation)oranysortofsocialsafetynet.Itisunsurprisingthengiventhiscontextthat

reconstructioneffortsfollowingthe2010earthquakehavemetsignificantdifficultiesinspiteof

goodintentionsandmajoreffortsonthepartofmanyorganizations,aidbodies,andlocal

actors.Analternativeformofgovernanceisrequiredtoovercomethefailuresofgovernment

andtomeettheneedforsuccessfulcollaborationwithHaiti’scomplexsocietalinstitutions.

Decentralizationhasbeentoutedasonewaytore-buildthestate(seeBornsteinetal.,2013for

otherplans).InHaiti,progresstowardsdecentralizationingovernmentfunction,authorityor

budgethasbeenlimited,althoughitisoutlinedinthe1987constitutionandinsubsequent

plans.TheGoodNeighborprojectprovidesanexampleofdecentralizedlocalgovernance

extendingbeyondthestate.Suchanapproachhasthepotentialtobeadaptedandadopted

elsewhereinHaitiasameanstosupportthebuildingofgovernancecapacitiesbothwithinand

outsideofthestate.Thedifficultyofestablishingformalinstitutionsinacontextofinformalityis

thatinformalinstitutionshavelongbeenmorereliableandworthyoftrustthanformal

institutionsofthestate.Giventhislong-termsituation,peoplearedeterredfromtrustingand

investingthemselvesinformalstateinstitutions.

Thisisnottosaythatthestateshouldnotexist.Aformalstateisessentialinorderto

institutionalizeacoherentandreliablelandownershipandrightssystem,justicesystemandthe

like.22Further,thereisfearthatHaitihasbecomea‘RepublicofNGOs.’NGOsoperatinginthe

countryoftenhavemorefundingandcapacitythantheHaitiangovernmentitself(Kristoff&

Panarelli,2010).ThereisconcernthatwithNGOsprovidingvitalservicesthat“theHaitian

governmenthadlittlechancetodevelopthehumanorinstitutionalcapacitytodeliverservices”

(Kristoff&Panarelli,2010:1).Asaconsequence,HaitiancitizensnowlooktoNGOsforprovision

ofessentialservicesratherthantothegovernment,andthatthefunnellingofaidthroughNGOs

22ThelackofacadastreandeffectivelandownershipandrightssystemrepeatedlyarisesasoneofthemainimpedimentstodevelopmentinHaiti.

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has“perpetuatedacycleoflowcapacity,corruptionandaccountabilityamongHaitian

governmentinstitutions”(Kristoff&Panarelli,2010:1).

Inlightofthisconcern,whattheexperienceofHabitatSantoVillageandotherinitiativesof

participatorygovernancesuggestisthatsucheffortscouldinformtheinstitutionaldesignand

policydevelopmentforHaiti’sgovernancedecentralization,ratherthanreplacethestateitself.

Inaddition,theseparticipatorygovernmentprogramsdirectlycontributetothebuildingof

capabilitieswithinthestate.Whengovernmentofficialsparticipateintheseprocesses,they

havethechancetoknowthelocalcommunitiesindifferentways,withthepotentialof

becomingmoreaccountabletolocalpeopleasgovernmentparticipantsthemselvesundergo

learning,andtheirgovernmentpracticescanmeaningfullyadapt.Thisisalreadyapparent,toa

limitedextent,inthecaseofSanto’sGoodNeighborproject.

ReflectionsonmethodOnthedayofourinterviewwithMarieVeronila,wewereescortedbysecuritytoherSanto

home,anexceptionalprecautiontakenbecauseofaviolentoutburstonsiteearlierthatday.

Duringthattimethereweredailyconflictsonsite,inpartbecausepeoplewerefightingforthe

covetedjobstoconstructthesecondphaseofSantohomes.Mariewasshakenbutnot

discouraged,saying:‘Weknowthatonepersoncannotholdusback.…todaywestoodin

protesttohavethatpersonleavesotheprojectcancontinue.Theprojectisgoodformany

people.’NothingwouldbringdownMarie’sspiritsthatday.Aswemet,heroldestdaughterwas

atschooltakinganexamforre-entry.Mariehadhighhopesforherdaughter’ssuccess,and

althoughshedidnotknowhowshewouldpayforschool,shewasconfidenttherewouldbea

way‘sidyevle’(ifGodwills).

Throughoutthispaper,wehavedrawnoninterviews,participatoryactivitiesandstoriestoldby

theresidentsofSantoandparticipantsintheGoodNeighborproject.Therearetwomain

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observationswemakeatthispointaboutmethod,bothasemployedinthegovernanceproject

itself,andinourstudyofit.First,languagematters;andsecond,localvoicesmustcount.

Umemotoobserves(2001:23),‘languagecarrieswithitthepowertodiscourageorencourage,

repressorrelease,legitimizeordegrade.’IssuesoflanguageareverypresentinHaitibuthave

beenmuch-neglected.TheofficiallanguagesofthecountryareHaitianCreoleandFrenchbut

mostinternationalNGOsrarelyworkinHaitianCreole.HaitianCreoleisthemothertongueof

nearlyallHaitiansandtheonlylanguageofthevastmajority(Schuller,2012).Ouranalysis

revealsthatlanguagewasabarriertocommunication,particularlyduringtheearlystagesof

constructingthecommunity.Asanexample,amajorproblemthatemergedduringtheproject

inSantowasrelatedtohouseholdlatrines.Thelatrinetrainingdocumentationhadnotbeen

translatedtoHaitianCreole,sofewresidentswouldhaveunderstoodit,whichthereby

contributedtotheirdissatisfactionwiththesystemandlackofownershipoftheproblem.

Unfortunately,thissituationisnotexceptional.Ofteninternationallybasedorganizations

functioninternallyinEnglish,French,orSpanish,communicatewithHaitianGovernmentin

French,andlackresourcesorrecognitionoftheneedtoworkinHaitianCreole.Throughoutthe

GoodNeighbourproject,HaitiPartnersconductedmeetingsandcommunicationsinHaitian

CreoleandprovidedwrittendocumentationinbothHaitianCreoleandEnglish–thelatterfor

externalandfundingpartners.

Aseparatelanguageissuewhichismoresubtle,butdeeplymeaningful,involvesthelanguageof

dependencythatisoftenprojectedonHaiti.23HabitatforHumanityoriginallyreferredto

residentsas‘beneficiaries’,awordthatimpliesthepassivereceivingofabenefit,whichis

problematicforcreatinganidentityofresidentsasfullpartnersorparticipantsintheirhousing

projects.‘Beneficiary’impliesbeing‘chosen’to‘receive’somebenefit.Thisdisempowering

languagesendsamessagethatbeneficiariesarepassiverecipientsofassistancefroma

23Paradoxically,Haiti’shistoryrevealspatternsofheroicindependenceandself-reliance,butbecauseofitsrelianceonforeignaidandremittancesinrecentdecades,policyandacademicliteratureduringthattimehastendedtorecastHaitiindependencyterms.

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benevolentorganization.DuringtheGoodNeighborprojectwhenparticipantswere

empoweredtodecideontheirowngovernancestructureandprocesses,theychosetocall

themselves‘dedicatedcitizens’,implyingactive,engagedcommitment.Residentsthen

formalizedthetermintheirnamingoftheVillageCouncilbody,‘DedicatedCitizensforthe

DevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’(emphasisadded).

Second,localvoicesprovideinsightintothedevelopmentofgovernancecapabilitiesthatcould

nototherwisebedocumented.BoththeGoodNeighborgovernanceprocessandourresearch

methodshavesoughttoemphasizetheimportanceofgivingvoicetothosewhoareoften

silenced.AccordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2011)‘givingvoice’entailsanopennesstoways

ofknowingthatgobeyondtheintellectual.Authorsunderlinethatself-reflexivityanddialogue

arekey,butalsothatdifferentwaysofknowingmightbeexpressedinwayssuchassong,

poetry,andstorytelling,aswasthecaseatSanto,particularlyevidencedduringparticipant

presentationsduringtheGraduationCeremony.InhisGoodCityframework,Amin(2006)talks

ofparticipativeparityasthespacethatprovidespossibilitiesfornewvoicestoemerge,and

connectsthenotionofvoicewiththe‘righttothecity’wherecitizensarepartofshapingurban

lifeandbenefittingfromit.Inasimilarvein,bothYoung(1995)andFriedmann(1992),

emphasizetheimportanceofacquiringpoliticalvoiceforthedisempoweredpoor.Young

arguesdialoguetrainingandinstitutionalinfrastructureandopportunitiesareneededfor

marginalizedpeopletobeabletomaketheirvoicesheard.Shefurtherholdsthatpoliticalvoice

canenablereasontoprevailoverpowerinpoliticaldiscussions,andwewouldarguethatsuch

reasonmaybeakintovariousrationalities,suchascollaborativeinthispaper,orthevalueand

practicalrationalitiesofFlyvbjerg(2001)andFlyvbjergetal.(2012).Youngfurtherarticulates

theneedforpoliticalvoiceinthisway:

…inadiscussionsituationinwhichdifferentpeoplewithdifferentaims,values,andinterestsseektosolvecollectiveproblemsjustly,itisnotenoughtomakeassertionsandgivereasons.Onemustalsobeheard(Young,1995:146).

Friedmann’swarningisparticularlyrelevantfortheSantogovernancecase.Heclaimsthat‘the

disempoweredpoorneedtoacquireapoliticalvoiceoftheirown’,whichisdistinctfromthatof

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NGOs.BecauseNGOs‘walkthetightrope’negotiatingrelationshipsincontestedspacebetween

civilsocietyandstate,theyarenotnecessarilyalwaysreliableaseffectiveadvocatesofthe

claimsofthevoicesoftheleastheardthattheymightmeantorepresent(Friedmann,1992:

161).ThisimpliestheneedforSIDDEVAStodevelopadistinctvoicefromHabitatforHumanity

andHaitiPartners.

Alimitationtostudyingvoiceinresearchisitstendencytoeludemeasurement.Somehave

attemptedgauging‘voiceandparticipation’,suchasRaworth’s(2012)measurementofsameas

thenumberofpeoplewholiveincountrieswhichareperceivedtonotallowfreedomof

expressionorpoliticalparticipation.Wearguethatsuchamacroquantificationisproblematic

andcannotadequatelycapturenuanceoflocalculturalcontexts,andthatsuchameasure

wouldriskbroadlymisrepresentingthevoicesthatitwouldaimtovalue.Moreinnovative

methodologiesthatnotonlylistentosilencedvoicesandmakethemevidentinresearch

representations,butalsothatcanassesstheeffectivenessofprogramsandgovernanceprojects

thataimtohearvoicesofthemostmarginalized,aresorelyneeded.Wehaveattemptedinthis

researchtohearlessheardvoicesthroughourchoicesofparticipantsfordiscussionsand

interviews,fieldworkobservations,anddocumentanalysis.Itwillbeimportantinfuturework

atSantotocontinuetoexpandopportunitiestolistentoandhearsilencedvoices.

Whiletheprocessofcommunitybuildingthroughparticipatorygovernanceisnowwell

underway,itisearlydaysintheimplementationprocesssooutcomesarenotyetfullyknown.

Ourlessonsarepreliminaryandfurtherstudieswillbeneededtoassesshowthesystem

operatesovertime,andwiththeadditionof145newfamiliesin2013.

5.6Conclusion

Inthispaperweusedacollaborativerationalitytheoreticallenstoinvestigatethecaseofthe

GoodNeighborGovernanceProjectwithinHabitatSantoVillageinHaiti.Bydrawingona

diversityofinterestsandinterdependencies,andbyfosteringauthenticdialogue,qualitative

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datafrominterviews,observations,anddocumentationsuggestthatinitialprocessesinthe

projecthavecontributedsignificantlytosettingupalocalgovernancesystemthatisseenas

legitimate,functional,democratic,andownedbyitsparticipants.Thislocalgovernancesystem

wassupportedbytheestablishmentofanNGO-managedprocessthatdrawsonFreirian

approachestodialogue,livedexperienceandlearning.Findingsrevealthattheprojecthasled

tosystemicchanges,bothwithintheinvolvedNGOsandinHabitatSantoVillage,andis

contributingtothesustainabilityofthesettlement.Whilethereareaspectstoimproveon,

thereismuchtolearnfromthestrongparticipatorygovernancefundamentalswhichare

present,particularlytheembeddedcollaborativenetworkofNGOs,localcommunitygroups,

andlocalgovernment.Theskillsandknowledgebroughttobearinthisprojectofmanaging

complexityandfacilitatingcommunicationscontributetomakingthisanimportant

demonstrationproject.Particularlynoteworthycontributionsare:1)attentiongiventohearing

localvoices;2)theemphasisondialogicapproaches;and3)transformationsofmultiplelevels,

fromindividualandcollectiveunderstandings,tonewpracticesandrelationshipsandthe

embeddingofmorefunctionalandaccountableadaptationstogovernancesystems.Alsoand

importantly,thenationalgovernmentandinternationalagencieshaveplayedarolein

supportingtheproject.

Despitethestrongearlyresultsofthisnewparticipatorygovernancestructureatoneofthefew

substantialandpermanentpost-earthquakehousingdevelopments,thesituationremainshighly

precarious.Currentresidentscontinuetolackmanybasichumanservicesandfacepressuresof

dailysurvival.TheVillagepopulationdoubledin2013,andthereremainslittlereliefinsightfor

continuedincreasinghousingdemandpressurefrommanynearbywhostilllackdecenthousing.

Amongthemanygovernance-relatedquestionsarethefollowing.WhatwilltheVillagelooklike

inone,five,andtenyears,andhowshouldVillageleadersbestcontributetoshapingits

evolution?Howwillitbepossibletorealizetheneededfacilitiesdrawnupinthemasterplan,

suchasaschoolandcommunitycenter?HowwilltheVillagefinanceoperationsmanagement,

maintenance,serviceprovision,andcapitalinvestment,giventhelacksofresourcesand

precedenceforgeneratingpropertytaxesorhomeownerassociationfees?Willgangsmovein

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andtakeoverhousesassomepeopleinthecommunityfear,andifso,whatwillbedoneabout

it?Obviousanswersarenotapparenttomanyimminentquestions,whichunderlinestheneed

totracktheevolutionofHabitatSantoVillageovertime.Researchandlearningfromthis

significantprojectcanpotentiallyprovidevaluablecontributionstoplanning,policy,and

participatorylocalgovernanceinHaitiaswellasotherpost-disastersettings.

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Chapter6:OverallConclusions

Asocietythatmaintainssomuchexclusionsimplycan’tachievedevelopment.Noway.Developmenthastoinvolveeveryone.Progressiveideashavetocomeforth.Andtherehastobespaceforparticipationbyallcitizenswho’vecourageouslybegunthedevelopmentoftheircommunitieswiththeirownmeans,howevermodest.Changewillcomewhenthepeopleareengagedrightattheheartofthings.

JosettePérard,DirectorofLambiFundHaiti,quotedinBell(2013:89)

ThatoneofthegreatesthumancatastrophesofourtimeoccurredinHaitiin2010haslargely

fallenawayfromtheworld’scollectivememory–oratleastmediaattention,astheearthquake

anniversaryisbarelyacknowledgedandlittlenewscoverageofeventsinHaitiarefeaturedin

internationalpapersonlysixyearslater.ThatHaitiisalsothesiteofoneofthegreatesthuman

catastrophesinrecordedhistoryasaformerslavestateislargelyabsentaswellfromcollective

memory.PerhapsevenmoretroublingisthatHaitirankstodayamongthebottomoftheworld

forincidenceofslaverypracticesandforitslackofpubliceducation.Sorelyneededare

planningandcommunitydevelopmentpoliciesandpracticesthatwouldcontributeto

transformingnarrativesinHaiti,therebyaddressingthemassivestructuralinequalities,

miserablelivingconditionsforvastnumbers,andtheunacceptablylackingornegativestate-

societyrelationships.

Asdiscussedthroughoutthisdissertation,theJanuary12,2010earthquakeleftthemajorityof

Haitiangovernmentinstitutionsandthousandsofschools,hospitals,andchurchesinruins.

Over1.5millionpeoplebecameimmediatelyhomelessandestimatesarethatover200,000

peopleperished.Thevastinfluxofhumanitarianaidandattentionintheimmediatedisaster

aftermathparadoxicallyprovidedaglimmerofhopethatthedisasterwouldsomehowrupture

thecycleofmassivepovertyandincreaseddependency–particularlyonimportedfood,and

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wouldpositivelyaffectthenever-endingtransitiontodemocracy,whichhasbeeninprocess

sincethefalloftheDuvaliersin1986(now30years).Now,sixyearspost-disaster,politicaland

economicconditionshaveworsened(evenifsomewouldarguethatsocialresilienceisgreater).

Haitiis‘trappedintheouterperiphery’oftheglobalcapitalistsystemandhasbecomefurther

dependentontheinternationalcommunityasaresultofpoliciesandstructuresimposedpost-

earthquake.RobertFatton,Jr.(2014)callsforreversingreconstructionstrategiesinHaiti.Haiti

deservescollectiveandscholarlyattentionandanewkindofinvestment,includingin

relationshipsthattakeintoaccountvoicesofexcludedHaitians–thevastmajority--and

examplesofarangeofprojectsandinitiatives.Inthisfinalchapter,I:1)setoutatheoryof

changeandsynthesizeoverallresultsofthisresearchincludingitslimitations;2)outlinethe

maincontributionstoknowledgeofthiswork;3)providerecommendationsbasedonlearnings;

and4)pointtofuturedirectionsforresearch,policy,andpracticeinHaitiandother

internationaldevelopmentormarginalizedcontexts.

6.1TheoryofChangeandKeyResults

Anoverallaimofthisresearchistoexposeinwhatwaysparticipatorycommunitydevelopment

experiencesarehavinganimpactoncommunitychangeandwhethertheyareopening

pathwaystotransformation.Synthesisresultsofpreviouschaptersandkeyfindingsand

learningsfromtheBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasesaresetoutinthis

section.A‘theoryofchange’hasemergedfrommytheoreticalreadingsandperspective,

theprocessesoffieldwork,analyzingfindingsandinterpretingresults.Thattheoryisdepicted

inFigure6.1andillustratedinamorelinearwaywithadescription,inFigure6.2.Thistheoryof

changewasderivedthroughaninductive(alsocalled‘bottomup’or‘groundedtheory’)

approachtoknowing,inwhichtheresearcherconductsfieldworktobuildanabstractionorto

describetheissuebeingstudied(Lodicoetal.,2010).Ininductiveresearchnoestablished

theoriesneedtobetestedduringtheresearchprocess,butrather,patternsareobservedand

theoryisbuiltfromthegroundup.Inductivereasoningisbasedonlearningfromexperience.

Thecommunitycasedataandsynthesisfindingsthatapplytothetheoryofchangeare

illustratedinFigures6.3andsummarizedinFigure6.4.

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Figure6.1:The

oryofCha

nge:FromCom

mun

ityStoriestoTransform

ationa

lNarratives

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Figure6.2:TheoryofChangeandSummaryDescription

ThisTheoryofChangewasderivedthroughaninductive(alsocalled‘bottomup’or‘grounded

theory’)approach,inwhichtheoryisbuiltfromthegroundupthroughlearningfrom

experienceinthefieldandpatternsobserved.Coreelementsaredescribedbelow.

SelectandStudyCaseCommunities.Participatorycommunitydevelopmentcaseexamplesare

selectedbasedonaninformation-orientedsamplingstrategyandtodevelopametaphoror

establishaschoolofthoughtforthedomainwhichthecasesconcern.InthecaseofBellevue-

La-Montagne,thisiseducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.

ListentoLocalVoicesandInterpretCommunityCoreStories.Bylisteningtovoicesandstoriesoflocalpeopleandengagingcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatoryphotography,

mappinganddialoguecircles,weinterpretedcommunitycorestories.

SynthesizeNarrativesofCommunityLivedExperience.Variousmethodsaretriangulatedand

dataareanalyzedtorevealnarrativepatterns.Datacollectionmethodsincludeinterviews,

observation,documentstudy,andparticipatorymethods.Anaimistovaluelocalknowledge

andlivedexperienceofcommunitydevelopmentprocessesandchangeunderway.

ExposeTensionPoints.Scrutinizingemergingnarrativesfromdifferentperspectivesexposed

tensionpoints,whichinvolverelationshipsofpowerparticularlysusceptibletochangebecause

ofdubiouspractices,contestableknowledge,andpotentialconflict.

IdentifyandActivateLeversofTransformation.Likecrises,tensionpointsopenpossibilitiesforchange.Certainleversshowpromisefortransformationwithrelevantcommunity

developmentprocessesunderway,andothersrepresentopportunitiesfordevelopingnew

innovativeinterventions.

BuildNewTransformationalNarratives,thenScaleandSupportInitiativesthatContributetothoseNarratives.Activatingleversoftransformationopenspathwaystonewdevelopment

trajectoriesandchangingnarratives.Resultingtransformativecommunitydevelopment

experiencescanbescaledup,scaledoutandscaleddeep.

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Figure6.3:TheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities

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Figure6.4SummaryExplanationofTheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities

Thediagram‘FromCommunityStoriestoTransformationalNarratives’ismeanttobereadstartingat

thebottom.

ThisresearchstudyselectedcasecommunitiesofBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillage,

whereNGOsandcommunityresidentsappliedparticipatoryapproachestoeducation-centered

communitydevelopmentandlocalself-governance,respectively.

Iinterpreted‘communitycorestoriesbylisteningtovoicesandstoriesoflocalpeopleanddesigningcontext-specificmethods,(includingparticipatoryphotography,mappinganddialoguecirclesinthecase

ofBellevue-La-Montagne),inordertodeepenunderstandingofdevelopmentissuesandpower

dynamics,withanemphasisonlocalpeople’sperspectives.InBellevue-La-Montagneacommunitycore

storywithsixaspectsemerged.HabitatSantoVillageisanewcommunitybuiltpost-earthquakewhere

thenarrativewasdominatedbystrugglesofsurvivalandbuildinganewlifeandcommunity.

Isynthesizedresultsfromvariousmethodsofdatacollection(interviews,observation,documentstudy,

participatorymethods)integrating‘outsider’and‘insider’perspectivesoncommunitydevelopment

processesandchangesunderwayandlivedexperienceofcommunityresidents.FourmainnarrativesofcommunitylivedexperiencewererevealedfortheBellevue-La-Montagnecase,andonreflection,we

foundthatthesamenarrativeswereapplicabletoHabitatSantoVillage.

Interpretingtherevealednarrativesfromdifferentperspectivesexposed‘tensionpoints’,whichinvolverelationshipsofpowerparticularlysusceptibletochangeduetotheircontestableknowledge,potential

conflict,ordubiouspractices.Tensionpointshighlighthowpowerrelationsstandinthewayof

addressingproblems.‘Memory’referstocollectivememoriesofturbulenthistories,disasters,and

nostalgiaforthedictatorshipera,aswellasabrokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietal

problemsofdistrustandclassism.‘Outcomes’exposesthetensionofimprovingcommunityoutcomes

vis-à-visstagnationinindividualcircumstances.‘Culture’representsthelackofasenseofagencyevidentamongresidents;participatorycultureisemerging,butithasnotyetcrossedthethresholdinto

‘changemaker’culture.‘Relationships’amonggovernments,civilsociety,NGOsandtheinternational

communityarefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityandinertia.

Leveragepointsareplacesincomplexsystemswheresmallshiftsinonethingcanproducelarger

changesineverything.Theyrepresentpossibilitiesfortransformativechange.Inthetwocase

communities,some‘leversoftransformation’areinearlystagesofactivationorprocessofcultivation,suchasbettereducation,placeidentityandsocialentrepreneurship;andseveralrepresentpromising

directionsforchange,throughsuchleversasnetworkbuilding,researchovertime,andstate-societytrustandaccountability.

Activatingleversoftransformationopenspathwaystonewdevelopmenttrajectoriesthatwouldchange

narratives.Thethreemediumtermprioritiesareto:1)reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience;2)creategreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)(re)buildthesocialcontract.ThesespecificprioritieswereidentifiedinaWorldBankreportbySinghandBarton-Dock(2015),andtheyalign

withaspirationsfoundinthisresearchamongNGOsandatlocalcommunitylevel.

Communitydevelopmenteffortsthatareabletoactivateleversoftransformationcanscaleup,scaleout

andscaledeep,inordertoeffectshiftstowardbroadertransformationalnarrativesinpolicy,practice

andculture.

Participatorycommunitydevelopmentcaseexamplesselectedbasedonaninformation-oriented

samplingstrategyandtodevelopametaphororestablishaschoolofthoughtforthedomainwhichthe

casesconcern.

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Insynthesizingfindingsofthecasestudyexperiencesandlocalperspectives,threekeyresults

emerged:1)Thecommunitylevelprovidesasiteoftransformation;2)Storymethodsandgiving

voicetopeopleilluminatechangepossibilities;and3)Communitiesfacechallengesthat

threatentheirchangeefforts.Eachisfurtherdescribedbelow.

Keyresult1:Thecommunitylevelprovidesasiteoftransformation.

Aprincipalresultofthisresearchisthatthecommunitylevelisasiteoftransformationofthe

developmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.

Thecasestudiesinthisthesisprovidetwoexamplesforhowthecommunitylevelcanprovidea

siteoftransformationforareconstructionparadigmthatwouldvaluelocalpeopleand

knowledge;emphasizeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment;andchangeparadigmsfor

localdecision-makingandgovernance.Theypointtotheimportance,aswell,ofschool-based

learning,socialentrepreneurshipandcommunity-basedcollectiveactionstrategies.

Theeducation-centeredandhighlycollaborativecommunitydevelopmentapproachthatHaiti

PartnershastakenatBellevue-La-MontagneisinnovativeandappropriateforHaitiandthelocal

context.Theparticipatorycommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwaytherehaveplaced

constructionofanewschoolandeducationattheheartofrebuildingefforts.Educationand

participatorypracticesareembeddedinallaspectsofthecommunitydevelopment--including

socialentrepreneurship,healthcare,environmentalstewardship,communityagriculture,site

planningandbuildingconstruction.Generally,caseeffortsinvolveparticipationofpeopleand

organizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsthatappeartoaimtoshare

powerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeople,andtocreate,change,orpreservestructuresand

institutionsconsistentwiththeinterestsoflocalpeople.Multiplemethodsandnarrative

analysis,includingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods,exposedthevalidityofthat

propositionfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.

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EarlyindicationsfromHabitatSantoVillagelikewiseshowpromise.Qualitativedatafrom

interviews,observations,anddocumentationsuggestthatinitialprocessesintheGood

Neighborparticipatorygovernanceprojecthavecontributedsignificantlytosettingupalocal

governancesystemthatisseenaslegitimate,functional,democratic,andownedbyits

participants.Thiswasenabledthroughdrawingonadiversityofinterestsand

interdependencies,andbyfosteringauthenticdialogue.Basedonresultsinthisstudy,a

hypothesisintheresearchmovingforwardisthatcollaborativecommunitydevelopmentthat

hasbuiltinmechanismsthatengenderlong-termtrust(andDIADcomponentsof:diversity,

interdependence,andauthenticdialogue)cancontributetosocialtransformation.

Relatedfindingsrevealthefollowing.

v Participantstendtovaluecommunityoverindividualwellbeing,anddespitechallengesof

everydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetterfuturefortheirchildren.A

strong‘prideofplace’wasrevealedincommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwayinboth

Bellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillage.Manyresidentsinbothcommunities

expressedthattheyaspiretobecome‘model’communitiesthatotherswouldvisitasa

destinationfromelsewhereinHaitiaswellasfromabroad.

v Peoplefeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardandthattheyhavecontributedtoshapingcommunitydevelopmentdecisions(furtherexplanationunderKeyResult2).

v Peopledonotexpectthestatetoactintheirinterests(suchasbyprovidingpoliceprotectionorreconstructionassistance).Theyexpectthatpositivechangecanonlycome

aboutthroughworkingtogetherwithothersinthecommunitymoreeffectivelyand,toa

lesserextent,withassistancefrominternationalorganizations.Relatedly,thelackof

accountabilityinstate-societyrelationswasmadevisible,aswastheimportanceoftrust,

newprideofcommunityresidents,aswellastensionpointsthatpotentiallythreatenthe

long-termsustainabilityofdevelopmentprojects.

Sofar,itisevidentthatcommunitytransformationisunderwayasaresultoftheparticipatory

communitydevelopmentprocesses,andglimpsesofsocialtransformationseemtobepresent,

butitisearlydaystoassessclearly.

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Keyresult2:Storymethodsandgivingvoicetopeopleilluminateschangepossibilities.

Mymethodologycombinedcasestudy,participatoryapproaches,andnarrativeanalysis.This

strategygave‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethemainbarriersto

realizingchange,includinghowrelationshipsofpowershapecommunitydevelopmentand

decision-makingprocesses.Theinquirycombinedbothactorandstructurallevelsofanalysis--

understandingfromwithinandfromoutside.

Participatoryresearchrecognizesthatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,local

knowledgesystemsthatresearchershavenotwellorfullytapped.Wehaveseenthatengaging

participatorymethodsinHaiti’spost-disastercontextenabledhearingfromtheleastheardand

elicitinglocalknowledge,providingawindowintodynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentand

socialchange,whichistypicallyopaquetooutsiders.Byinvitingresearchparticipants’active

engagementthroughphotography,dialoguecircles,mapping,communitywalks,video,and

variousinterviewtypes,wefacilitatedself-expression,sociallearning,andsharingofstories,

views,ideas,hopes,aspirations,andfears.Themethodsthemselvesprovidedpossibilitiesfor

change,beyondthedatathattheyrevealed.Listeningtovoicesinthesewaysfacilitated

understandingofnuancedrealities‘behindthescenes’andinterpretationofcommunity‘core

stories’.

Storyalsoprovedtobeausefulandappropriatewaytocommunicatetheresearchlocally.

Storytellingtendstocutacrossculturesandclassdistinctions.Byframingtheresearchpurpose

as‘hearingandunderstandingyourandyourcommunities’stories,andlearningeffectiveways

toretellthosestories’,itseemedtobemorecomprehensible,andalsoethicallyandculturally

appropriate,thansayingexplicitlyorimplicitly,‘Iamheretostudy(orteach)you.’

Thesemethodshaveaffordeduswaysofthinkingandcollaborativetools,notablyFreirian

criticalconsciousnessanddialoguecircles,toilluminatepossibilityregardingthekindofchange

thatisnecessaryifHaitiistoalteritsdevelopmenttrajectory.

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Keyresult3:Communitiesfacechallengesthatthreatentheirchangeefforts.

Whilethereisevidencethatcommunitytransformationisinprocess,therearesubstantial

challenges.Amongthemarethefollowingfour,whichtakentogether,poseathreattothe

long-termsustainabilityofcommunitydevelopmentprojectsincludingprogresswhichhasbeen

madetodateandpossibilitiesforadvancement.Theselocalchallengesaretobeseenagainst

thebackdropofbroaderstructuralandnationalchallengesoutlinedinChapter1.

v Lackoflocalgovernmentplanningandlackofstatecapacitytoprovidebasicservices.Residentsfaceanabsenceofbasicservices,suchaswaterandsanitation,electricity,wastecollection,roadrepair,andhealthcare,andlittleprospectthatgovernmentisactingto

providethem.

v Thehighlyprecariousnatureofeverydaylifeformostpeople.Subsistencesurvivalformostpeople,chronicmalnutrition,andever-presentthreatofdisastersmeansthatplanning

forthefuturecanseemfutile.Relatedly,cultivatinga‘changemaker’cultureinlocal

communitiesischallenging.

v Lackofinstitutionalandresourcesupports.Localleaderswouldliketoincreaseinvestment

andqualityineducationandsocialentrepreneurship,butthebarrierstodoingsointermsof

missingorunsupportiveinstitutionalinfrastructureandlackofresourcesaredaunting.

v Complexrelationshipsoftrustanddependency,andthedarksideofinformality.While

Haitianpeoplearehighlyself-reliantbecausetheydonothaveastatetorelyon,

dependencyonNGOscanbeanissue.Itisnotclearifdevelopmentsunderwaywouldbe

resilientandlastinginthefaceoftheabsenceofNGOs.Also,becauseHaitilacksawell

functioninglegalsystem,peopleoftenhaveinformalsystemsforimplementingjustice.Such

complexinformalsystemshavebeennecessarytoevolvetomaintaincommunityorder,but

theycanalsocontributetoacultureoffear,suspicionandviolence.

LimitationstotheResearch

Thefollowinglimitationstotheresearcharerecognized.

v Thein-depthnatureofthisresearchhasnecessitatedthatitbelimitedtoasmallnumberofparticipatorydevelopmentcasestudies.Amassingalargernumberofcasesovertime

cancontributetoabodyofworkforlearning,sharingwithothers,andinformingtheory,

policy,practiceandresearch.

200

v Nuancesinsocialinstitutionscanbeopaquetoanoutsideresearcher.AsLaurentDubois(2012)hassaid,reconstructioneffortscanonlysucceedthroughimprovedcollaborations

withHaiti’scomplexandresilientsocialinstitutions.Asanoutsider,itisparticularly

challengingtodecipheraclearunderstandingofthemanifoldlayersofHaitiancommunities’

socialinstitutions,includingcomplexstrategiesofinterdependencethatpeoplehave

developedovertimetomanagetheirco-existenceinthevirtualabsenceofastate.

v Developingarobustandclearunderstandingofstructure/agencydynamicsischallenging.Peoplearehighlydisconnectedfromgovernmentandhavenoexpectationthatthestate

willactintheirinterestsandsoarehighlyself-reliantor'sociallyresilient'.Furthermore,the

worseningpoliticaleconomyofthecountryinthepost-earthquakeeramayimpedewhat

wouldseempromisingforsocialchangeatthecommunitylevel.Alackoftrustand

accountabilityinstate-societyrelationshipsissymptomaticofthefactthatHaitihasnever

hadatruesocialcontract.

v Socialchangeneedstimetostudy.Whilethisstudytookplaceoverseveralyearsand

incorporatessometemporalaspects,itisnotpossibletoclearlygaugesocialchangeover

thisrelativelyshortperiodoftime.Incontinuingtostudytheseandothercommunitiesover

time,itwillbeimportanttosetupeffectiveandrobustdatacollectionandstorage.My

NGOcollaboratorsinHaitihaverecentlybegunpilotingnewmobiledatacollection

technologiesandtechniquesthatwillhelpfacilitatefuturedatacollectioninthelongitudinal

researchplannedforthesecommunities,aswellaswithadditionalcommunities.

6.2ContributiontoKnowledge

Thisthesisprovidesnarrativeanalysisofpost-earthquakecommunitydevelopmentexperiences

inHaiti,alongwithportraitsofcommunityparticipants’aspirationsforchange,themain

obstaclestheyface,andstrategiesthatmaypointthewayforwardtochangetheir‘future

stories’.Thisresearchcontributesaswelltoaddressinggapsininternationaldevelopment

planning,nonprofitanddisasterliteratureswithrespectto:

1) NGOs’participatorydevelopmentworkandimplicationsforstructuralchange;

2) phronesisresearchmethodologiesappliedinadisastersetting;and

3) newapproachesforlinkingcommunitydevelopmentplanningwithsocialchange.

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NGOs’participatorydevelopmentworkandimplicationsforstructuralchange

Haitihascometobeknownasthe‘RepublicofNGOs’,withagooddealofmediaattentionto

theproliferationofinternationalNGOs.However,littleacademicattentionhasbeenpaidto

thisimportantissueanditsmyriadimplicationsfordevelopmentandstate-buildinginHaiti.

Schuller(2012)providesanimportantcontributiontostudyofNGOsinHaiti;howevermuch

morestudyiswarranted,bothtoinformpracticeandpolicyinHaiti,andtoprovideanalyseson

dynamicsbetweenlocallevelandstructuralchange.ByfocusingresearchonNGOparticipatory

developmentcollaborationsandstrategies,anddevelopingatheoryofchangethatlinks

communitystoriestotransformationalnarratives,thisthesisprovidesvaluableadditional

knowledge.

Phronesisresearchintegratingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods

Thisthesisaddressesamethodologicalandsubstantivegap.First,methodologically,orhowwe

studycommunitydevelopment,isaddressedinahighlycontext-specificmanner.Icarriedout

researchdesigniterativelybasedontestingmethods,earlyfieldworkfindings,anddeskstudies

anddesignedmethodsspecificnotonlytoHaiti,butalsotothespecificlocationsofthe

research.Inparticular,theparticipatoryresearchactivities,FowòmFotoandDyalògFoto,

integratedparticipatoryphotographyforstoryelicitation,communitytimelineandparticipatory

mappingmethods,dialogue-basedprocesses,aswellasvideo.Thefieldmethodswereadapted

iterativelybasedonfindingsandissuesthataroseduringthecourseoftheworkwith

participants.Thequestionsthatprovidedthebasisfordesignandadaptationsofparticipatory

methodswerebasedonphroneticresearch(Flyvbjerg2001,Flyvbjergetal.2012).Phronetic

researchisofgrowingacademicinterestinseveraldisciplines,includingplanningliterature,and

thisthesisprovidesacontributiontoaddressingitsquestionsthroughcontext-specific

participatorymethods(aswasdoneinSandercockandAttili,2012).Iintendthatthisthesis

provideanovelcontributiontophronesisfromapost-disaster,fragile-statecontext.

202

Communitydevelopmentplanninglinktosocialchange

Iaimaswelltoaddressagapbycontributingtoabaseofempiricalevidencetolinkcommunity

developmentplanningandsocialchangeliteratures,particularlyinafragilesetting.Moulaertet

al.(2010)providesanexcellentcontributionofcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange

interactionsanddynamicsappliedtocaseexamplesinWesternEurope,forexample.Authors

foundthatdemonstratingthepresenceofsocialinnovationprocessesprovidedtheessential

linkagebetweencommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.However,itisdifficultto

convincinglyarguethatsocialchangeispresentwithoutatemporalaspecttoaresearchstudy.

Mythesisfieldworkwasconductedoverseveralyears,whichprovideslimitedunderstandingof

changeovertime,butIhavedesignedtheresearchsothatitcanbecarriedoutasqualitative

longitudinalresearch(QLR)withthesameparticipantslongerterm.Thethesisprovidespartof

abaselineinvestigationfortheQLR,whichwillhavebothmethodologicalandsubstantive

contributionslongertermtoliteraturesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,socialchange

dynamicsandphronesisresearch.

Theresearchcontributestoknowledgeonseverallevels.Itprovidesnewknowledgeabout

collaborativeplanning,institutionalframeworks,education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,

andotherstrategiesandconditionsthatfosterorhindereffortstowardlocalparticipatory

governanceandcommunityandsocialtransformation.Igivespecialattentiontotherolesof

non-governmentalorganizationsandlisteningtovoicesoflocalpeople.Thisresearch

recognizesthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationincontributingtosystemicchange,

anditcontributesinfourareasofknowledge:1)methods;2)theory;3)practice;and4)policy.

203

1.Methodscontribution.Ihavedesignedcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatory

photographyandparticipatorymapping,whicharerelevantforandsensitivetoconditionsof

particularresearchsites,inordertostudyandunderstanddynamicsofcommunity

developmentandsocialchangeovertime.

Ihaveadaptedarangeofqualitativeandparticipatorymethodstoeachcommunitycontext

accordingtolocalandstructuralconditionsandtheresearchquestionsinvestigated.Idrewon

well-establishedmethods,includingvariousinterviewingtechniques,participatoryphotography,

andparticipatorymapping,whichhavebeenusedoftenininternationaldevelopmentplanning

settings.Iadaptedthemethodsbasedonlocalneeds,participants’suggestionsduringfield

work,andmyownexperienceasaparticipatoryplanningpractitioner.Additionalmethods

includeddesigningandrecordingcommunitywalks,anddialoguecirclestodivedeeperinto

topicsthatparticipantschose.Giventhecontextofpost-earthquaketrauma,difficultliving

conditionsanddeephumansufferingofmanylocalpeople,myprioritiesinmethoddesignwere

to:enablemeaningfulparticipationandvoicestobeheard;andfacilitatecollectivedialogueand

sociallearningineverydayplacesatthecommunitylevel.Theunderlyingsetofvaluesofsocial

justiceandparticipationisconsistentwithFreirianphilosophythatwouldencouragepeopleto

cultivateagencytobringaboutchangeintheircommunitiesandsociety.Withrespecttoa

broadercontributionaroundmethods,thisworkisrelevantfordesigningcontext-specific

approachesinextremeconditions,suchaswithhighlymarginalizedgroupsorinotherouter

peripherycountriesandcontexts.TheresearchisdesignedwithaQualitativeLongitudinal

Research(QLR)sensibility,sothatI,orothers,cangobacktothesamecommunitiesovertime

tocontinuetheresearchandlearnfromexperiencesoftheparticipants,theirfamilies,and

developmentprocesses.Thislongitudinalanalysiswillrevealpatternsofchange(development

orstagnation)regardingoutcomes:1)attheindividualandhouseholdlevel,inlivingconditions,

education,livelihoods,subjectivewell-beingandlivedexperience;2)atcommunitylevel,in

termsofdevelopment,socialandeconomicoutcomesincludingsocialenterprisecreation,and

localgovernanceprocessesandresults;and3)atstructurallevel,revealingwhethercommunity

changeeffortshaveinfluencedothercommunitiesapproachesorpolicychange.

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2.Theorycontribution.Thisthesisdevelopsatheoryofchange–called‘FromCommunity

StoriestoTransformationalNarrativesforHaiti’--thatmakesvisiblerelationshipsbetween

communitydevelopmentandpathwaystotransformation.Theoryisdevelopedinductively

throughstudyofparticipatorydevelopmentprocessesunderway,includingeducation-centered

communitydevelopment,aswellaslisteningtovoicesandlivedexperienceoflocalpeople.The

workcontributestobroadertheoreticaldebatesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,the

crucialroleofnon-governmentalorganizations,thevalueofparticipatorydevelopmentandthe

importanceofcontext-sensitivequalitativeresearchinquiry.

Idrewonquestionsofphronesisinquirytointerpretlocalpeople’svoicesandexperiencesand

tounderstandtheirstories,values,aspirationsandfears.Iappliedacriticalpraxislensin

interpretingcommunitypatterns,suchasthe‘communitycorestory’ofBellevue-La-Montagne

andtheco-designedparticipatorygovernanceatHabitatSantoVillage.Iexposednarrativesof

communitylivedexperienceandtensionpointspresent,suchasinrelationshipsofpower

throughnarrativeanalysis.Basedonfindings(andmyaspirationstocontributetoachieving

broaderprioritiesforchangeinHaiti),Iidentifiedleversoftransformationflowingfromthe

narrativesandtensionpointsthatcouldbeactivatedorstrengthenedinthecaseexperience

andincommunitiesacrossHaititoadvancetransformativechange.Thetheoretical

contributionofthisthesiswillextendovertimethroughcarryingoutaresearchagendaof

QualitativeLongitudinalResearchinthecasecommunities.Myhypothesismovingforward

towardalongertermresearchagendausingqualitativelongitudinalstudyisthefollowing:

Participatorycommunitydevelopmentthathasbuilt-inmechanismsthat(a)engenderlong-term

trustamongcivilsociety,NGOandstateactors,andthat(b)encompasselementsof

collaborativerationalitytheory(adiversityofactorsandinterdependenceamongthem,and

authenticdialogue)hasthepotentialtoaddresssystemicbarrierstotransformationinHaitiand

contributepositivelytoadvancingcommunityandsocialchange.Morebroadly,thetheoretical

contributionofthisthesistointernationaldevelopmentplanningliesinaddressinghowagency

atthelocallevelhasthepotentialtointeractwithstructurallevelchangethroughprocessesof

participatorycommunitydevelopmentplanningandgovernance.

205

3.Practicecontribution.Thedocumentationandsharingofcasesofparticipatorycommunity

development,localgovernance,andlivedexperiencesoflocalpeopleintwoHaitian

communitiesprovidelearningandscalingopportunitiesforothercommunitiesseeking

developmentpathwaystowardsocialchange,aswellasNGOsandfundingagenciesthatmay

wanttosupportthem.

Intermsofpractice,bothcasecommunitiesinthisthesisprovideexcellentopportunitiesfor

participatorycommunitydevelopmentthatcouldbescaled.RidellandMoore(2015)

distinguishbetweenthreetypesofscaling:scalingup(‘impactinglawsandpolicy’),scalingout

(‘impactinggreaternumbers’),andscalingdeep(‘impactingculturalroots’).Thisthesismakesa

contributionbyenabling‘scalingout’experienceandlearningstoothercommunitiesacross

Haitiandaroundtheworld,andby‘scalingdeep’withintheBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitat

SantoVillagecommunities.Intermsofdissemination,thearticlesinthisthesishavebeen

submittedforpublicationinacademicjournals.Toreachabroaderpractitioneraudience,I

produceda6-minutevideoaboutoneofthecasecommunities(seeChapter3andEngle,2014),

whichfocusesontheparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentandwhyandhowweengaged

participatoryphotographyasapracticeandresearchmethod.Withrespecttothethesis

contributiontoNGOs,preliminaryversionsofarticleshavebeensharedwithfundingagencies

whohaveexpressedthatitsrigor,qualitativeaspect,andfocionlivedexperienceandlong-term

socialchangewerecompelling,novelandconsistentwiththeirpriorities.Myresearch

collaborator,HaitiPartners,hasindicatedthatthisresearchishighlyvaluabletotheirwork–

bothfortheinsightsandlearningitprovidestotheminordertoimprovetheirpractice,andasa

toolforevaluationandsharinglearningswithpartnersandprospectivefunders.The

participatorymethodologies,findingsandoutcomesofthisthesiscancontributenotonlytothe

workofotherresearchersandstudents,butalsotostaffininternationalandHaitian

organizations.Notleast,directbeneficiariesoftheresearchincludemyresearchcollaborators

andparticipantsinHaiti–amongthemareHabitatforHumanityHaiti,HaitiPartners,Haitian

students,teachers,NGOs,parentsandothercommunityresidents.

206

4.Policycontribution.Myresearchresultsrevealadirectlinkagewithmedium-termpolicy

prioritiesinHaitito:1)Reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience;2)Creategreatereconomic

opportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)Re(build)thesocialcontract.

TheabovepolicyprioritiesaresetoutinSinghandBarton-Dock(2015)andreflectasystematic

analysisofthemacroportraitofHaitifiveyearspostearthquake.Mythesisisatagranular

communitylevelandbuildsacasethatlearningsaboutcommunitynarrativesrevealtension

pointsaswellaspossibilitiesforbroadertransformation.Theidentified‘leversof

transformation’inthisthesis,whichareeitherinprocessofactivationorproposedinthecase

communities,representopportunitiesfor‘scalingup’toconnectwithHaitiangovernments’

agendasettingandinternationaldevelopmentstrategyandpolicy,particularlyintheareasof

communitydevelopment,governanceandeducation.Thearticlesinthisthesis,

recommendationsintheconclusion,andthe13-minutevideo(SeeChapter3andEngle,2014)

arebeingsharedwithpolicymakersinsideandoutsideofHaiti,andwillbetranslatedas

requested.FromtheCanadianperspective,myresearchmaybeusefultoagenciessuchasthe

CanadianInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentreinitscommunitydevelopmentplanning,

civilsociety,education,socialandeconomicpolicy,andgovernanceprogramsinGlobalSouth

countries.AtbothpracticalandpolicylevelsinHaiti,thisthesismaybeusefultodesigningand

implementingsuccessfulstrategiesforsustainableandcollaborativecommunitydevelopment

thatprovideanimportantroleforlocalNGOs,civilsociety,andparticipatorylocalgovernance

structures.Suchstrategieswouldgive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethe

mainbarrierstorealizingtheiraspirationsforchange.

Insum,thisthesiscontributestomoreprogressiveinternationaldevelopmentplanning,which

placeshumanandcommunitywell-beingatthecenteroftransformationefforts.

207

6.3RecommendationsforPolicyThefollowingrecommendationsareaimedprimarilyatpolicymakersandthoseinvolvedin

resourceallocationdecisions,bothwithinHaitiandtheinternationalcommunity.

v Learnfromtheoutcomesofpost-earthquakeinternationalinterventionstructuresandstrategies.

Whiledisastersmayopenpathwaystochange,theopportunitiesmustbeseizedatalllevels

andscalesinordertobetransformativetowardnewdevelopmenttrajectories.Disasters

canalsocontributetofurthermarginalization,ashashappenedinHaitipost-earthquake,

notonlybecauseoftheprofoundhumanandenvironmentaldamageofthecatastrophes

themselves,butbecauseprocessesofreliefandrecoverycanreinforcepatternsof

imperialismandinternationalintervention,suchashasoccurredinHaiti.

v Scaleupcommunitydevelopmentexperiencestoinformpolicychange.

Atpracticalandpolicylevels,theBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasescan

usefullyandcriticallyinformdesignandimplementationofimprovedstrategiesfor

participatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentandlocalgovernance

planningthatprovideimportantrolesforlocalpeopleandcivilsociety,andanuancedrole

forinternationalorganizationswhichissensitivetopowerdynamics.Suchdevelopment

strategieswouldsimilarlygive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglesforchangeand

wouldactivatekeyleversoftransformationsuchasthoseidentifiedinthiscase,including:

1)bettereducationandlearningforlife;2)placeidentity,networks,andresearch;3)social

entrepreneurshipandsocialinnovation;and4)strengtheningtrustandaccountability

amongthestate,civilsocietyandNGOs.Theseleversareinlinewiththemedium-term

prioritiesforpolicyactionproposedbytheWorldBankinits2015report,‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’,whichare:1)(Re)buildingthesocialcontract;2)Creatinggreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)Reducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience.Theseworthyandimportantgoalswillneedtobevigorouslypursuedatalllevelsifsignificant

progressistobemadetowardthem.Thelocalcommunitylevelhasaparticularly

importantroletoplay.

v RenderNGOsoperatinginHaitiaccountabletolocalpeopleandthestate,andstrengthen

stateaccountabilitytopeopleandlocalcommunities.

Independentgroupsarecriticaltofosteringcivilsociety.However,thereisagapinpolicies

thataddressNGOsinwaysthatwouldmakethemmoreaccountabletoHaitians,aswellas

moretransparentandmoreeffectiveinservingthelong-terminterestsofHaiti.Whilethe

thousandsofNGOsmaybemostlywell-intentioned,manydonotworkinwaysthat

contributepositivelytolasting,systemicchange.Betterpoliciesthatarebasedonresearch

areneeded.Forexample,obliginginternationalNGOsthatoperateinHaititodemonstrate

208

theirlong-termcontributionstothecountry,suchasbyaccompanyingorsettinguplocal

affiliateorganizationswhichareHaitian-led,therebybuildingoncapabilitiesofpeopleto

increasetheirfreedomandagency,anddecreasingdependenceonexternalorganizations.Inthe‘RepublicofNGOs’,internationalorganizationsneedtotakemoredirect

responsibilitytostrengthenHaitianlocalandstateinstitutionsandtobeaccountableto

them.Andforitspart,theHaitianstatemustbepreparedtodevelopandrespectreliable

mechanismsformoreeffectiveandtransparentstate-society-NGOrelationshipsifHaitiisto

evolveatruesocialcontractbetweenstateandcitizens.

v Favorcommunitylevelchangeindevelopmentstrategies,andvaluelearningfrom

experiencesofmarginalizedHaitians,whorepresentthevastmajority,andinalong-termchangeperspective.

MostoftheavailableinternationaldevelopmentdataforHaitiareatthemacrolevel,and

revealmiseryand‘underdevelopment’anddonotprovidepathwaysforchange.Reliance

onmacronumbershasfailedtoexplainlocalrealitiesoradequatelyservedtoaddressthe

needsofmassivestructuralinequality.SocialinstitutionsinHaitihavesubstantiallyeluded

conventionalstrategiesofinternationaldevelopment.Inmuchinternationaldevelopment

discourse,thereisnowrecognitionoftheimportanceoflocally-based‘people-centered’

approaches,‘participatorydevelopment’,andenablingpeople’s‘agency’.Moremixed

methodsandqualitativestudiesarewarrantedinordertodeepenunderstandingof

processesofchangethatarepossibleatlocallevelinordertotransformHaiti’s

developmenttrajectory.Inparticular,qualitativeanalysesthatinvestigatecommunity

developmentinacontext-specificanddistinctlyhumanwayarelacking.Suchanalysesare

neededinordertorevealpatternsofsocialchangeincommunities.Applyinglongitudinal

studymethodsinspecificplaceswithfamilies,households,andcommunitiesoverthelong

termwillrevealpatternstoinformdevelopmentdecisions,strategies,andinvestments.

6.4FutureDirectionsforResearchandPractice

Thisthesisisintendedtoprovideaportraitofparticipatorycommunitydevelopment

experiencesinthefirstseveralyearsfollowingthe2010earthquake,butitisalsointendedto

providethebeginningsofalong-terminquirythatwouldcontributetolearningandchangein

Haiti,andtobroaderinternationaldevelopmentpracticesanddiscourses.Followingarefuture

directionsenvisionedthatwouldbuildonthiswork,andthatwouldsupportalignedeffortsof

otherscholarsandpractitioners.

209

1.Improveunderstandingofcommunity/structurallevelinteractionsandrelationships.TransformationinHaitiisunlikelywithoutconvergenceofsocialchangeatcommunitylevels

andstructuralchangeatnationalandinternationallevels.Investigatingdynamicsofstructure

andagencyinHaitiisalongtermproject.ItisevidentthatHaitihasbeeninanever-ending

transitiontodemocracysincethecreationoftheHaitianconstitutionin1987followingthefall

oftheDuvalierregime,andthatHaitihasbecomeincreasinglydependentoninternationalaid

andimportedfoodandhasfallenontheHumanDevelopmentIndex.However,knowledge

aboutpeople’severydaylivedexperiencesinHaitiandevidenceofcommunity-levelchange

overtimeislacking.Whilethereareanthropologicalandsocialmovementstudies(notablyby

JennieSmith,2001;MarkSchuller,2012;andBeverlyBell,2013),agapremainsinour

understandingofhowagencyatthelocallevelinteractswithstructurallevelchange,

particularlyinthepost-earthquakeera.

2.Applythetheoryofchange‘fromcommunitystoriestotransformationalnarratives’toothercontexts,withcontext-specificadaptations.Thetheoryofchangedevelopedinthisresearchcanprovideastartingpointorhypothesisfor

studyofothercommunitydevelopmentcases.Asappropriate,elementsofthetheorycouldbe

adaptedaccordingtolocalcontextsoraimsoftheresearch.Forexample,issuesbeingstudied,

typesofmethodsused,oroverallaimsoftheresearchmayinfluenceapplicabilityoftheoryof

changeelements.Thecoreaspectsofthetheory--listeningtolocalvoices,understanding

communitynarratives,exposingtensionpoints,andderivingleversoftransformation--couldbe

applicableinawidearrayofcontextsandsettingswherelocalactorsaimtobringabout

transformativechange.

3.StudylongtermchangeandoutcomesincommunitiesthroughQualitativeLongitudinalResearch.Oneimportantaimoffutureresearchistomakevisibleoverthelongtermwhether,andto

whatextent,theeducation-centeredandparticipatoryapproachestocommunitydevelopment

arecontributingtosocialtransformation.

210

Inordertocontinuelearningfrompeople’slivedexperiencesovertime,thisstudyisdesigned

toenablequalitativelongitudinalresearch.Withthisweaimtoexposedynamicsofsocial

changeovertheyearsthatwilltrackconditions,perceptions,andoutcomesofparticipants,

theirfamiliesandlocalcommunities.Withcollaborators,Ihopetocontributetoimproved

communitydevelopmentpolicy,research,andpracticeinHaitiandbroaderstructural

transformationwherecitizens’voicesareheardandcommunitiesareempoweredtorealize

theiraspirationsforchange.Anearlynextsteptowardarobustlongtermstudyisthe

preparationofadetailedbaselinereportforoneorbothcasecommunities.Abaselinereport

wouldprovideinformationfromhouseholdinterviews,andcoulddocumentdataalready

collectedofphotos,videos,narratives,andparticipant-mademaps(ofplace,oftravel,andof

organizations’importanceandeffectiveness),andofthesituationinthebasestudyyearsof

2010-2013.Thisbaselinewouldprovideastartingpointforstudyinsubsequentyearsatregular

intervalsthroughfieldwork.WithNGOpartnersandlocallytrainedpeopleinHaiti,weare

alreadypilotingadatacollectionsystemusingmobiledeviceswhichiswelladaptedforsuch

subsequentstudy.

Aqualitativelongitudinalresearchsensibilitygivescloseconsiderationtotemporalaspectsof

research,andacriticalpraxislensentailsanalyzinginteractionsoftheagencyofpeoplewith

respecttobroaderstructuresandinstitutions,aswellasfavoringparticipatorymethodswith

potentialtocontributetocriticalconsciousnessanddirectaction.Followingaresomeofthe

questionsthatsuchaperspectiveposesregardingfutureresearchatthelevelof:

participant/community;Haiti;andotherpost-disasterandouter-peripherycontexts.In

addition,relevantquestionsariserelatedtothepotentialcontributiontochangeaffordedby

(thepracticeof)participatorymethods.

• Whatwillthesecommunitieslooklikeinfivetotenyearsandlongerterm,andhowcan/will

localpeopleandparticipatoryprocessesshapetheirevolution?

• Whatagencydopeoplehavetoimprovestate-societyrelationsandmajorsystemic

challengesinHaiti,andhowisthischangingovertime?

211

• Whatlearningovertimefromthecasecommunitiesisinstructiveforothercommunitiesin

HaitiaswellasforHaitiangovernmentandinternationalagenciestoinformcommunity

developmentpolicies,practicesandfundingmechanisms?

• Howcanthisresearchbenefitthesecommunities,Haiti,andotherpost-disaster,outer-

periphery,ormarginalizedcontexts?

• Howtoexpose,aswellascontributeto,socialchangedynamicsandbettercommunity

developmentoutcomesinthelongterm?

Obviousanswersarenotapparenttomanysuchquestions,whichunderlinestheneedtotrack

theevolutionofbothBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillageovertime.Researchand

learningfromthesesignificantprojectscanprovidevaluablecontributionstoplanning,policy,

andparticularlyparticipatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentand

collaboratively-designedself-governanceinHaiti,aswellasotherpost-disastersettings.

4.Scaleup,scaleout,andscaledeeppromisingparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentinitiatives.Thisthesisisscholarlywork,anditisalso,quitepractically,acalltoaction.Itisaninvitationto

policymakers,funders,andpeoplefromallwalksoflifetorecognizethecommunitylevelasa

siteoftransformationinHaiti,aswellasotherhighlymarginalizedcontexts.Thiswouldmean

scalingpromisinginitiativessuchasthecaseshereonthreelevels:1)‘scalingout’tobringsocial

innovationstomorecommunities;2)‘scalingup’toinfluencesystemicandpolicychange;and

3)‘scalingdeep’toaffectculturalnormsandpatterns,onecommunityatatime.By

highlighting,amplifying,andconnectingexamplesofcommunitydevelopmentwhichare

contributingtopositivelong-termchange,Haitiwillbeabletostepawayfromitscurrent

trajectoryandfinditspathwaytoamorehumane,inclusiveandjustsociety.

Thesecasesprovideexamplesofstrategiesthathavethepowertochangestoriesforpeople

andcommunitiesinHaitiandchangethecountry’sbroadernarratives.Education-centered

communitydevelopmentandparticipatorycommunitygovernance,asexemplifiedinthe

Bellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasesrespectively,showpromiseaspathways

212

toscale.Thereareothercaseexamplesandstrategieswhichmeritrecognitionandscalingas

well.Bydoingso,Haitihaspotentialtocreateanarrativeofsocialtransformationthatwould

changeitsdevelopmenttrajectoryandoutcomesforcommunitiesacrossthecountry,and

provideinspirationforotherouterperipherycountriesandmarginalizedsocieties.

Throughtheprocessesandresultsofthisresearch,pathwaysoftransformationhavebeen

exposed,andthereisevidencethatthecasecommunitiesarechoosingthoseways.A

metaphorfortheirpathwaytotransformationisfoundonthewindyroadthatleadsthrough

Bellevue-La-Montagnetotheschool,abeaconofhopeforwhatispossible--itisrocky,

undulatingandsteepinplaces,andwithsurprisingturnsandbreathtakingviewsalongtheway.

MaythatpathwaybecomeametaphorforsocialtransformationincommunitiesacrossHaiti.

213

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Appendix:InterviewsinHaiti,2011-2013

Icarriedoutinterviewswiththefollowingpeople,insomecasesmultipleinterviews.Interviewstylesrangedfromsemi-structuredtoopen-ended,probe,andinformal.AbelardXavier HaitiPartnersAlexMyril HaitiPartnersBenajaAntoine HaitiPartnersCindyJosef casecommunityresidentClaudeJeudy HabitatforHumanityClaudineMichel YunusSocialBusiness/GrameenCreativeLabsDarrenGill ArchitectureforHumanityDorothyPierreLouis CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolErikBadger HaitiPartnersFrancesseAntoine casecommunityresidentFrémyCesar OpenSpaceHaitiFritzDeshommes HaitiStateUniversityGregHemphill USAID,Pan-AmericanDevelopmentFundGuerlineErnest casecommunityresidentGuyMorelus CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolHansTippenhauer FondationEspoir-JeuneAyiti JacquelineSt-Vaudré casecommunityresidentJacquesLucet casecommunityresidentJasonMcGaughey JP/HROHaitiJeanSamuelAndré casecommunityresidentJohnEngle HaitiPartnersJosephatJeanBaptiste casecommunityresidentKateEvarts ArchitectureforHumanityLeslieVoltaire architect,urbanplanner/formerPresidentialcandidateMarieVeronilaAntoine casecommunityresidentMarie-AngeMeristyl casecommunityresidentMayorSantos CityofLéogâneMerlineMyrilEngle BellevueGuestHousemanagerMesilusBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentMimzDiño HabitatforHumanityMiraclePierre CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolMireilleCivil casecommunityresidentMmeBoby casecommunityresidentMmeSonson casecommunityresidentMyriamNarcisse consultantandtranslatorPatricksonBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentProphèteAntoine casecommunityresidentSabinaCarlsonRobillard FutureGenerationsHaitiSherlyneBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentStevenWerlin FONKOZETalamasJean casecommunityresidentWalnordSimilien HabitatforHumanityYolandeBien-Aimé casecommunityresident

Stories of Tragedy, Trust and Transformation?

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