Stone Cladding Engineering

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Rui de Sousa Camposinhos School of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Instituto Politécnico do Porto Porto, Portugal
ISBN 978-94-007-6847-5 ISBN 978-94-007-6848-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6848-2 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013943407
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The natural stone is a material with widespread use over time, mainly due to its robustness, durability and availability in a variety of colors and textures. If, for many centuries, it was practically the only structural material for enduring longstanding construction, today, with the appearance of new construction materials, especially reinforced concrete, its use has been progressively dedicated to dressing of building façades. Under this usage, technological developments have enabled the delivery of elements of natural stone cladding with ever larger dimensions and smaller thicknesses, contributing to economic competitiveness in its use, particularly when assessed in the complete lifecycle of construction. The progressive increase in stone plate size demands new requirements regarding the capacity to withstand forces, notably wind and seismic ones and the attachment system, crucial in view of the potential damage that a detachment of a high weight plate can cause. These elements must therefore be the subject of a structural design to ensure an appropriate level of safety. As the dimensioning of this type of elements is not currently explicitly regulated, existing regulation principles should be adapted, especially those covered in the recent European Structural Regulations, the EuroCodes or also under the Uniform Building Code in the USA. It is in this context that this book, Stone Cladding Engineering, finds its place, providing a vast pool of scientific and technical knowledge that, in conjunction with the current regulatory framework, allows the design of cladding in natural stone.
The author of the book, Professor Rui Camposinhos, has devoted to this subject particular attention in recent years promoting experimental studies involving the execution of hundreds of pullout tests in order to characterize the behavior of various types of natural stone and guiding research, which resulted in the publication of papers on the subject in prestigious international journals. The extent to which the subject is treated also results from his academic studies, obtaining a master’s degree and then a Ph.D. in related topics, and his experience as a professor at the School of Engineering of Polytechnic Institute of Porto and research work developed for several years, integrated into research centers of the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, such as the project “Presstone”, to develop a prototype “Natural Pre-stressed Stone Façade Systems” of which he is a coordinator, should also stand out.
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vi Preface
The material of the book is well organized, allowing the reader to follow the various threads in the proper sequence, well written and clearly illustrated, facilitating the understanding of the various aspects associated with the theme, the dimensioning and design of natural stone cladding plates, which can be considered divided into three parts. The first part organized in three chapters, after providing an introduction to the subject in a separate chapter, presents the characterization of natural stone, sorting them by type and identifying their main physical and mechanical properties. A detailed chapter is dedicated to the discussion of several wall and cladding systems.
The second part, organized in two chapters, presents the key concepts and methodologies for verification of structural safety, checking the limit conditions involved, the main forces considered and the concepts of reliability and safety factors involved in a form of safety procedures according to modern structural regulations. In this part a chapter is also dedicated to the characterization of actions in façades and its characteristic and design values. Special emphasis is given to determine the effects of seismic action, which shows in detail a general methodology applied to non-structural elements linked to structures. The chapter ends with methodologies for the determination of flexural and tensile stone strength.
In the third part, three chapters present the matters that are necessary for proper sizing and detail of particular solutions in relation to determining the resistance of the plates, the calculation of kerf, undercut and dowel and pin anchorages systems. Each chapter ends with examples of applications, illustrating the main topics exposed and presenting a comprehensive analysis of the solutions. The last chapter is opportunely devoted to the design of stainless steel and aluminum alloys body anchors and rails.
The way the content of this work was developed might be the basis for a discipline to be integrated to a Master’s degree that would be of great benefit to both students and engineering technicians, who wish to obtain or deepen their knowledge on this topic, and will certainly constitute an indispensable tool for all engineering professionals involved in the design or application of natural stone slabs for façades.
Porto, Portugal Raimundo Delgado (Full Professor FEUP)
Contents
1 Cladding with Stone: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Stone Veneers Performance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Cladding with Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Design Methodology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.5 Actions and Stone Strength .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.6 Fixing Systems and Metal Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Natural Stone Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2 Rock Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Natural Stone Standards for Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Natural Stone Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Geometry and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.2 Density, Porosity and Water Absorption .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.4 Weathering Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.5 Mechanical Characterization .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Stone Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Wall and Cladding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.2 Cavity Wall Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3 Cladding Adhered Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.1 Continuous Bonding .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.3.2 Spot Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Stone Faced Precast Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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3.5 Prestressed Standalone Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.6 Rain Screen Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.7 Mechanical Anchored Fixing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7.1 Dowell Anchorage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.7.2 Kerf Anchorage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.7.3 Undercut Anchoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4 Limit States Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.2 State of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 4.3 Risk and Reliability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.1 Measures of Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.4 Design Situations for Stone Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . .…