STOCK ENHANCEMENT AND SEA RANCHING DEVELOPMENTS, PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES Second Edition EDITED BY K.M. LEBER Center for Fisheries Enhancement, Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida, USA S. KITADA Faculty of Marine Science, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan H.L. BLANKENSHIP Northwest Marine Technology Inc., Washington, USA T. SVA ˚ SAND Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway Blackwell Publishing
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K.M. LEBERCenter for Fisheries Enhancement, Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida, USA
S. KITADAFaculty of Marine Science, Tokyo University of Marine Scienceand Technology, Japan
H.L. BLANKENSHIPNorthwest Marine Technology Inc., Washington, USA
T. SVASANDInstitute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
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Contents
Preface
Section 1: Present Situation of Stock Enhancement
ix
1 Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching as an Integrated Part of Coastal Zone Management in Norway Erlend Moksness 3
2 Marine Stock Enhancement in the USA: Status, Trends and Needs KennethM.Leber 11
3 Global Warming, Aquaculture, and Commercial Fisheries RichardJ.Beamish and DonaldJ.Noakes 25
4 Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching in Developing Countries DevinM.Bartley, Abraham Born and Anton Immink 48
Section 2: Seed Quality and Techniques for Effective Stocking 59
5 Why Juvenile Quality and Release Strategies are Important Factors for Success in Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching Terje Sva sand 61
6 Feats and Defeats in Flatfish Stocking: Determinants for Effective Stocking JosianneG.Støttrup 71
7 Behavioral Approaches to Fish Stock Enhancement: A Practical Review Reiji Masuda 83
8 Lessons for Marine Fish Enhancement: Experiences with Pacific Salmon C.V.W. Mahnken, W.T. Fairgrieve, F.W. Waknitz, D.J. Maynard and H.L. Blankenship 91
9 Releasing Technique in Striped Jack Marine Ranching: Pre-release Acclimation and Presence of Decoys to Improve Recapture Rates Hiroshi Kuwada, Reiji Masuda, Takashi Kobayashi, Takayuki Kogane, Taeko Miyazaki, Keinosuke Imaizumi and Katsumi Tsukamoto 106
Section3: Health ManagementofHatchery Stocks 117
10 Fish Health Management in Seed Production Keiichi Mushiake and Kiyokuni Muroga 119
v
1
vi Contents
Section 4: Methods for Evaluating Stocking Effectiveness 131
11 An Independent Scientific Evaluation of Washington State Salmonid Hatcheries H. Lee Blankenship and MichaelA.Kern 133
12 Experimental Ecological Tests with Stocked Marine Fish JohnM.Miller and CarlJ.Walters 142
13 Examining Genetic Effect Hypotheses of Hatchery Fish on Wild Populations: A Bayesian Approach Shuichi Kitada and Hirohisa Kishino 153
14 Behavior of Ongrown Juvenile Spiny Lobsters, Jasus edwardsii after Reseeding to a Coastal Reef in Tasmania, Australia DavidJ.Mills, Caleb Gardner and Sam Ibbott 168
15 Juvenile Release and Market Size Recapture of the Swimming Crab Portunus trituberculatus (Miers) Marked with Coded Wire Tags Kazutoshi Okamoto 181
16 Evaluation of Stock Enhancement Programs for Masu Salmon in Hokkaido, Northern Japan, by Two-stage Sampling Surveys of Commercial Landings Yasuyuki Miyakoshi, Mitsuhiro Nagata, Kei-ichi Sugiwaka and Shuichi Kitada 187
Section 5: Population Management in Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching 199
17 Population Management in Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching Ray Hilborn 201
Section6:ManagementofStocked Populations 211
18 Management of Restocking and Stock Enhancement Programs: The Need for Different Approaches Johann Bell 213
19 Regional Non-profit Corporations – An Institutional Model for Stock Enhancement WilliamW.Smoker 225
20 Management Options for Restocked Trochus Fisheries StevenW.Purcell 233
Section7: Ecological Interactions with Wild Stocks 245
21 Evaluation of the Biological Interaction between Wild and Hatchery Population for Sustainable Fisheries Management of Pacific Salmon Masahide Kaeriyama and RizalitaR.Edpalina 247
Contents vii
22 Risk/Benefit Considerations for Marine Stock Enhancement: A Pacific Salmon Perspective RobinS.Waples and Jonathan Drake 260
23 Effects of Hatchery Releases and Environmental Variation on Wild-stock Productivity: Consequences for Sea Ranching of Pink Salmon in Prince William Sound, Alaska Alex C. Wertheimer, William R. Heard and William W. Smoker 307
Section 8: Genetic Management of Hatchery and Wild Stocks 327
24 Broodstock Management for Stock Enhancement Programs of Marine Fish with Assistance of DNA Marker (a Review) Nobuhiko Taniguchi 329
25 Genetic Studies in Marine Stock Enhancement in Norway KnutE.Jørstad 339
26 Stock Structure and Effective Size of Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and Implications Relative to Stock Enhancement and Recruitment JohnR.Gold 353
27 Natural Selection after Release from a Hatchery Leads to Domestication in Steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss Reg Reisenbichler, Steve Rubin, Lisa Wetzel and Steve Phelps 371
Section9: Socio-economicsofStock Enhancement 385
28 Averting Food Crisis in the Twenty-first Century: The Role of Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching I. Chiu Liao 387
29 The Role of Stock Enhancement in the Management Framework for New Zealand’s Southern Scallop Fishery Kim Drummond 397
Section 10: Case Studies 413
30 Enhancing the European Lobster (Homarus gammarus) Stock at Kvitsøy Islands: Perspectives on Rebuilding Norwegian Stocks A.L. Agnalt, K.E. Jørstad, T. Kristiansen, E. Nøstvold, E. Farestveit, H. Nœss, O.I. Paulsen andT.Sva sand 415
31 The Decline of Global Abalone (Genus Haliotis) Production in the Late Twentieth Century: Is there a Future? JeremyD.Prince 427
32 An Approach to Evaluating the Potential for Stock Enhancement of Brown Tiger Prawns (Penaeus esculentus Haswell) in Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia Neil R. Loneragan, Peter J. Crocos, Roger M. Barnard, Richard R. McCulloch, James W. Penn, Robert D. Ward and Peter C. Rothlisberg 444
viii Contents
33 Stock Enhancement of the Short-spined Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius in Hokkaido, Japan Yuichi Sakai, Ken-Ichiro Tajima and Yukio Agatsuma 465
34 Enhancement of Pacific Threadfin (Polydactylus sexfilis) in Hawaii: Interactions between Aquaculture and Fisheries DavidA.Ziemann 477
35 Stock Enhancement of Barramundi, Lates calcarifer (Bloch), in a Coastal River System in Northern Australia: Stocking Strategies, Survival and Benefit-cost D.J. Russell, M.A. Rimmer, A.J. McDougall, S.E. Kistle and W.L. Johnston 490
36 Stocking Effectiveness of Black Rockfish Sebastes schlegeli Released in Yamada Bay Evaluated by a Fish Market Census Masahiro Nakagawa, Hiroyuki Okouchi and Junichi Adachi 501
Section 11: Posters 513
37 A Behavioral Character during the Metamorphosing Stage can Predict the Growth Performance of Juvenile Stage in Japanese Flounder Yoshitaka Sakakura, Katsumi Tsukamoto and Atsushi Hagiwara 515
38 Recapture Rates of Released Hatchlings of Giant Cuttlefish Sepia latimanus Quoy & Gaimard Masakazu Oka, Takashi Yamashita, Shin-Ichi Osumi and Katsuyuki Hamasaki 525
39 Development of a Nursery Reef for Released Juvenile Redspotted Grouper, Epinephelus akaara Shigenobu Okumura, Seiichi Tsumura and Keigo Maruyama 535
40 Release Strategies in Scallop (Pecten maximus) Sea Ranching Vulnerable to Crab Predation Ø. Strand, E.S. Grefsrud, G.A. Haugum, G. Bakke, E. Helland and T.E. Helland 544
Index 556
Preface
Stock enhancement (stocking cultured organisms to replenish or increase abundance
of wild stocks) and sea ranching (stocking for put-grow-and-take food fisheries) are
being recast in the new millennium as more useful fishery-management tools than
ever before. As this book shows, the science needed to develop a reliable stocking
technology is growing rapidly, shepherded by a healthy climate of scientific debate.
The new developments for this century-old fishery-management tool could not be
timelier. With the collapse of many of the world’s fisheries, the replenishment of fish
stocks through techniques such as stocking is of huge importance and interest across the
globe. Fishery management agencies worldwide are struggling with the paradox of trying
to conserve fish stocks and protect them from overfishing, while also meeting an increas-
ing demand for seafood. The steadily increasing demand, owing to population growth
and human health recommendations to increase seafood in the diet, is placing enormous
harvest pressure on wild fish and invertebrate stocks. Exacerbating this situation is
corresponding growth in saltwater sport fishing, degradation of essential fish habitat
from coastal development, and ecological change caused by fishing down the food web.
The alarming consequence of such high demand for seafood is that two-thirds of the
world’s coastal fisheries are now fully exploited, overexploited, or depleted and need to be
rebuilt. Many stocks have become so depleted that they can no longer support fishing.
As world population growth continues, demand for seafood is going to place even
greater pressure on wild fish populations. Clearly we cannot rely, in the future, only
on wild-caught seafood to satisfy demand. Seafood farming must fill the gap in
supply. Already, aquaculture is providing over 25% of the world’s seafood production.
Because of a surge in scientific developments over the past decade that is solving many
production bottlenecks, the marine aquaculture industry is in a phase of rapid growth.
As new culture technologies are developed and advances are made in stocking tech-
nologies, there is great potential to use stocking to help replenish recruitment-limited and
depleted stocks. However, as this book indicates, it is not a simple matter to ensure that
stocking is effective and actually achieves the objectives of a hatchery-release program.
Although stocking marine organisms has been practiced for well over a century, only
within the past two decades have scientists begun to develop the knowledge needed to
guide effective use of hatchery releases. There remain many critical uncertainties about
how to use stocking technology effectively. Consequently, there are few good examples
of clearly successful application of hatchery releases to enhance marine fisheries.
Faced with depleted stocks and the expanding gap in seafood supply, fishery
scientists worldwide are striving to resolve uncertainties about stocking. The result
is a rapidly increasing quantitative knowledge base about the effects and effectiveness
ix
of stocking cultured aquatic organisms to increase fishery production. There have been
many new research developments in this field since the First Symposium on Stock
Enhancement and Sea Ranching was held in Bergen, Norway, in 1997. This book
highlights many of these new achievements as well as opportunities for successful use
of stocking. A general theme is evident – to guide the effective use of stocking, much
research and development is still needed and interactions among stocked organisms and
wild populations must be better understood. Much caution is needed in stock enhance-
ment and sea ranching programs, as there remain many uncertainties about how to use
stocking successfully; there are clear risks to wild stocks from inadequate decisions
about hatchery-release protocols and when, where and how stocking should be used.
As we move from hunting and gathering wild fish stocks toward increased use of
farming to help meet seafood demand, the new production capabilities for species
never grown before is prompting development of new stocking programs worldwide.
The need for more effective stocking strategies is clear. The world must have
sufficient knowledge to use stocking productively in helping to manage fisheries.
If the current trend of increasing research and development of stock enhancement
and sea ranching technologies continues, we believe the number of successful
examples will greatly increase during the next decade.
To help guide future research in the emerging science of stock enhancement and sea
ranching, the principal issues considered in this volume are briefly summarized below.
. There is an evolution in fishery management that reflects a shift in priorities toward
long-term sustainability and a movement away from policies of open access to fishery
resources. Science must play a key role here as we make this shift and deal with a
variety of complex and interacting issues. Responsible stock enhancement requires
new information on rearing techniques, release strategies, disease defense, monitor-
ing, and evaluation of hatchery-release effects (genetic and ecological) on wild stocks.
Harvest rights may be needed to make stocking economically successful. Consider-
ation of ocean productivity is a key aspect of long-term enhancement strategy.
. Research documenting improvements in seed quality shows untapped potential to
increase survival and is a promising area for future improvement in the efficiency of
enhancement. Conditioning fish and invertebrates prior to release will play a major
role here. Much of the progress made in conditioning will result from acclimation
research on behavioral, physiological, developmental, ecological, environmental,
and feeding deficits in newly stocked organisms. Both short- and long-term atten-
tion is needed in field assessments of the effects of conditioning.
. The key issues in health management of hatchery stocks are disease-control
measures in seed production, evaluation of fish health prior to release, and the
presence and level of pathogens in wild stocks. Disease-control measures need
further development. Health control must be a high priority in stock enhance-
ment and sea ranching programs.
. Powerful molecular tools are now available to aid in genetic management of
stocked populations – for monitoring genetic structure of hatchery and wild
x Preface
stocks and monitoring inbreeding; for observing released fish (genetic tags, such
as genetic fingerprinting); for estimating survival and catch contribution. The
theoretical effects of stock enhancement and sea ranching on the fitness of wild
stocks (e.g. domestication, outbreeding depression, inbreeding, adaptability) are
potentially damaging, but difficult to measure. Best-practice guidelines are
needed in all stocking programs.
. Scientists in this field need to advance the theoretical context for selecting release
sites, release microhabitat and the magnitude of stocking; density-dependence and
carrying capacity are key considerations. Production and environmental variables
at release sites are not sufficient information for planning hatchery-releases.
. Improved methods for evaluating stocking effectiveness are needed. Experimen-
tal releases of cultured species, with a link to studying ecological processes, are
key to understanding many of the uncertainties about stocking success. A benign
tag with high information content is essential to evaluate survival and efficiency
of stocking strategies and key ecological issues, such as how to recognize and
incorporate carrying capacity considerations, habitat use, species interactions
and environmental influences in stocking decisions. Good designs are needed
for field studies to test hypotheses about density-dependent effects and genetic
effects of hatchery stocks, leading to better protocols for conserving wild stocks.
Risk benefit considerations must be addressed in a realistic and objective manner
in light of the specific objectives of a stocking program. Adaptive management is
a key to success.
. The competing hypothesis to the premise that large hatchery programs cause a
major increase in total production is the alternative that large hatchery programs
cause a major decline in wild-stock abundance through competitive displacement.
If density-dependence was not present, then populations would grow to infinity.
Thus, adding fish after the density-dependence stage should be a key consider-
ation in stocking programs. Replicates and experimental controls for treatment
effects are needed to evaluate stocking effects. Interactions of hatchery and wild
stocks should be expected and the effectiveness of increasing production with
hatchery releases needs to be tested on a large scale.
. To manage stocked populations effectively, there must be a ‘big-picture’ consider-
ation of the status of wild stocks as well as ecology, both on nursery grounds and
on fishing grounds. Success can be greatly improved when managers of stocking
programs consider institutional arrangements involving all stakeholders, the
social and legal framework, alternative management options, and when those
who will pay for enhancement are identified (fishers, processors, government).
An institutional framework is needed to integrate stocking plans with harvest
regulations, cost-recovery, fisheries management plans, user involvement, and to
identify the role of government.
. Developing countries present special challenges and opportunities. Reasons for
stocking may differ; information is sketchy and generally poor. Appropriate techno-
logy should be transferred or developed, especially in regard to co-management.
Preface xi
. More attention to the socio-economics of stock enhancement and sea ranching is
needed. Stocking has been shown to be economically effective in a few very
successful cases, but very few case studies have actually evaluated economics.
Economic models assume no reduction in growth and survival in natural stocks,
which may not be the case. It is difficult to try to evaluate an appropriate stocking
level. In Japan, though, several unenhanced stocks have much lower production
than enhanced stocks, showing promise for economically successful enhance-
ment. One way to increase value is by moving the location of fisheries closer to
user groups. Economic evaluation of stocking effects on non-target species is
recommended. Culture of non-target species may be needed. Gardening of sessile
organisms may be more effective than stocking them.
. Focus should be placed on how to progress toward predictability. Cooperation on
projects will make maximum progress, and significant programmatic funding is
absolutely essential. Hypothesis tests are needed in different ecosystems; piecemeal
studies will not suffice. For a reliable estimate of the economic potential of stocking
programs, long-term, wide-spatial, and ecosystem viewpoints are necessary.
We regard these as the principal issues today in stock enhancement and sea ranch-
ing. They were identified at the end of the conference in Kobe, Japan, (described
below) by the chairmen of the various topic sessions at the conference and are based
on the key ideas brought forth in each session. The sessions at the conference form
the 11 sections of this book.
We thank Koji Imamura, President of the Japan Sea Farming Association (JASFA),
which was recently integrated with Japan’s Fisheries Research Agency (FRA);
JASFA was reorganized under FRA as the National Center for Stock Enhancement
on October 1st, 2003. In 2002, Mr. Imamura convened and led a very successful
conference in Kobe, Japan, the 2nd International Symposium on Stock Enhancement
and Sea Ranching (SESR), which became the impetus for this book. We appreciate
the financial support provided by the Japan Fisheries Agency and JASFA. We thank
the staff members of JASFA, who worked hard preparing for the symposium.
This book, which contains fully peer-reviewed papers from the symposium, will be
of interest to fish and fisheries biologists, marine and aquatic scientists, managers of
natural resources, environmental biologists, ecologists, conservationists, and aqua-
culture scientists and personnel.
Finally, the editors wish to express their thanks to the SESR Steering Committee
and the SESR International Scientific Committee and to the numerous colleagues
who gave their time to constructively review the manuscripts.