Steinkellner Leaves

7/29/2019 Steinkellner Leaves

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G O N D A L E C T U R E


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Eleventh Gonda lecture, held on " November on the premises of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences


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A Tale of LeavesOn Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tibet,

their Past and their Future

B Y E R N S T S T E I N K E L L N E R

R O YA L N E T H E R L A N D S A C A D E M Y O F A R T S A N D S C I E N C E S

Amsterdam,


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Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and SciencesNo part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying,recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

P.O. Box """, " GC Amsterdam, the NetherlandsT +" "F +" "E [email protected]

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The paper in this publication meets the requirements of1 iso-norm (")for permanence.


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On having been greatly honoured by the invitation to deliver the Gonda Lecture, the most prestigious invitation to be received by a Sanskrit scholar at thepresent time, I was strongly reminded of the Taoist knowledge that to becomeone with time and change one needs to learn how to abandon all conduct and

all sense of being an independent and autonomous agent.That said, I would like to thank the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and

Sciences and the Gonda Foundation for this invitation, and particularly my col-league Pieter Verhagen for the good sense to propose the present topic amonghis alternatives. I cannot imagine what made him ask for it, since he could notpossibly have known that, indeed, this was the right moment. A ks

an

a, the Bud-

dhist would say, the right and therefore auspicious moment. A year ago, I wouldnot have chosen to talk about these matters in public. But now, the time seems

to be ripe.I wonder, however, whether you and Pieter Verhagen will be very happy withmy lecture. For it will and cannot be a lecture up to ordinary scholarly expecta-tions. Rather, what I can oer, will be a story and a vision. A story of the past,ancient as well as recent, and a vision for the medium and long-term future.Yet, even as a narrative, my story can neither attempt to be comprehensive norto be fully satisfying. The narrators frame of view has always been limited, someof the information acquired concerning the more recent period still needs tobe double-checked, and thus many questions crowding ones mind will have toremain unanswered for the time being. Moreover, and strangely enough, theseSanskrit manuscripts are probably one of the very last cultural treasures on earththat can be classied as a sensitive issue. Sensitive in the sense that danger ofdierent sorts is felt to be involved by those who may be held responsible foranything related to this material. And also sensitive in the sense that any pro-gress to be achieved in the development of their accessibility must be consideredas a carefully deliberated step-by-step undertaking. To respect this specic cir-cumstance I cannot and will not reveal the sources of some of the knowledge ac-

quired over the years, and I will not identify a number of persons who have beenhelpful along the way. All in all, this lecture will only be a rst attempt to putsome cornerstones of the more recent developments in place in order to demon-strate the necessity of remembering this period. Eventually, when better andbroader information from all sides is available, these stones will be moved totheir right places and the present gaps of knowledge will be lled, thus provid-

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ing a more complete edice of information about the recent fate of these manu-scripts.

In order to appropriately highlight the historical importance of the recent de-velopments I will rst give a rough sketch of the mostly well-known history of

these materials up to the rst half of the twentieth century, when Rahula San

-kr

tyayana in the thirties, and Giuseppe Tucci in the thirties and forties made their

discoveries. Next I will relate what I know about their fate after World War IIup to now. Finally I will inform you of the most recent developments and wouldalso like to present some ideas on what eventually should be the lines of furtheractivities for providing their academic accessibility.

* * *

When Buddhism rst came to Tibet in the th to th centuries," it was no longer atradition with a primarily oral culture of transmission. Authoritative scriptureshad long been developed into various canons, and writing and copying had be-come part of Buddhist life soon after the beginning of our era. The sacrednessof the numerous Buddhas words had expressed itself ritually in the MahayanaCult of the Book. Dogmatic, philosophical, poetic, narrative, didactic, apolo-getic literatures were composed and transmitted. In short: the written text andits main carrier, the manuscript, had become indispensable. When the great Bud-dhist universities were founded by, for example, the late Gupta and early Palakings after the fth century A.D., libraries and scriptoria were an essential partof these establishments. Hui-li, in his biography of the famous Chinese pilgrimHiuan-tsang, reports that the latter, when he left India in A.D. , brought manuscripts with dierent texts back to China from Nalanda.

" In the rst historical part of my lecture I use traditional orthography for Tibetannames and the Wade-Giles system of transcription for Chinese. In the subsequent sec-tion regarding the modern period the modern forms of Tibetan names are used to-gether with their sinicized forms for better identication, and Pinyin transcriptionfor Chinese Cf. Beal ": "

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The arrival in Tibet of this already broadly developed and diversied Buddhistreligious culture is appropriately characterized by the popular myth of how, atthe time of lHa-tho-tho-ri gan-btsan, an ancestor of the rst king, a casket felldown from heaven which contained a turquoise stupa and a manuscript with

the Karan

d

avyuhasutra.

The Tibetan kingdom reached the apex of its power and extension by the endof the th century A.D. and the new religion was ocially adopted by kingKhri-sron lde-btsan (A.D. -) for his people in . The rst monastery,bSam-yas, was founded in A.D. with the help of the famous Indian scholarSantaraks

ita who ordained the rst Tibetan monks in A.D. . Translating the

scriptures and scholastic treatises, mainly from Sanskrit, but also from Chinese,was considered to be a major task during this period. The following kings, par-

ticularly Khri-gtsug lde-btsan alias Ral-pa-can (A.D. "-"),

continued thispolicy. The list of works deposited in the palace of lHan-kar (recte: lDan dkarand variants of this spelling) in A.D. mentions seven hundred andtwenty-two texts translated and seven texts under preparation. And these textshad already been subjected to a terminological revision demanded by Khri-sron

lde-btsan in an edict of A.D. that was renewed by his successor Khri-ldesron -btsan alias Sad-na-legs in A.D. "/".

All these translations were done by teams consisting of Indian, Tibetan andChinese monastic scholars. For the translations of Sanskrit texts these teams musthave been working on the basis of manuscripts brought from the Indian Bud-dhist realm. What happened to these original materials after they were translatedinto Tibetan, we can only guess. They were certainly treated carefully and withthe highest respect and in all probability safely kept in the royal palaces and theearly temples, much in the same way as they were kept in later times. We alsodo not yet know whether any of these manuscripts survived the downfall ofthe Tibetan empire towards the middle of the th century. The persecution of

On the many versions of this mythic account cf. dBa bzhedf Cf. Tucci ": - Cf. Imaeda " Cf.Yamaguchi " Cf. Lalou " Cf. Panglung ". Scherrer-Schaub

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Buddhism started already with the last king gLan -dar-ma (A.D. "-), andthe following destruction of the royal establishments which did not even sparethe tombs of the kings must have also aected the monastic and palatial collec-tions of the new Tibetan translations together with their Sanskrit originals. Since

the practice of hiding venerated religious objects in times of distress is well-known in Tibet even today, it is, however, possible that a few Sanskrit manu-scripts even from the royal period may still be extant.

The so-called later spread of the doctrine was initiated by the fervently Bud-dhist kings of the Western Tibetan kingdom founded in sPu-hran s (Purang) to-wards the middle of the "th century by sKyid-lde i-ma-mgon, a descendantof the former dynasty." It began with king Ye-ses-ods (,A.D. -") strongeorts to re-establish the links to authoritative Buddhist traditions. Young Tibe-

tans were sent to neighbouring Kashmir and its monasteries

""

to learn the lan-guage of the holy scriptures, to translate, and to acquire Sanskrit manuscriptsto be translated in the new royal realm. Rin-chen bzan -po (A.D. -"), theleading gure of this period, reportedly worked on one hundred and sixty-eighttranslations." In A.D. ", another Indian scholar of renown was invited toWestern Tibet, Atisa (A.D. -"/) who subsequently went to Central Tibetto continue his missionary work."

At the same time, in Central Tibet, larger landholding families realized the va-lue and the prestigious character of the Buddhist traditions with their civilizingprinciples and ideals, and began to establish the policy of a mixed rule of theo-cratic and lay nobility" which was to determine Tibetan society up to moderntimes. Monastic centres soon began to develop again: Sa-skya (A.D. ") wasthe rst, Tshal followed in "", Bri-gun in "", mTshur-phu in "". Sa-skya,under its fourth hierarch Kun-dga rgyal-mtshan alias Sa-skya pan

d

ita (A.D.

""-""), became the rst new political centre of Tibet and a major centre of re-ligious activities after Sa-pan

s peaceful surrender to Mongol and then Yu an dy-

Cf. Imaeda "" Cf. Petech " for a survey of the history of this kingdom"" Cf. Naudou "" Cf. Tucci ". Petech ": f" Cf. Eimer "" Cf. Petech ":

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nasty rule after A.D. ". Again Tibetans went to India and Nepal, and Indianscholars, monks and practitioners were invited to Tibet. Manuscripts were im-ported once more and translated in much the same way they had been duringthe old kingdom.

Clearly the inux of Indian Buddhists and Buddhist material from the ""th

century onwards was also substantially enhanced by the fact that Muslim raidsswept through Northern India with steadily increasing pressure during this per-iod. The great centres of Buddhist learning as for example in the Pala realm, weredestroyed near the turn to the thirteenth century, and with them their libraries":Odantapura, Vikramas|la, Somapura, and Jagaddala. Nalanda," founded beforethe middle of the th century, was already a ruin when the Chag lotsaba Chos-rjes-dpal alias Dharmasvamin (A.D. ""-") studied there under its last tea-

cher Rahula Sr|bhadra in A.D. "-. The libraries

"

had long ago been turnedto ashes," and Dharmasvamin could not take a single manuscript back home."

All the manuscripts he brought back to Tibet were acquired in Nepal. Nowwe have to imagine Indian refugees who went with their most precious treasures,consisting again, I would assume, mainly of manuscripts, to Nepal and evenfurther to Tibet for safety."

A good example is Vibhu ticandra (later half of the "th cent. to second half of

" Cf. Dutt ": - and Warder ": " Cf. Dutt ": -" Cf. Dutt ": " In general it cannot be ruled out, or is rather highly probable, that such devastationsof Buddhist institutions are also due to increasing pressure from the side of Hinduis-tic oppositions. There is, e.g., at least one legendary account (cf. Dutt ": ,n.) which attributes a case of pre-Muslim destruction to heretics: the incendiary ofthe Dharmagaja-district of Nalanda where the three great library buildings were lo-

cated. For an elaborated version of this legend cf. Taranatha -. The re is alreadymentioned in dBa bzhed . Cf. davidson : x (chapter ) for some light onthe socio-political background of these developments unfavourable to Buddhism inmedieval India." Cf. Roerich ": xxii Cf. Altekar ": viiif" Cf. Bandurski ": -

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the "th cent. A.D.). Trained at the university of Vikramas |la before its destruc-tion and having ed to Jagaddala monastery in East-Bengal, he escaped from an-other Muslim invasion to Bihar and Bengal under Muhammad Khilj| and inthe ""s, together with his teacher Sakyasr|bhadra, went to Nepal, and in

" to Tibet. He spent some time on Srin-po-ri and constructed a temple there,and in " accompanied Sakyasr| to Sa-skya where Sakyasr| cooperated withthe Sa-skya pan

d

ita in translating and correcting older translations. "" nds

them farther west in sPu-hran s from where, in "", Sakyasr| returned to Kasch-mir and Vibhu ticandra to Nepal. In the Kathmandu valley Vibhu ti found newteachers and nally became abbot of the Stham Bihar in the Thamel district of

Autograph of Vibhu ticandra (jbors ")

Cf. Stearns ", Vogel

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modern Kathmandu. From Nepal he travelled to Tibet again twice; the last timehe stayed for three years, mostly in Din -ri.

Studies, education, and translations seem to have lled his life. But in hisyouth he also functioned as a scribe. We know of some folios of a Kalacakratan-

tra, and of a Praman

avarttikavr

ttiand a Praman

avarttikalan

kara manuscript writtenin his hand. Interestingly enough, the Kalacakratantra folios and the Pramana-

varttika manuscript were photographed by Rahula San krtyayana in Za-lu (i.e.

in Za-lu Ri-phug, the hermitage-like retreat behind Za-lu on the mountain),whereas he found the Praman

avarttikalankara manuscript in Sa-skya. Za-lu had

close connection with the Sa-skya-pa under its secular ruler Grags-pa rgyal-mtshan after ", and the retreat was founded by the famous compiler of the Ti-betan canons Bu-ston Rin-chen-grub soon after " with the erection of a

Za-lu Ri-phug (foto Michael Henss ").

Cf. Bandurski ": note .

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great temple along with a foundation for the Community. In addition to be-coming a centre of yogic practices such as trance running and the generationof inner heat, it was also a centre of translating and working with Sanskrit manu-scripts. These manuscripts must have been brought mainly from Sa-skya and re-

mained in Za-lu when not returned.The Praman

avarttikalankara manuscript was evidently not photographed by

Rahula in Sa-skya, but it is still there. When I visited Sa-skya in ", I wasshown, in all pathetic innocence, a manuscript said to have been written inSa-skya pan

d

itas own hand. In fact it was the very manuscript written by Vi-

bhu ticandra. Important is the fact that it is, together with the Za-lu manuscriptof the Praman

avarttikavr

ttti, one of the few Sanskrit manuscripts written on paper,

probably Nepalese paper. Since scribes in India still used palm-leaves as material

at this time, it is a good guess that Vibhu ticandra wrote this manuscript on paperin Tibet, because the marginal notes he left on the manuscript of the Vrttiwere

denitely written during his sojourn there.

To summarize: The period from roughly the end of the tenth to the four-teenth centuries saw an intensive and comprehensive acculturation in Tibet ofall Buddhist traditions available, mainly from India. In fact, and the Tibetan Bud-dhists seemed to have been aware of their task: a new home for Buddhism wasbeing provided as it visibly disappeared more and more quickly from the faceof the holy land. This process of acculturation was realized in many ways: by re-ceiving oral transmissions, by translating texts, by analysing and interpretingtheir contents, in short, by transforming the whole religious and scholarly cul-ture of Indian Buddhism into the new Tibetan garb. A single glance at one ofthe modern editions of the Tibetan canonical collections of the bKa-gyur andthe bsTan-gyurshould suce to give an idea of the huge amount of eort whichhad been devoted to this task.

The large mass of translated literatures may be already remarkable in itself, butthe really impressive fact lies in the amazing capacity of most of the scholars in-

volved to come to grips linguistically and conceptually with Indian grammatical,poetical, epistemological and logical literatures of considerable diculty. Trueenough, they mostly worked in close cooperation with Indian pandits and

Cf. Ruegg ": Cf. SAn kr

tyAyana ": ""-", Stearns ": notes , "

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learned monks. But some of them were also able to work on their own, e.g. thedPan lotsaba Blo-gros brtan-pa who, at the beginning of the "th century,translated Jinendrabuddhis Praman

asamuccayat

|kawithout the help of an Indian

pandit. And, what is even more, most of these quite dicult translations are ex-

ceptionally well-done and accurate.When these collections of Tibetan translations were compiled by the monks

of sNar-than , and then edited by Bu-ston Rin-chen-grub (A.D. "-") atZa-lu in the rst half of the "th century to form what can be called the rst Vul-gate edition of the Tibetan canon, the need of a more widely spread knowledgeof Sanskrit was no longer so pressing. Sanskrit learning, with all its reputation,by the fteenth to eighteenth centuries slowly became a matter for specialistsamong the learned, for scholars with a penchant for philological problems, for

original sources, for authenticity, and for language and, in particular, for gram-mar. Primarily, and quite naturally so, this interest was stimulated by the needfor textual criticism with regard to the canonical translations transmitted, andby the need for continuous reference to Sanskrit grammatical literature amongthose who assimilated, to use Pieter Verhagens term, its conceptual world intoindigenous Tibetan scholarship. Let it suce to remind you of the great fth Da-lai Lama N

ag-dban blo-bzan rgya-mtsho (A.D. ""-") who, although nothimself a particularly advanced Sanskritist, nevertheless had great interest inSanskrit and strongly furthered such studies during his rule.

Inherent to the work of most of these specialists was the use of such Sanskritmanuscripts as were available in Tibetan monastic collections. An example isthe text-critical method of the "th century scholar Si-tu pan

-chen Chos-kyi

byun -gnas (A.D. "?-") recently studied by Pieter Verhagen. The Si-tupan

-chen worked with a great number of Sanskrit manuscripts, both old ones

from Tibetan collections and new ones from Nepal. We are touchingly remindedof our own work when he says that he based his choice of variants, quoting fromVerhagens translation, on a comparison of (an?) actual Indian manuscript(s?)

Cf. Dimitrov : - Cf.Verhagen "a: -" Cf. Tucci " Verhagen "b

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that had come to Tibet in earlier times, and some bilingual copies, along withnumerous corrupt manuscripts from Svayambhu and Patan (in) Nepal.

Such Sanskrit manuscripts, then, if we try to draw a picture of their fate, wereused by the translators at various locations, and after completion of their work

returned to the original owners, as a rule, monastic centres specialising very earlyin collecting such material. I assume these centres to be nearly the same placeswhere Rahula San kr

tyayana was able to locate manuscripts during his trips toTi-

bet in the thirties of the last century: primarily Sa-skya, Za-lu Ri-phug, andN

or. Stray manuscripts, originally probably individually owned, made theirway into other places of protection: to Kun-bde-lin in Lhasa, Thub-stan rnam-rgyal in rTa-nag, to sPos-khan and Ne-ri ri-thog near Shigatse, or, to give anew example, to sBras-spun s where I was last year shown two manuscripts in

the recently opened manuscript library of the fth Dalai Lama.In Sa-skya, the Sanskrit manuscripts were kept in the so-called Phyag-dpe lha-khan (Manuscript-Chapel). Here I cannot resist from quoting San kr

tyayanas

vivid description of his rst visit to these treasures at some length to give youan idea of their slumber in safety over the centuries:"

The next day (the th May [of "]) we went to the Lha-khang-cchen-mobuilt by the hierarch Phags pa (""- A.C.) the preceptor of the Chinese Em-peror Kublai Khan. Before entering the nd courtyard, on the left side of the gatethere is a big staircase of more than steps, leading to the rst oor. It is sosteep that often the descent is terrifying.

After reaching the rst oor when you turn towards the right you come acrossrstly an unassuming room, the front of which is made of coarse wooden planks.From its outward shape no one can suspect that it is a store-house of such pre-cious volumes of Indian and Tibetan mms. The red seal was broken and the ar-chaic lock was opened. And the single panelled door was opened with a slightpush and a cloud of dust arose. Our throats were choked with the thick dustand for a moment we could not see what was in the interior. The whole oor

was covered with a thick layer of dust about one-third of an inch. We haltedfor a moment to let the dust subside. Then we saw in the three sides of the room(about ) encircling rows of open racks, where volumes on volumes of

Loc. cit.: " SAn kr

tyAyana ": -

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Sa-skya, the terrifying staircase (foto Michael Henss ").

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mms. were kept. Most of these mms. were wrapped in cloth. It did not take muchtime to nd the place where palm-leafmms. were kept, thanks to their quaintsize. Moreover the present custodians think it superuous to spend a single pen-ny to wrap them with cloth. In the middle of the left row I saw one palm-leaf

ms. and then after more search I discovered bundles of palm-leaf Sanskritmms. There was also one paper ms. of the Kalacakrat

|ka. ....

Palmleaf manuscripts being examined by Rahula San krtyayana in Sa-skya (jbors

").

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On that day I had just a look at those palm-leaf bundles and it is beyond mypower to describe my joy when I saw among those volumes the ms. of thecomplete Praman

a-Varttika-Bhas

ya, a portion of Dharmak|rtis own commentary

on the rst chapter of the P.V. and a complete sub-commentary on the same by

Karn

akagomin, and also the Yogacarabhumi ... .Now there was no question of leaving Sa-skya soon. I took two bundles with

me containing works relating to the Pramana-Varttika.

This introductory sketch should have made suciently clear that the Sanskritmanuscripts in Tibet not only have been property of dierent Tibetan monas-teries before " as they are now property of the state, the tar Government,but that they are also an integral part of Tibetan cultural and intellectual history.They therefore constitute an important area of the academic discipline of Tibetan

Studies, even if their contents form a part of Indology and Buddhist Studies.This fact of their multiple import is, however, also one of the roots of the pres-ent problem, namely scarcity of sucient and suciently informed research stato work on these materials. The crux of the matter is, that tibetologists, as a rule,are not also Sanskrit scholars, even in the West, and, with very rare exceptions,are never Sanskrit scholars in the modern prc.

Thus, while it is a quite natural wish on the side of modern tar and prc re-search management to have the necessary capacity for research on their own heri-tage among their own people, it is dicult to see just how such capacity canbe developed quickly to a degree that is appropriate to the dimension of the task.To some extent it surely must be attempted. But, given the scarcity of specialistseven on a global scale, only a practical approach to solve the problem will pro-mise reasonable results within a relatively short range of time. That practical so-lution is no other than international cooperation: The task to regain for thememory of the world greater parts of original literature from the most prolicperiod of Indian Buddhism simply demands the gathering of all available forcesthroughout the world to work together with Sanskritist in the prc who need

to specialise in these specic Tibetan sources and with tibetologists who needto receive sucient education in Sanskrit.

* * *

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We have now reached the th century. Favoured by the climatic conditions ofthe Tibetan highlands, by the settling of dust and the absence of termites, themanuscripts seemed to have been waiting for this amazing person KedarnathPandey alias Rahula San kr

tyayana ("-"), to bring them to the world of

learning once more. He went to Tibet four times, in "/, ", ", and". From the rst trip he brought back Tibetan manuscripts and xylographsand only the rumour of Sanskrit manuscripts. But the next journeys were richin harvest. Some manuscripts he copied, of most he took photos. It is easy tosee what made him search for Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet in the rst place. Ne-pal and its royal and private manuscript holdings had provided the major sourcesfor the study of Buddhism, particularly Mahayana and tantric Mantrayana Bud-dhism, during the "th century. In the nal years before World War I, the various

European expeditions to Central Asia discovered numerous manuscripts andfragments mostly from the second half of the rst millennium A.D. After hisrst trip to Tibet, Rahula was set on restoring the Praman

a-Varttika of Dharma-

k|rti when he was told that the Nepalese pandit Hemaraj Sarman had discoveredthe work in original Sanskrit. I quote: so I gave up the tasks and thought it pru-dent to see rst those Sanskrit mms. which were still preserved in Tibet, beforetaking any restoration work, lest it might prove an useless labour after the dis-covery of the original mms. Rahulas success can hardly be underestimated.The results of his eorts, under the most dicult of circumstances, are now inthe Bihar Research Society and copies in the Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research In-stitute in Patna, and are quite easily available through copies made for the Semi-nar of Indian and Buddhist Studies in Go ttingen. Much of the progress inBuddhist studies achieved during the post-war th century is due to San kr

tyaya-

nas vision and labour. In particular, the study of the Buddhist epistemologicaltradition owes a number of rst editions of huge and dicult texts of primary

The Potala, however, seems to be an exception. Humidity is a problem, and there arerats (cf. Chinas Tibet "/, , ) Cf. Bandurski ": "f. and SAn

krtyAyana ":". The pandit was accompanied by dGe-dun Chos-phel on

some of his journeys. For the latters memories and notes on manuscripts cf. dGe-dun Chos-phel ": -. Cf. Bandurski "

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importance to him. In fact, his unequalled diligence and editorial expertise haveshaped the very basis of modern scholarship in this eld. While new, critical edi-tions are no doubt necessary, our admiration for this scholars achievements willremain.

In the same period, Giuseppe Tucci ("-") photographed and had copiedmany Buddhist manuscripts during his expeditions since " to the western Hi-malaya and Central Tibet, particularly those in ", ", ", and ". He vis-ited the places also visited by San kr

tyayana, Sa-skya, N

or, and Za-lu, and manyof his photos are of the same manuscripts. However, due to the fact that afterthe war Tuccis interest shifted in emphasis more and more to Tibetan studiesproperly speaking, his intention to work on these materials himself or have themedited by his pupils was only partly realized. The collection as such, now kept

at the Istituto Italiano per lAfrica e lOriente in Rome, was almost inaccessibleuntil very recently. Tucci was by all means liberal with sharing his holdings withcolleagues. But it was dicult to know what they consisted of. A survey of thiscollection in the IsIAO with a provisional list of works has only recently beenprovided by Francesco Sferra, and, while it seems that parts of the originalholdings have presently unknown whereabouts, most of these materials is cer-tainly available by now.

After World War II Tucci was lucky to enter Tibet once more in ". Duringthis visit he found two more palm-leaf manuscripts of the th or th centurieswith poetical texts by two then still unknown authors. However, the subsequentglobal and regional political and social changes in general did not allow anyfurther searching for Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet by foreign scholars. Afterthe arrival of Chinese forces in Lhasa in September "" no travel to Tibet wasallowed by Westerners other than selected journalists and those from the Com-munist Block. This restriction became even tighter after the Uprising in ".

* * *

What happened to these manuscripts during the most tragic three or more years

Cf. Sferra

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of the Democratic Reform period which started in March ", and after the" Uprising and the ight of the Dalai Lama and other high lamas, when,as Tibetans remember rnam sa la zher pai skyab (The sky fell to the earth), is dif-cult to know, and even dicult to ask in weighing the value of cultural antiqui-

ties against human suering. Specic documents, if they exist, are inaccessible^ at least to me. The treatment of monastic properties can best be inferred fromthe twenty-four-year-old Panchen Lamas . Character Petition of ", adocument compiled during inspection tours in Xinjiang, Qinghai, SouthernChina, and the area later to be known as the Tibet Autonomous Region. Thisdocument is related to events between " and ", and was submitted onlyto Chinas most senior leaders at the time. The full document did not emerge be-fore ". It speaks of the eradication of Buddhist statues, scriptures and stupas,

the usage of the Tripit

aka as material for fertilisers and shoemaking, and the con-scation of monastic property.

The share of devastation and destruction caused by the leftist deviation inthe later Cultural Revolution period which began in Tibet with the banningof the Monlam New Years ceremonies in Lhasa in February ", and which isocially considered to have lasted until after Chairman Maos death in ", musthave also been considerable. Yet, it seems that the loss of Sanskrit manuscriptsduring this period was rather minimal, although the Cultural Revolution periodis still ocially acknowledged to be the main or only culprit, whereas the earliercatastrophe, which coincided with the great famine in China, has not been fo-cused upon so far.

The meagre information I have been able to gather can now be summarized.As said before, this data must be considered to be incomplete as well as uncer-tain. Historians of a later time and more experience than mine will surely be ableto improve on it. However, this is what I know for the moment:

F In " the manuscripts from Shalu (Za-lu) were already brought to the Pota-

la.F In "" a collection of ca manuscripts was sent to the library of the Palace

Tibet Information Network ". For the text and its authenticity cf. Barnett", for a historical evaluation cf. Norbu " and Shakya ": - Tibet Information Network ": f. and Shakya ":

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of National Minorities (Zhongguo Minzu Tushuguan) in Beijing as a loan fromthe Tibetan Government. It is unclear which governmental authority of theseyears was in charge of such matters. The traditional Tibetan Government, whichhad been allowed to remain in oce even after the Chinese forces arrived in

"", had been abolished in ". Its functions were exercised by the PreparatoryCommittee for the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region (pctar).Power rested with the newly-established Peoples Liberation Army Military Con-trol Committee. To quote from the White Paper The Development of Tibetan Cul-ture released by the Chinese Information Service in : As early as in June", the Tibet Cultural Relics, Historical Sites, Documents and Archives Man-agement Committee was established to collect and protect a large number of cul-tural relics, archives, and ancient books and records. At the same time, the cen-

tral peoples government assigned work teams to Lhasa, Xigaze and Shannanto conduct on-the-spot investigations of major cultural relics. In ", thisManagement Committee, was followed by the Cultural Relics AdministrationCommittee set up by the new Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region.F From " onwards, under provisions of the pctar, the Management Com-mittee seems to have ordered all manuscripts in possession of the monasteries,with the exception of the big ones around Lhasa and of Sakya, to be gatheredin Lhasa, most being brought to the Potala and fewer to Norbulingka, and somealso to the tar Archives newly founded in ". They can thus be consideredas having been saved from the later ravages of the Red Guards. For then the Po-tala was under protection as it served as military headquarters.F Nothing more is heard until after ". In " the prc Foreign Oce wasasked by the Indian Foreign Oce for a report on the Sanskrit manuscripts.The government was at a loss.F In " Dorje Cedan/Tseten, one of the most senior Tibetan cadres, protegeof Hu Yaobang since the latters visit to Lhasa in ", Chairman of the tar fromApril " to " and Deputy Party Secretary oftar from March " to June

", as well as in charge of founding the new Tibetan Academy of SocialSciences, took an interest in the matter. He commissioned Luo Zhao, a young

White Paper ii White Paper ii, last part

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scholar of Chan Buddhism and Chinese Buddhist logic, to prepare a list of thesemanuscripts.F From September " to July ", Luo Zhao worked in Tibet. He was givena contract by the Tibetan Government to prepare a list of all mss for the govern-

ment which was not to be published. By January ", after visits to Tsethangand Sakya, he had produced a description of the mss in Norbulingka which hereported to Beijing. Dorje Cedan approved of the report and it was publishedin September " in the ccp journal (unseen!). Subsequently Luo Zhao workedin the Potala from April " to June ".

Luo Zhao, *", studied history at Beijing University until ", followed byten years in the woods. As post-graduate after " he was a colleague ofWang Sen and a pupil of Ren Jiyu.

F The Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences sent its report to the ccp CentralCommittee on October ", ". It proposed the foundation of a research insti-tute in Lhasa, training of sta, composition of three to ve books on the manu-scripts to be written in cooperation between Tibetan and Han specialists, andthe idea to make selected materials available to Indian scholars. These proposi-tions were approved by Hu Qiaomu who was responsible for science in theStanding Committee of Chinas Central Advisory Committee.However, nothing came of this proposal. Major changes in the Tibetan Govern-ment in " seemed to have blocked further progress. Dorje Cedan left Lhasain " to become the rst director of the new national Tibet Research Centrein Beijing, now called China Tibetology Research Centre (ctrc). The institutethat had been intended for Lhasa was founded in Beijing, and one of the majortopics of research dened in Dorje Cedans presentation was Research on Pa-tra-Leaf Scripture Found in Lhasa."

" Cf. Srensen ": ""f. where he quotes from rDo-rje Tshe-brtan (Dorje Ce-dan) ": "

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F In the summer of " the manuscripts in Lhasa listed by Luo Zhao earlierwere photographed on orders from Dorje Cedan. Xerox copies of these photosare now at the ctrc. And Luo Zhaos activities in this regard end here.F In ", under Hu Jintao, tar Party Secretary from " to ", and by this

time already in a senior leadership position in Beijing, the mss collection in thePalace of National Minorities in Beijing was returned to Tibet except for threemss kept in the Palace library as specimens. This collection is now in Lhasasnew Tibet Museum.F To my last enquiries in November, I was told that the other collectionsstill remain in their last places: the Potala, Norbulingka, Drepung, Sakya,Tsethang, and possibly in the Lhasa Archives, the few mss in Tsethang beinghopefully safe in the heavy sheet-metal chest that I paid for in ".

* * *

After World War II, outside of the prc, scholars mainly concentrated on digest-ing the fruits of Rahula San kr

tyayanas eorts. His materials and editions caused

a veritable leap forward during the second half of the last century in our knowl-edge of various traditions of Indian Buddhism, particularly in regard to Bud-dhist epistemology. Thus, it was only after the end of the Cultural Revolutionthat some among us slowly began to think again of possibilities to gain accessto the original literary heritage assumed to still exist in Tibet of which San kr

-

tyayanas nds had given a tantalising taste. A survey of the more important sub-sequent enterprises can also serve to indicate the scholarly nucleus available to-day for international cooperation. Together these attempts successfully have

Films and copies are said to be also in Lhasa, but this has not been conrmed to mein Lhasa so far. It also seems to be the case that Luo Zhao was not given all manuscriptsin the collections for preparing his lists. In any case we have to assume that neitherhis lists nor the later lms and copies are comprehensively covering the whole extentmaterial At least one manuscripts from this collection has been seen, however, by a Japanesecolleague in the Tibet Museum when he visited in "

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managed to create an awareness for the need of action in Lhasa and Beijing, aswell as for the necessity of some sort of cooperation.

In most cases, individual scholars from outside China, sometimes backed bytheir universities or national research organizations, attempted to be allowed ac-

cess. To date none of them has managed to establish ocial links with any ofthe mss administrating institutions in the prc through which regular academicaccess to these collections could be secured. Individual Chinese scholars mustalso be mentioned, such as Prof. Zhang Baosheng, a student of Prof. Ji Xianlin,who published the *Sadhanasataka facsimile in " in Vienna, and the late Prof.Jiang Zhongxin (Chiang Chung-hsin), who evidently was not only allowed topublish certain manuscripts in facsimile in the early "ies, but even to bringspecimens to the West, such as the Madhyamakahr

daya manuscript, then kept in

Beijing, to Copenhagen during his stay there in " on the invitation of Dr.Christian Lindtner.An exception is Taisho University, Tokyo, which, under its president Matsuna-

mi Yoshiro, was able to cooperate with the Library in the Palace of NationalMinorities, Beijing, in publishing facsimile editions of selected manuscripts fromits collection on loan. The rst one was the Sravakabhumi ms published in". Matsunamis achievements are particularly valuable. He was not only ableto continue this enterprise, and in " even published a Collection of SanskritPalm-leaf Manuscripts in Tibetan dBu med Script on the basis of a contract withthe Cultural Relics Administration Committee of the tar Government, butwithin the Institute for Comprehensive Studies of Buddhism of Taisho Univer-sity has also established dierent study groups who work under the guidanceof Prof. HisaoTakahashi on the palaeography of these mss, prepare transliteratedand critical editions of high quality and Japanese translations of the texts re-ceived. The eorts of Taisho University have been rewarded " by Prof. Taka-hashis discovery of the Sanskrit original of the Vimalak|rtinivdesa in the Potalacollection. The only denite drawback to these Japanese facsimile editions that

must be mentioned is their prohibitive price which errects a dierent kind of ac-cessibility barrier. Nevertheless, these working teams gathered at Taisho Univer-sity are by now, aside from the small team in Vienna, the only major group ofscholars well-experienced in this regard, and can be expected to contribute inthe future considerably to the publication and the study of these texts.

Between "" and ", Prof. Johannes Bronkhorst and Prof. Tom J. F. Tille-

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mans, from the University of Lausanne, discussed the issue of these Sanskritmanuscripts with most of the ocials responsible at that time in Beijing andLhasa, as well as with the few informed scholars. The enquiries shed some lighton the complexities of the issue, but no activity resulted directly from their ef-

forts. This move of the Swiss scholars was further strongly assisted from theNorwegian side through the agreements realised by Prof. Jens Braarvig, Univer-sity of Oslo, who in " to " lead missions to establish the successful Univer-sity Cooperation Tibet-Norway which is in existence since ".

A rough survey of my own modest eorts which have recently been character-ized by a good friend as ghostly can now be added. In these eorts I wasguided by the very same four principles which Lhagpa Phuntshogs, the presentdirector of the China Tibetology Research Centre, summarized for future coop-

erations on these matters at the conclusion of our last meeting in September thisyear: sincerity, consolidation, precaution, belief. Sincerity in the scholarly andcultural intentions, consolidation in the form of ocially acknowledged coop-erations, precaution in taking the right paths at the right times, and belief inthe value for all mankind.

In "", when I convened the Csoma de Koro s Tibetological Conference inVienna, Prof. Wang Yao was the rst tibetologist from the prc to be allowedto attend a conference in the West. Subsequently he was a guest professor atVienna University twice. From him I learned about the intricacies of the scho-larly and institutional life in the prc of the eighties. I would like to take this oc-casion to acknowledge my sincere gratitude to him in the stead of so many otherswho later continued to help me to understand what was going on and whathad happened, and, what is more, what did not happen, and why not.

In " I was lucky to be taken along to Beijing with a delegation of the Aus-trian Academy of Sciences to sign its agreement with the Chinese Academy ofSocial Sciences. I took the occasion to present to the Chinese Academy a Memor-andum concerning Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts from Tibetan monasteries - historical back-

ground and proposals for research. During this visit I also met Prof. Wang Sen at theCentral Institute for National Minorities. He was Chinas leading scholar in theBuddhist epistemological tradition, and at this time already terminally ill, but at-tended the ocial meeting nevertheless, during which he whispered to me. Itwas then that I heard that Dharmak|rtis Praman

aviniscaya had just been found

in the Potala. Only this spring did I realise that this news must have been con-

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tained in the letter written to Wang Sen by Luo Zhao from Lhasa just some daysbefore our meeting.

In the following years I used every occasion of contact with ocials and scho-lars from all over the prc to explain the historical background, and my ideas

on what should be done. All tibetological delegations sent to Europe since" have also had to listen to this when visiting Vienna.

In the late eighties and early nineties, when other scholars in Europe began toestablish their own contacts, we kept aligning our separate approaches. Togetherwith Bronkhorst and Schmithausen I even signed a letter addressed to the Cul-tural Relics Administration in Lhasa in "". We received no answer.

In ", in preparation of an agreement between the Austrian Academy ofSciences and the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences, I visited Lhasa, met open

interest and received valuable information on the state of the manuscripts in Ti-bet, and was even allowed to see some of the manuscripts in the Norbulingka.In ", together withJens Braarvig, I sent another memorandum entitled On

initiating a joint project for preservation of and research on Sanskrit Palm Leaf Manuscriptsin Tibet to Lhasa and Tibet. Again we received no answer. The same year, viathe Austrian unesco oce, I probed the interest of the unesco Memory ofthe World programme in a project Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tibet. Again noanswer.

However, the memorandum sent with Braarvig seems to have had some eectin Lhasa. In the spring of ", the Tibetan Academy together with the CulturalRelics Administration and the tar Oce for Foreign Cultural Exchange pre-sented an application to the tar Government on much the same lines as con-tained in our memorandum. When I was in Lhasa in ", director Dotar/Dutaiof the tar Foreign Cultural Exchange oce, was hoping to have a green lightsoon. But, sadly, he passed away before the end of the year, and this project un-folded no further. Yet while, particularly after a frustrating trip to Sakya, I wastempted to leave further eorts to younger colleagues at this time, the talks to

friends and some ocials in Lhasa clearly showed that considerable progress ininformation, awareness and willingness had been made.

Still, it was not until November, that a substantial break-through wasachieved.

Cf. Appendix

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In June, the Academic Committee of the China Tibetology ResearchCentre (ctrc) invited a group of overseas scholars in Tibetan Studies to Beijingwith the purpose of promoting scholarly exchange. Since Prof. Lhagpa Phun-tshogs had succeeded Dorje Cedan in as director-general of this Research

Center, my hopes for being able to promote the by then twenty-year-old enter-prise had risen somewhat.

Lhagpa Phuntshogs (*") had been president of the tass from "-"",and secretary-general of the Research Association for the Qinghai-Tibet Pla-teau from ""-. I rst met him in " at the Csoma de Koro s Confer-ence in Sopron, Hungary, and remembered good and open talks.

At the rst meeting, November ", , I raised the topic of the Sanskrit manu-

scripts and caught the interest of the ctrc representatives present. We discussedthe issues of the lack of experts in the prc, of the absence of cooperations ofthe ctrc even with the Sanskrit scholars within the prc, particularly at BeijingUniversity and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and of the need for in-ternational cooperation to full one of the six major research projects mentionedat the very foundation of their institution back in the late eighties. Finally, to-gether with Lhagpa Phuntshogs, we tried to pin down the main cause still im-peding any progress in this regard. The answer we found for the question ofthe still remaining major obstacle was simple: an unnecessarily wide applicationof the Law on the Protection of Cultural Objects.

This law, which was accepted in an amended form by the "th congregation ofthe Standing Committee of the "th National Peoples Congress on October ,, regulates the protection of immovable and movable cultural objects(wen-wu) and, thus, also concerns valuable documents and manuscripts (wen-xian). The law, although emphasizing the need for research on these objects(Chapter iv, ), does not allow research on objects in ocial collections forwhich there is as yet no inventory (Chapter iv, ). What we then found in ad-

dition, was that in talking about scholarly work on the palm-leaf manuscripts,the tale loma, no clear distinction had been made so far between the concrete ma-terial of the palm-leaf manuscripts themselves as cultural objects (wen-wu), i.e.the material objects that have to be protected and preserved as such and that

See p. .

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are still in need of being taken stock of, and the contents (nei-rong) of thesemanuscripts, the information (hsin-hsi) contained that has to be made availableby means of copies and scholarly editions in order to be studied.

This down-to-earth analysis formed a veritable meeting of minds, and re-

mained the basis of all further developments. In consequence, all cooperationwill be referring, for the time being, not to the palm-leaf manuscripts them-selves, but only to the copies made from the photos taken in the eighties andnow available in the collections of the ctrc. Before the last Conference of the In-ternational Association for Tibetan Studies at Oxford, early September, ,we exchanged drafts of an agreement between the ctrc and the Austrian Acad-emy of Sciences (aas). At the conference, Lhagpa Phuntshogs already referredto a future cooperation, and in Vienna, after the conference, we met again and

worked together on a nal text. This agreement will be signed, we hope, earlynext year. It is meant to be valid for three years as a rst step in what we thinkof as being a carefully guided step-by-step process.

This agreement will primarily provide ". access to copies of the Sanskritmanuscripts in the ctrc, Beijing, . joint editorial and research work on selectedtexts from these copies, . joint publication by the ctrc publishing house andthe aas press of a series to be called Sanskrit Texts from the tar, and . thepossibility of incorporating into this agreement the work on such texts by scho-lars associated with the aas institute in Vienna, even if they are already workingon the basis of copies unocially received through whatever channels duringthe last years. Sub-agreements will accompany every step of this cooperation,and it remains to be seen, how durable and how practicable the rst arrange-ments will be. And not a minor point in all this will be how the Austrian ScienceFund will react to my new inroads on its budget. In any case, I hope this agree-ment will mean that the texts contained in the legacy of Sanskrit manuscriptsin Tibet will slowly become accessible to the world again, for otherwise this heri-tage would be nothing but dead matter and of no value to anybody.

A descriptive catalogue of the copies available at the ctrc, in my opinion, hasto be one of the rst tasks. First publications in the new series will consist of dip-lomatic and critical editions of the rst chapter of Jinendrabuddhis Praman

asa-

The agreement was signed January th,

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muccayat|kaprepared in Vienna and of editions of the Saddharmapun

d

ar|kasutra pre-

pared by the late Prof. Jiang Zhongxin.At the same time, in Vienna, I am planning to create a list of the texts and

manuscripts in form of a relational data-bank to be placed on the internet in or-

der to provide global scholarly access for enriching and correcting the informa-tion.

Finally: Since it is very clear that no critical editorial work can be considerednished without the possibility to inspect the original at least once, in the longrun it will be necessary to convince the tar authorities of the need for makingscans of the manuscripts themselves for them to be subsequently available onthe internet. For such a future project we already have a clear and well-estab-lished precedent: In , the British Library already signed a memorandum

of understanding with the National Library of China concerning the Interna-tional Dunhuang Project. This memorandum regulates the availability of imagesdigitised from the National Librarys collection of Tibetan documents fromDunhuang. Thus it may be not unreasonable to hope also for the Sanskrit manu-scripts from the tar that they will be seen by future scholars world-wide inthe internet. Moreover, this hope is not totally unrealistic. The latest news haveit, that in accordance with the new law mentioned and on behalf of the tar Gov-ernment the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences is presently launching a projectto create an inventory of the huge collection of Tibetan manuscripts and xylo-graphs in the temple of Sakya. Since the existence of respective inventories isthe main condition for any move, exhibit or external study of such objects, thismeans, as a precedent, that with regard to the tar Sanskrit mss collections atleast one major implementation of the new law is already under way.

If, as can be assumed, the Sanskrit manuscripts photographed and therefore

Cf. The Buddhist Heritage "/", : "

That this whole matter is developing may further be concluded from the mostrecent report of XINHUA online Tibet protects rare ancient Buddhist scriptures(www.xinhuanet.com/english/-/"/content___".htm). It is said that the Ti-bet Autonomous Region has worked out a plan to beef up the protection of rare Bud-dhist scriptures written on pattra leaves and a leading group will be formed to coordi-nate eorts in this regard. and that an ocial of the Tibet Regional Cultural RelicsBureau assesses the number of pattra-leaf scriptures as approximately ".

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available through copies in the ctrc are only a part of the manuscripts extant inthe tar collections, the description of the ctrc holdings will be at least a helpfulrst step towards a complete description of the Sanskrit manuscripts in thetar. Eventually, and probably best in the process of preparing the scans, the

manuscripts not yet identied will have to be described as well.At the moment it may then not be premature to sum up by stating that in all

probability the present and the next generation of Buddhist scholars will be ablestep by step to study this great and exciting corpus of the Sanskrit manuscriptsfrom Tibet, one of the last hidden treasures of Asia, and incorporate it nallyinto the intellectual and spiritual history of mankind.

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ABBREVIATIONS

aas Austrian Academy of Sciencesccp Chinese Communist Party

ctrc China Tibetology Research Centerisiao Istituto Italiano per lAfrica e lOrienteprc Peoples Republic of Chinatar Tibet Autonomous Regiontass Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences

CHINESE WORDS

wen-wu

wen-xian

nei-rong

hsin-hsi

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APPENDIX: ME MORANDUM OF "

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