Strengthening the air quality management community in Asia www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia Urban Air Quality and its Management in Asia: Status Report 2006 Sustainable Urban Mobility in Asia A CAI-Asia Program Regional Dialogue of Air Quality Management Initiatives and Programs in Asia 12 October 2006 Bangkok, Thailand
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Strengthening the air quality management community in Asiawww.cleanairnet.org/caiasia
Urban Air Quality and its Management in Asia:
Status Report 2006
Sustainable Urban Mobility in AsiaA CAI-Asia Program
Regional Dialogue of Air Quality Management Initiatives and Programs in
Asia12 October 2006
Bangkok, Thailand
Strengthening the air quality management community in Asiawww.cleanairnet.org/caiasia
Outline of Presentation
• Objective: Present an overview of current status of AQM in Asia:– Status of drivers of urban air pollution– Emissions Inventories and Source Apportionment– Relationship Ambient Air Quality Standards with
WHO guideline values, US-EPA and EU standards– Status of urban quality and ambient
Concentration of PM versus the new WHO PM standards
– Status and Trends in controlling emissions from mobile sources
– Status and Trends in controlling emissions from stationary sources
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Total Energy Consumption in Asia
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
mill
ion
to
nn
es
oil
eq
uiv
ale
nt
Total Asia China India Indonesia ThailandSource: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
Strengthening the air quality management community in Asiawww.cleanairnet.org/caiasia
Energy Mix in Asia 1990-2005
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
mill
ion
to
nn
es
oil
eq
uiv
ale
nt
Hydroelectric 77 95 103 149
Nuclear Energy 65 93 113 125
Coal 767 993 1,041 1,568
Natural Gas 121 171 236 332
Oil 611 801 915 1,049
1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
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0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Elec
trici
ty G
ener
atio
n, T
Wh
Asia Total
China
India
Japan
Indonesia
Thailand
Electricity Generation in Asia
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
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Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006Note: Some countries in the EU are also included in OECD.
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Coal Production - Coal Consumption
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
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Coal Consumption, Mtoe
China, P.R. and India
Indonesia and Thailand
0
5
10
15
20
25
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Co
al
Co
ns
um
pti
on
, M
toe
Thailand
Indonesia
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Co
al C
on
sum
pti
on
, M
toe
China
India
• All the countries in Asia exhibited increase in coal consumption from 2004 to 2005
• Generally, the largest increases from 2004 to 2005 coal consumption are in Asia (e.g. China - 10.9%, Pakistan – 14.8%, Phils – 17.7% and Thailand –12.1%)
2005 World Coal Consumption
Other Asia9%
China37%
Total North America
21%
Total S & C America
1%
Total Europe & Eurasia
18%
Total Middle East and
Africa4%
India7%
Australia and other Asia
Pacific3%
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
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Oil Consumption, Million Tonnes
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Oil
Con
sum
ptio
n, M
illio
n to
nnes
China
India
China, P.R. and India
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Oil
Con
sum
ptio
n, M
illio
n T
onne
s
Thailand
Indonesia
Indonesia and Thailand
2005 World Oil Consumption
Total North America
29%
India3%China
9%
Other Asia16%
Middle East and Africa
10%
Total Europe & Eurasia
25%
Total S. & Cent.
America6%
Australia and Other
Asia Pacific2%
• All the countries in Asia except for Hong Kong, India, Malaysia and Philippines exhibited increase in oil consumption from 2004 to 2005.
• % increase in oil consumption are lower than % increase in coal consumption.Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy
2006
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Refinery Capacities in Asia
Indonesia
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
thou
sand
s ba
rrel
s da
ily
India
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
tho
us
an
ds
ba
rre
ls d
aily
Thailand
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
tho
us
an
ds
ba
rre
ls d
aily
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
China
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
tho
us
an
ds
ba
rre
ls d
aily
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Natural Gas Consumption, Mtoe
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Na
tura
l G
as
Co
ns
um
pti
on
, M
toe China
India
Indonesia
Thailand
• With the exception of Hong Kong and Singapore, all countries in Asia have increased consumption of natural gas from 2004 to 2005.
• Share of Asia in world natural gas consumption has increased from 8.8% in 1995 to 13.4% in 2005 while share of Europe and North America has decreased for the same period.
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
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Energy intensity – BTU per $PPP 1990-2004
Source: Energy Information Administration
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
BTU
per
US
D$
PP
P
United States United KingdomChina Hong KongIndia Japan
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Average of Asian CountriesChinaIndiaIndonesiaThailand
Energy intensity – BTU per $PPP 1990 - 2004
Source: Energy Information Administration
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Motorization Trends in Asia
Registered 2 - 3 wheelers in Asia '000 (1990 to 2003)
-
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
China, PRIndiaIndonesiaTaipei,ChinaViet Nam
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0
100
200
300
400
500
2005 2008 2015 2025 2035
Vehicle Growth Forecast in Asian Countries(in Millions of Vehicles)
Note: Vehicle Population Projection from Segment Y Ltd
China, P.R.
0
100
200
300
400
500
2005 2008 2015 2025 2035
India
0
20
40
60
80
100
2005 2008 2015 2025 2035
Thailand
0
20
40
60
80
100
2005 2008 2015 2025 2035
Indonesia
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PM10 and CO2 Forecast for China and India
0
400
800
1200
1600
2005 2008 2015 2025 20350
1000
2000
3000
4000
2005 2008 2015 2025 2035
Thousand Tons of PM10 Million Tons of CO2
China, P.R.India
Source: ADB, 2006
*Projected PM10 and CO2 are based on current plans for emission (Euro) standards and fuel efficiency targets in China and India
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Emission Inventories: Scope and Coverage (1)
• Emission inventories remain the weak link in AQM in the majority of Asian countries. Emission inventories are often often conducted as part of donor-funded programs and academic researches, only in few cases it is used for government regulatory purposes such as in PRC and Thailand
• With the exception of China and Hong Kong, EIs are usually partial and not covering all sources. Mostly mobile sources are covered, less often stationary and seldom area sources
• Criteria pollutants (PM, CO, SO2, NOx, HC) are usually covered in the EIs
• Most of the emission inventory studies are ad-hoc meaning that they are not repeated on a regular basis which makes trend analysis difficult
• Important study which was started recently is the India Clean Air Program which is the most comprehensive effort to develop emission inventory in India yet. However, also this project is an ad-hoc effort and not part of a regularly repeated effort.
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Emission Inventories: Methodology and Accuracy
• Compiling emission inventories remains a challenge in Asia due to non-standardized source categorization, operating data not systematically tabulated, inaccurate information and no specific reporting requirements
• Most studies have used the WHO and US EPA emission factors, requiring a need to evaluate the applicability and representativeness of these numbers to Asian sources and conditions
• Comparisons of emissions between different base years are difficult to assess due to differences in methodology (e.g., one year based on emission factors and the next on actual source testing)
• Activity data for many categories are usually incomplete and outdated. Most EIs are based on secondary data where erroneous assumptions are taken into consideration thus decreasing reliability of the estimates
• Limited information is available on the quality assurance methods used, except in China and Singapore where validations and evaluation of accuracy/uncertainty are being carried out
• What if there would be an international body to develop and implement internationally accepted methodology and reporting protocols for emission inventories (i.e., IPCC guidelines for GHGI) ?
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Trends in Source Apportionment of PM
• Source Apportionment studies are not carried out regularly. Where they are conducted this is mostly by academic institutions and/or institutions outside the Ministries of Environment and the use for policy formulation is limited.
• Fair amount of experience is now available with source-receptor techniques both outside and in Asia, but they are not being applied on a routine basis in Asian countries in support of AQ policy making or the evaluation of AQ policy measures.
• Example is the IAEA PM characterization studies which after years of piloting have not been taken up by regulatory agencies in the countries where implemented.
• The source apportionment studies that are conducted in Asia for PM show large ranges in the sources (mobile, stationary, area, biomass burning). The ranges are so large that they can not be explained by vehicle fleet data.
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Disclosure and Utilization
• Only a few countries such as P.R. China, Philippines and Thailand have published the emissions inventory in full however no information is available on the quality assurance methods being implemented.
• Source apportionment techniques are not being utilized for validation and improvement of the emissions inventory and enhancement of understanding of the linkages between particular emission sources and ambient air quality.
• Turning these data into useful input for decision-making remains an enormous challenge as EIs and SAs are not being utilized in identifying control strategies (rules, enforceability and compliance, voluntary measures, availability of inputs to evaluate control effectiveness).
• Policymaking generally based on no-regret policies and not based on detailed emissions inventories and source apportionment which can effectively focus resources on integrated control measures and requirements for the sources most responsible for the resulting poor air quality. Positive exception is P.R. China where SO2 emission inventories are now being used on a routine basis to formulate SO2 control measures.
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• Ambient air quality in Asia is still generally improving despite continued increase in motorization and energy use
• Average ambient TSP, PM10 and SO2 trends are improving
• Average ambient TSP and PM10, however, continue to exceed WHO and USEPA guidelines
• Average ambient SO2 is in compliance with WHO guideline
• NO2 close to guidelines
• Insufficient information on O3 for reliable trend analysis
• It is uncertain whether the observed improvements in air quality will be sustained
Aggregated Annual Ambient AQ Trends, g/m3 (1993 to 2005)
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Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia
Country Pollutants Remarks
Bangladesh TSP, CO, NOx, and
SO2
1997 standards established for a few pollutants depending on land use category; new standards are pending approval
China TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb
Standards require cities to comply with Class I, II, or III standards. Class I standards more stringent than the WHO and USEPA limits
Hong Kong TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb, O3
Standards less stringent than WHO and USEPA limits
India TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb
Established based on different land-use categories i.e. industrial, residential and sensitive areas.
Indonesia TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb
National and local (Jakarta) standards less stringent that WHO; PM limits less stringent than USEPA
Japan CO, NO2, O3, SO2, TSP Comparable and to some extent more stringent than WHO guidelines with the exception of CO limits for an 8-hour exposure.
Nepal TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb, C6H6
Established only in 2003; standards less stringent than WHO; PM limits less stringent than USEPA
Pakistan No legislated ambient air quality standards
Philippines TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb
based and comparable to WHO and USEPA (for PM10). Standards more lenient, selecting the higher/max allowable limits
Singapore PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3
Despite adopting only both WHO guidelines and USEPA limits, Singapore PSI reporting is very efficient
Sri-Lanka TSP, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb
TSP standards twice more lenient than USEPA, No annual standard for SO2, 24-hour limit for SO2, a slightly lenient O3 and NO2 compared with USEPA and WHO, respectively
Thailand TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb
TSP twice more lenient than USEPA; SO2 and CO almost same as USEPA limit, stringent NO2 compared to WHO
Vietnam TSP, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb
Hourly limits for NO2 and CO are more lenient than WHO, no PM10 standards, the rest of the standards are almost same as WHO
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Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia: PM2.5
• PM2.5 is increasingly acknowledged by WHO, USEPA, and the EU as the major pollutant of concern because of very high correlation with associated health impacts
• In almost all Asian countries, standards for PM2.5 have not been legislated and there seem to be no immediate plans from Asian governments to develop PM 2.5 standards
• Only Singapore and recently Bangladesh have adopted PM2.5 standards based on the old USEPA standards
• As a consequence, PM2.5 is not regularly monitored by Asian governments and only ad-hoc monitoring from project-based studies are available
• This poses a serious challenge for assessing health impacts of PM2.5 and the formulation and implementation of PM 2.5 control strategies
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Air Quality Monitoring
• With the exception of few countries, most Asian countries do not have immediate and clear plans to expand or upgrade existing AQ monitoring systems– Pakistan has indicated its plans to establish continuous
AQ monitoring stations in five major cities in 2007– CPCB in India has established real-time continuous
monitoring of pollutants in four locations in Delhi and is now considering expansion of AQ monitoring capacity
• The number and location of existing monitoring stations are generally not representative of the population
• Programs to ensure the sustainability of operations of AQ monitoring stations and regular maintenance of equipment have caused degradation and inoperability of several AQ monitoring stations in Asian countries such as Indonesia
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Air Quality Reporting
• In China, the government is continuing its drive to expand the coverage of its AQ monitoring stations but there is no indication of plans to report actual ambient AQ data instead of APIs
• After more than five years of not reporting AQ information, Malaysia is now releasing AQ data to the public in the form of APIs
• More cities and countries are starting to publish AQ data on websites and in media
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0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Bangladesh
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia*
Japan*
Nepal*
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
concentrations in µg/m3
WHO 2005
USEPA
WHO
2005 IT-
1
WHO 2005 IT-2
WHO 2005 IT-3
EU *No annual ambient air quality standards, only 24-hour limits
Annual Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM10
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PM10 Annual Ambient Concentrations in Asian Cities (2005) (1)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Bangk
ok
Beijing
Chiang
Mai
Colom
bo
Dhaka
Ho Chi
Minh
Hong
Kong
Kathm
andu
Kolkat
a
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Shang
hai
Singap
ore
Surab
aya
Taipei,
China
Xi'an
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
WHO 2005 Guideline Value for Annual Average of PM10 = 20 µg/m3
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PM10 Annual Ambient Concentrations in Asian Cities (2005) (2)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Bangk
ok
Beijing
Chiang
Mai
Colom
bo
Dhaka
Ho Chi
Minh
Hong
Kong
Kathm
andu
Kolkat
a
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Shang
hai
Singap
ore
Surab
aya
Taipei,
China
Xi'an
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
WHO 2005 PM10 Interim Target – 1 = 30 µg/m3
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PM10 Annual Ambient Concentrations in Asian Cities (2005) (3)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Bangk
ok
Beijing
Chiang
Mai
Colom
bo
Dhaka
Ho Chi
Minh
Hong
Kong
Kathm
andu
Kolkat
a
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Shang
hai
Singap
ore
Surab
aya
Taipei,
China
Xi'an
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
WHO 2005 PM10 Interim Target – 2 = 50 µg/m3
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PM10 Annual Ambient Concentrations in Asian Cities (2005) (4)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Bangk
ok
Beijing
Chiang
Mai
Colom
bo
Dhaka
Ho Chi
Minh
Hong
Kong
Kathm
andu
Kolkat
a
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Shang
hai
Singap
ore
Surab
aya
Taipei,
China
Xi'an
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
WHO 2005 PM10 Interim Target – 3 = 70 µg/m3
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Roadside Air Pollution and Health Impacts
U Fine, Black Carbon, CO peak near roadways (Los Angeles)
(PM 2.5 consistent) (Zhu et al 2003)
PM mass
Particle numbers
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0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
Roadside SPMAmbient SPMRoadside PM10Ambient PM10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
con
cen
tra
tion
s in
µg
/m3
Ambient PM10
Roadside PM10
Hong Kong
Bangkok • Roadside particulate
levels are always higher than ambient confirming that vehicles are major PM source
• Increased number of policies on mobile sources (e.g. fuel quality and stricter emission standards) can help to close the gap between ambient and roadside levels
Roadside versus Ambient Particulate Matter Concentrations
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Benchmarking Air Quality Management Capabilities in Asia
AQM Capability
AQM Capability Scoring
Cities Level of Economic Development/
Trends of Air Pollution
Excellent I 91-100 Hong Kong, Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo
• High technology applied• Low air pollution
Excellent II 81-90 Bangkok, Seoul, Shanghai
Good I 71-80 Beijing, Busan • Maturing of cleaner processes, use of cleaner fuels and mature emission controls.
• Further improvement of air quality
Good II 61-70 New Delhi
Moderate I 51-60 Ho Chi Minh, Jakarta, Kolkata, Manila, Mumbai
• Cleaner processes developed. Systematic AQM procedures developed
• Air pollution decreasing from high levels
Moderate II 41-50 Colombo
Limited I 31-40 Hanoi, Surabaya • Urbanisation, industrialisation and mobilisation continued. Initial systematic AQM procedures applied
• High but stabilising levels of air pollution. Serious health and environmental impacts
Limited II 21-30 Dhaka, Kathmandu
Minimal 0-20 - • Increased urbanisation, mobilization and industrialisation. Only ad hoc AQM.
• Deterioration of air quality through rising levels of air pollution
•The Benchmarking study involved 20 cities in Asia representing various economic levels and geographic coverage.
•The cities were categorized according to four AQM capability indices – 1) AQ measurement; 2) data availability and assessment; 3) emission estimates; and 4) AQ management enabling capacity.
•Cities with high levels of economic development tend to have well-developed AQM systems
•Benchmarking of AQM capability can assist cities in setting priorities and developing strategies for strengthening their AQM capability
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• Compared to five years ago, more Asian countries have now adopted or have legislated plans to adopt stricter vehicle emissions standards as well as fuel standards
• Emphasis has been on institutionalizing new vehicle emissions standards and not enough attention has been given in addressing emissions from in-use vehicles
• More attention has been given as well to light-duty vehicles compared to heavy duty vehicles
• One of the most pressing problem of Asian countries is the rapid increase in the motorcycle fleet but not enough attention has been given towards appropriate regulatory measures to control the associated emissions
Vehicle Emissions Standards
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Italics – under discussiona – gasolineb – dieselc – Entire countryd – Delhi and other cities; Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai in 2001; Euro 2 in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Khampur, Pune and Ahmedabad in 2003, Euro 3 to be introducede – Beijing and Guangzhou (as of 01 September 2006) have adopted Euro 3 standards; Shanghai has requested the approval of the State Council for implementation of Euro 3 f – Euro 4 for gasoline vehicles and California ULEV standards for diesel vehiclesg – Gasoline vehicles under consideration
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Land-use Planning and Transportation
• Land-use planning, perhaps the most powerful regulatory tool that can be used to address vehicular emissions, is still seldom used by most Asian countries
• Governments and development institutions have started to place an increasing emphasis on urban transportation issues, particularly on public transportation
• International organizations have acknowledged the direct relationship between climate change mitigation and the promotion of public transportation and have initiated several projects on this
• Several countries in Asia have now started to develop sustainable urban transportation policies promoting public transportation, i.e. Bus-rapid transit
• In China, the Vice Minister of Construction, Qui Baoxing, has ordered city authorities to improve and maintain cycling facilities and in to order to restore the country’s title as the "kingdom of bicycles"
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The 6-lane Cheonggyecheon highway will soon be transformed into a riverscape
Paradigm shift in urban & transportation planning (1)
Seoul - Asia’s Big Dig
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• Nihonbashi, one of the main historic areas in Tokyo sits oppressed under an eight-lane expressway
• It was once the point from which distances in Japan were measured
• A government project is now looking at ways to restore Nihonbashi’s old look
• The recommendation is to transfer 2km of the Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway underground and create space along the river for waterside life
• The committee looking at this issue believe that restoring the Nihonbashi area's cityscape to its original state serves as a basic guideline for urban renewal plans to be put together in the future
Paradigm shift in urban & transportation planning (2)
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Bus Rapid Transit in Asia
Akita, JapanAnkara, TurkeyBeijing, ChinaFukuoka, JapanGifu, JapanHangzhou, China
Jakarta, Indonesia Kanazuwa, JapanKunming, China Miyazaki, JapanNagaoka, JapanNagoya, Japan
Nigata, JapanSeoul, South KoreaShijiazhuang, China Taipei,China
Systems in operation (16):
Systems in planning or under construction (25):Ahmedabad, India Bangalore, IndiaBangkok, Thailand Chengdu, China Chongqing, ChinaColombo, Sri-LankaDelhi, IndiaGuangzhou, China
Huai’an, ChinaHyderabad, IndiaIncheon, South Korea Jinan, ChinaKarachi, PakistanMakati City, PhilippinesMetro Manila, PhilippinesPune, India Shanghai, China
Shengyan, ChinaSurabaya, IndonesiaT’aichung, ChinaT’ainan, China Tienjing, ChinaWuhan, ChinaXi’an, ChinaXiamen, China
“Overall, more cities are now planning or building BRT systems in Asia than cities planning or constructing subway or light rail lines”
Note: List as of October 2006
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China and India Urban Transportation Policy
• Both China, P.R. and India have developed policies that call for the integration of transport system plans with urban development, equitable allocation of road space and increased investments on public transportation, including BRT, rail and non-motorized transportation:– The National Development and Reform Commission
(NDRC) Guideline states that the 11th Five-Year Plan of China, P.R. which started in 2006 will prioritize the development of public transportation with mass rapid transit (MRT) as a key transport mode in mega cities.
– The 2006 Indian National Urban Transport Policy vision is to “recognize that people occupy center-stage in our (Indian) cities and all plans would be for their common benefit and well being” i.e., invest on more on transport systems that encourage greater use of public transport and non-motorized modes instead of personal motor vehicles
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Retrofitting Buses
• Seoul has implemented a comprehensive project on retrofitting all its buses with after-treatment devices in Seoul, Incheon and Gyeonggi – In 2005, over 29,000 vehicles were fitted with either
diesel particulate filters or DOCs, according to the class of vehicle.
– The scheme has now entered its Main Program phase, and in 2006 a further 83,000 vehicles will be fitted with after-treatment devices
• In Tokyo, a program which started in 1999 has paved the way for the wide circulation of low sulfur diesel fuel and continuous regeneration DPFs
• Several cities like Beijing, Bangkok, and Pune have pursued pilot projects on retrofitting
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2-Stroke Gasoline Rickshaws
• Several Asian cities have a big problem with emissions from 2-stroke gasoline three-wheelers
• A trend has emerged on the complete ban of 2-stroke three-wheelers in several Asian cities:– In Delhi, 2-stroke rickshaws have
been banned in favor of 4-stroke rickshaws that run on CNG and is now 100% free from 2-stroke gasoline rickshaws
– In Kathmandu, a similar ban has been effected and prohibits the operations of such vehicles in the valley
– Dhaka no longer allows the operations of 2-stroke rickshaws in the city
– In Lahore start has been made in banning 2-stroke rickshaws and Karachi is considering it
• Jakarta has introduced CNG bajajs in the city and have started to ban 2-stroke rickshaws
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Electric bikes in China, P.R.
•Electric bikes in China increased from only 40,000 in 1998 to 10 million in 2005
•Sales increased from about 7.5 million units in in 2004 to 10 million units in 2005
•This dramatic growth has been largely due to legislation banning gasoline fuelled scooters and bicycles, introduced from 1996 onwards in several major Chinese cities
•The most problematic issue with electric bikes is the use of lead acid batteries that have high lead loss rates during the production, manufacturing and recycling processes
Sources: ADB, 2006; Cherry, 2006; Weinert, 2006
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Natural Gas Vehicles
• Emphasis have been on gasoline vehicle conversions to run on CNG in the past
• A trend towards replacing diesel-fed public transportation modes with CNG is being adopted by several Asian countries
• Several Asian countries, like Pakistan, India, and Indonesia have aggressively adopted measures to convert their existing 2-stroke rickshaws to CNG
Country Total Cars Buses Trucks
Pakistan 1,000,000
India 248,000 207,000
10,146
China 127,120 66,440 32,369 100
Bangladesh
42,178 22,178 1023 3
Japan 27,605 10,984 1,205 14,507
Malaysia 18,300 18,300
Thailand 14,796 14,433 140 223
Number of NGVs in selected
Asian countries
Source: Asian NGV Communications, Vol 1 Num 6, August 2006
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Biofuels
Ethanol• China and India are now the world’s third and fourth
producers of ethanol in the world and accounted for a combined 5.4 billion liters in 2004
• As of July 2006, gasohol use in Thailand (E10) reached 3.5 million liters daily and available at 3,000 pump stations nationwide– a government mandate in 2007 will require the complete replacement of benzene octane 95 (petrol 95) with E10 and E20 blend will be introduced in 2009
• The Philippines is considering to mandate E5 gasoline by 2007 and to E10 by 2010
Biodiesel• Biodiesel production have increased in Asia, particularly in
Southeast Asia in the past years, with Malaysia and Indonesia leading the production of palm oils worldwide
• The Philippines and Thailand have adopted policies that could lead to mandating as much as 10% of biodiesel blend in marketed fuel
• The Philippines have already mandated a 1% blend of coco-methyl ester in diesel for government vehiclesSources: ADB, 2006; and http://thailand.prd.go.th/the_pm_view.php?id=1621
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Stationary Sources: Standards• Although countries in Asia have Industrial Emission Standards in
place, their implementation and monitoring is generally weak and needs to be strengthened
• Compliance to stationary standards is hindered by lack of access to resources allowing for investments in pollution control, low level of technology, non-availability of trained personnel, and the unwillingness of management to invest in environmental protection
• Many countries have substantial number of small and medium-sized industries interspersed in residential areas making it more difficult to monitor and regulate these sources
The Philippine Outsourcing Sampling Project showed:
• 49% of the 795 stacks reported failed the CAA standard for at least one parameter
• Sources firing heavy bunker fuel oil are exceeding the SO2 and PM emission limits
• Gensets (compression engines) are exceeding the NOx emission limit
• Solid fuel-fired units are exceeding the CO emission limit
PM28.8%
CO14.8%
NOX
5%
SO2
51%
Pb0.2%
% distribution of parameters failed by the sources sampled
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• While international roadmaps for vehicular emissions are in place, stationary sources standards are not readily available for comparison thus absence of roadmaps makes it difficult to promote stricter standards.
• With the exception of the UNEP GERIAP (which has ended), there are very few regional initiatives and programs on stationary sources compared to mobile sources which have resulted in lesser exchanges and policy-dialogues
• Reduction of air pollution from stationary sources in Asia are still mostly "end-of-pipe" treatments: – tightening emission standards for stationary sources, – Mandatory use of clean fuel – Monitoring and inspection systems – Relocation of polluting industries
• There is no comprehensive policy on fuels for stationary sources but there is an emerging trend on use of low-sulfur coal, specifically in China, but actions to reduce sulfur content of bunker oil are still largely absent and there are few regulatory or financial incentives for industry to invest in sulfur-emissions abatement
Stationary Sources: Control Strategies (1)
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• Emissions trading – pilot projects have been implemented in China but there are no indications that this will be a major control instruments for stationary sources in the next 5-10 years in Asia
• The availability of carbon financing through the CDM has created especially in for stationary sources a new opportunity to accelerate industries’ acceptance of efficiency investments. This has sparked off:– Improved (base-line) monitoring of emissions– Structural shifts to new, less energy-intensive industrial
products – Reducing the energy intensity of existing industrial production
through process changes and optimizing industrial energy systems.
• Although China, India, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia all increasingly rely on coal and oil for electricity, they have also all established national goals to increase renewable energy and improve energy efficiency.
Stationary Sources: Control Strategies (2)
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SO2 Control in China, P.R.• In the 11th Five-year plan, SO2 emission reduction is the emphasis of
air pollution prevention and control and states that the emissions of sulfur dioxide should be reduced by 10% by 2010
• The three principal components of existing SO2 emissions control policy are:– Pollution Levy System (PLS), which is based on the polluter pays
principle– Two Control Areas (TCA), is not an instrument like the pollution
levy for affecting abatement behavior, but rather a means for prioritizing SO2 control efforts, designating the standards, and identifying cities and regions that should receive extra attention and resources from the national government
– Total Emissions Control (TEC) limits the polluters to discharge under a specified level and levies the charge when any pollution is discharged
• China has been engaged in sweeping energy policy reforms over the last two decades to promote energy efficiency and conservation. Measures taken include the following: reductions in fossil fuel subsidies; research, development and demonstration projects; a national information network with efficiency service and training centers; tax reforms; equipment standards; and special loan programs, among other initiatives. These measures represent emission savings equal to nearly the entire U.S. transportation sector, about 400 million tons per year.
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Cobenefits Approach to AQM and GHG Mitigation
• There are promising areas for application of cobenefits in Asia (e.g. power generation, industrial energy use, sustainable transport and household energy use)
• Countries have started to acknowledge that the cobenefits approach to urban air quality management and climate change mitigation will provide substantial local and global benefits in the long and short-term
• There is an emerging consortium of organization working on cobenefits – (e.g. IGES, OECC, USEPA, CARB, etc) and develop joint programs and activities to further develop and apply the co-benefits framework in Asia
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Finally: …….Court Case in Lahore for AQ Improvement
Process • A public interest environmental litigation was filed against
vehicular air pollution at the Lahore High Court in 1997 and in 2003, the case was re-opened by Justice Sair Ali of the Lahore High Court and took it as a high priority concern
• The LAHORE CLEAN AIR COMMISSION (LCAC) was subsequently created, composed of lawyers, EPD, City Government, Punjab Government, City Mayor (Nazim), environmental scientists and civil society members, and tasked to prepare a report to control emissions from mobile sources
• A national workshop on UAQM was organized in December 2004 that included international experts from all over the world to assist in the formulation of the solutions and measures called for by the Court
Impact • The set of measures identified in the workshop was submitted
to the High Court and scheduled for implementation• 2-stroke rickshaws have now been banned in several areas in
the city and air quality is reported to have improved • Diesel fuelled public transport vehicles are to be banned
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