Status Inconsistency and Alcohol Consumption

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Status Inconsistency and Alcohol Consumption Status Inconsistency and Alcohol Consumption

Michael R. Nusbaumer Western Michigan University

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STATUS INCONSISTENCY AND ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

by

M ich a e l R. N usbaum er

A D is se r ta t io n S ubm itted to the

F acu lty of The G radua te C ollege in p a r t ia l fu lfillm en t

of theD egree of D octor of P hilosophy

W este rn M ich igan U n ivers ity K alam azoo , M ichigan

A ugust 1977

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

In w ritin g th is d is se r ta tio n , th e re have b ee n m any people w ithout

w hose h e lp and su p p o rt th is ta sk would have b e e n n ex t to im possib le .

F i r s t , I h av e b en e fited g rea tly from the gu id an ce , adv ice , and helpful

c r i t is m s of P ro f e s s o r s E d se l E rick so n , M o rto n O. W agenfeld and

Dean W illiam B u ria n . Secondly, I would like to ex tend m y deep est

g ra titu d e an d love to m y m o th er who h as e n c o u ra g e d m e throughout

m y co llege c a r e e r desp ite som e m om ents w hen even I had doubts.

Next, I w ould like to extend m y thanks and a p p re c ia t io n to a group of

fr ie n d s who have re m a in e d w ith m e through th e t r i a l s and tr ib u la tio n s

of g rad u a te schoo l. T hese c lose fr ie n d s in c lu d e F ra n k and B etsy

Akey, Bob K ing, C a re n W esson, A rt A n d erso n , and G regg B levins.

To a l l of you I owe m uch. F inally , I w ish to thank L o is C a r l w hose

help above and beyond the ca ll of duty h as g u id e d m e th rough the

m aze of b u re a u c ra t ic fo rm s and re q u ire m e n ts . It is to th e se hum an

beings th a t I g ra te fu lly ded ica te th is d is s e r ta t io n .

M ich a e l R. N u sb au m er


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77 - 2 6 ,7 9 2

NUSBAUMER, M ic h a e l R ay, 19^9-STATUS INCONSISTENCY AND ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION.

W estern M ic h ig a n U n iv e r s i t y , P h .D ., 1977 S o c io lo g y , g e n e ra l

}

Ij Xerox University Microfilms, Ann A rbor, Michigan 48106

I


T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

P ageLIST O F T A B L E S .................................................................................. iv

C H A PTE R

I. PRO BLEM STATEM ENT AND REVIEW OFTHE L IT E R A T U R E ................................................... 1

G en e ra l P ro b lem S ta tem ent ................................ 1T h e o re tic a l B ackground and Review

of the L i t e r a t u r e ............................................... 4S tud ies of A lcohol U s e ............................................ 5

R e se a rc h on A n im a ls ........................................ 8S tre s s in A l c o h o l i c s ........................................ 11A lcohol, S tre s s and the G e n e ra l

P o p u la t io n ....................................................... 15S u m m a r y ............................................................... 21

S ta tus In consis tency T h e o r y ................................ 22O ther T h e o re tic a l C o n s id e ra tio n s . . . . 33

R e s e a rc h O b je c tiv e s ................................................... 37

H. M E T H O D S ........................................................ 46

P o p u la t io n ...................................................................... 46S am ple .......................................................................... 47In s t r u m e n ta t io n ........................................................... 52C o n tro l V a r i a b l e s ....................................................... 61A n a ly s i s .......................................................................... 63

HI........................... F IN D IN G S ........................................................ 68

IV. CONCLUSIONS AND IM P L IC A T IO N S ............................. 82

S um m ary of T heory , M ethods, andFinding s ............................................................... 82

Im p l ic a t io n s ................................................................... 86Suggestions fo r F u r th e r R e s e a r c h .................... 93S u m m a r y ....................................................................... 96

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 98

A PPEN D IX A ...................................................................................... 113

ii i


L IS T O F T A B L E S

T ab le P age1 F req u en cy of S tatus In co n s is te n cy R anks by

R ese a rc h H ypotheses ...................................................................... 68

2 C o m parison of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption in the T o ta l Sam ple ............................................... 69

3 C o m parison of D eviations f ro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S tatus In co n sis ten cy fo r theT o ta l S a m p l e .......................................................................................... 70

4 C o m p ariso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption w hen the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich the R ac ia l-E thn ic Ranking E xceeds the O ccupation R a n k i n g ............... 71

5 C o m p ariso n of the D evia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S ta tus In co n sis ten cy when S tatus Inco n sis ten cy is D efined as the E x ten t to w hich the S o c ia l-E th n ic RankingE x c eed s the O ccupation R a n k in g ................................................... 71

6 C o m p ariso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels as P r e d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich the R ac ia l-E thn ic Ranking E xceeds the Incom e R a n k i n g ........................ 73

7 C o m p ariso n of the D evia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S ta tus In co n s is ten cy when S tatus In co n sis ten cy is D efined as the E x ten t to w hich the R ac ia l-E th n ic RankingE x ceed s the Incom e R a n k in g ........................................................... 73

8 C o m p ariso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich the R a c ia l-E th n icRanking E xceeds, the E ducation R a n k in g .................................... 74

iv


T able9

10

11

12

13

14

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations f ro m the G ran d M ean by C a te g o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy w hen S ta tus In co n s is te n cy is D efined a s the E x te n t to w hich the R a c ia l-E th n ic Ranking E xceeds the E ducation R a n k i n g . . . .

P age

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P r e d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcoho l C onsum ption fo r F em a le s when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir E ducation Ranking E xceeds th e ir H u sb an d 'sO ccupation R a n k i n g .......................................................................... 76

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations fro m the G ran dM ean by C a te g o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy fo rF e m a le s w hen S tatus Inco n sis ten cy is D efineda s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir E ducation RankingE x c eed s th e ir H usband 's O ccupation R a n k in g ........................ 77

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-add itiveM odels a s P r e d ic to r s of the Am ount of A lcoholC onsum ption fo r M ale s when the In te ra c tio nT e rm is D efined a s the E xtent to w hich th e irO ccupation Ranking E xceeds th e ir E duca tio nR anking .................................................................................................. 78

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations fro m the G ran dM ean by C a te g o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy fo rM ales w hen S tatus Inconsistency is D efined a sthe E x ten t to w hich th e ir O ccupation R ankingE x c eed s th e ir E ducation R a n k i n g ................................................ 79

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-add itiveM odels a s P r e d ic to r s of the Am ount of A lcoho lC onsum ption fo r M ale s when the In te ra c tio nT e rm i s D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e irIncom e Ranking E xceeds th e ir E ducation R anking . . . . 80

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations fro m the G rand M ean by C a te g o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy fo r M ales when S tatus Inconsis tency is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir Incom e RankingE x c eed s th e ir E ducation R a n k i n g ................................................ 80


CH APTER I

PR O B LEM STATEM ENT AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

G en era l P ro b lem S tatem ent

In su rv ey in g the volum inous am ount of w ork done in the a r e a of

alcoho l consum ption , the ten sion reduc tion th e o ry s tan d s out a s one of

the m o s t w idely a c cep te d e tio lo g ica l exp lanations f o r d if fe re n tia ls in

alcohol consum ption . This th eo ry s ta te s b a s ic a lly th a t a lcoho l is con

sum ed in an a t te m p t to red u ce the am ount of p e r s o n a l s t r e s s o r tension .

G iven th is th e o re t ic a l o rie n ta tio n , the g e n e ra l c o n c e rn of th is re s e a rc h

is the d isc o v e ry of the so u rc e s of s t r e s s tha t le a d in tu rn to in c re a s e d

alcoho l consum ption . In th is r e s e a rc h , the p r im a r y focus is on the con

trib u tio n of one g e n e ra l type of s t r e s s s o u rc e - - s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy * - -

to the u se of alcoho l.

A s we w ill docum ent and e lab o ra te on in o u r subseq u en t rev iew

of th e o ry an d r e s e a r c h , an an tic ip a ted outcom e of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy

is the p ro d u c tio n of a type of s tr e s s . T h is s t r e s s i s th e o riz e d to be

the r e s u l t of con flic ting expecta tions in in te rp e r s o n a l in te ra c t io n s . If,

*In su b se q u en t d isc u ss io n s we w ill p rov ide a d e ta ile d tre a tm e n t of the su b tle tie s of d if fe re n ces in m eaning th e o r is ts have app lied when using the p h ra s e " s ta tu s inconsistency . " A t th is p o in t we p r e f e r W e b er 's u se of the concep t a s " im p e rfec t c o r re la tio n s betw een s ta tu s d im en sio n s . "

1


indeed, s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy does p roduce s t r e s s in the ind iv idual, and

a lcoho l does se rv e to red u ce th a t type of s t r e s s , then p e rh ap s s ta tu s

in c o n sis ten cy is one im p o rtan t fa c to r in the u se of alcoho l. R es ta ted ,

ou r m a jo r r e s e a r c h q uestion is : Do s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t ind iv id u a ls , as

a r e s u l t of in c re a s e d s t r e s s , consum e m o re a lcoho l than ind iv iduals

who ex p e rien ce a g r e a te r d eg ree of s ta tu s co n s is te n cy ?

T h is in v e stig a tio n is im p o rtan t in two w ays. On the one hand,

th is r e s e a r c h p ro v id e s a te s t of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o ry w hich is

p re su m e d to apply to a ll types of so c ia l b eh a v io r. T h is r e s e a r c h a lso

p ro v id e s e tio lo g ic a l in fo rm atio n re le v a n t to an exp lanation of a lcoho l

consum ption .

Of c o u rs e , suppo rt fo r the p o ss ib ili ty of s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy

th e o ry adding to the e t io lo tic a l know ledge of a lcoho l consum ption can

be seen in m uch of the l i te r a tu r e in the f ie ld of a lcoho l consum ption .

As we w ill e la b o ra te upon in la te r d isc u ss io n s , K e sse l and W alton

(1965) conclude th a t a lco h o lics d rink to a tta in a f i r m e r so c ia l footing

and to , a t le a s t te m p o ra r ily , reduce the co s t ( s tr e s s ) of r e p re s s in g

p a r t s of the se lf th a t a r e of im p o rtan ce to the in d iv id u a l 's s e lf - in te

g ra tio n .

T h is e m p h as is on f irm so c ia l footing and co n s is te n cy ( in te g ra

tion) w ith in the com ponent p a r ts of the se lf can a lso be seen in c e r ta in

an th ro p o lo g ica l r e s e a r c h . H am er (1965), in h is s tudy of the F o re s t

P o taw atom i Ind ians, m akes the follow ing o b servation :


3

It is su g g es ted on the b a s is of the o b se rv a tio n s th a t drink ing in th is com m unity (a) g ives the in d iv id u a l a m e an s of coping w ith an u n p red ic tab le u n iv e rse . . . ; (b) p e rm its p e rso n s te m p o ra r ily to assu m e d e s ira b le s ta tu s p o s itio n s when th e re h a s b ee n in te r fe re n c e w ith, and inadequa te su b stitu te s fo r, the tra d itio n a l so c ia l s tru c tu re ; . . . . (p. 276)

F o cu sin g m o re p re c is e ly upon w hat is so m e tim e s re f e r r e d to

a s the " ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t" app roach to s t r e s s p roduction w ithin

s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy , the am ount of su p p o rtiv e ev idence is co n s id e rab le .

In w ritin g about so u rces of s t r e s s in a lco h o lic s , Bacon (1962)

su g g es ts s t r e s s m ay a r i s e from :

(a) the in d iv id u a l 's opinion of h im se lf ; (b) gain ing and holding the r e s p e c t and affec tions of o th e rs ; (c) con flic ting with o th e rs th rough s e lf - a s s e r t io n and c r i t ic is m ; and (d) o v e ra ll s e cu rity in ow nersh ip , p re s tig e , and p e rs o n a l sa fe ty as they a re tied up w ith m oney, (pp. 88-89)

C aha lan (1970) a lso finds support, u s ing a n a tio n a l sam p le , fo r hypoth

e s e s p o s itiv e ly re la tin g a lien a tio n and m a la ju s tm e n t and unfavorab le

ex p ec ta tio n s (those who fee l they do no t have an a c c e s s to the ach iev e

m en t of th e ir expecta tions) to the am ount of a lco h o l consum ed.

P e rh a p s a com m on re s u lt of s ta tu s in c o n sis te n c y is a d ifficu lty

in e s ta b lish in g a s tab le , accep tab le so c ia l iden tity . In h is an th ropo

lo g ica l s tudy, R obbins (1973) concludes th a t N ask ap i (an Indian tribe)

d rink ing p a t te rn s re p re s e n t id e n tity -re so lv in g s tru g g le s by p erm ittin g

p e rs o n s to m ake c la im s o r defend an id en tity th re a te n e d by a lack of

a c c e s s to id e n tity -m ain ta in in g goods (p. 118).

T he concep t of iden tity and i t s r e la t io n to a lcoho l consum ption

h as been tak en a s tep fu r th e r than su g g es ted above. Levy (1958) and


H e rsh e n so n (1965) have noted th a t m any ind iv iduals m ay becom e a lc o

h o lic s in o rd e r to obtain identity . A s an a lco h o lic , an indiv idual takes

on a ro le th a t has specific m eaning and id en tity fo r h im se lf and o th e rs .

In th is way, a lcoho l red u ces the s t r e s s re s u lt in g fro m a lack of iden tity .

R e se a rc h h as been conducted in the a r e a of a lcoho l consum ption

th a t c lo se ly tie s s ta tu s inco n sisten cy th e o ry to th is a re a . B acon (1944)

w r i te s that:

A lcohol re l ie v e s the in ten se p e rc e p tio n of in s e c u r it ie s , p ro b le m s , f e a r s and fa i lu re s . F o r a b r ie f s p e ll the m an who is not a m em b er and not ac tiv e , o r who cannot gain sa tis fa c tio n s th rough m e m b ersh ip of a c tiv ity , fin d s r e l ie f fro m pain o r even an an sw er to h is needs, (p. 308)

T h is ob se rv a tio n has been su b s ta n tia te d in r e s e a rc h conducted

by S in g er, B lane, and K asschav (1964). In a study com paring a lco h o lics

and n o n -a lco h o lic s , they found th a t a lc o h o lic s w ere m o re socia lly i s o

la te d .

In sum , th e o re tic a l a s s e r t io n s and som e evidence p rov ide p a r

t i a l su p p o rt fo r the g en e ra l hypo thesis th a t s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy is a

con d itio n effec ting alcohol consum ption . T his study su b jec ts th is

g e n e ra l hypo th esis to a te s t w ith a n a t io n a l sam p le .

T h e o re tic a l B ackground and R ev iew of L ite ra tu re

In o rd e r to m o re c le a r ly ou tline the th e o re tic a l underpinnings

and l i te r a tu r e rev iew of the c ru c ia l a r e a s ou tlined in the p rob lem s ta te

m e n t, th is sec tio n w ill be div ided in to two m a jo r p a r t s . The f i r s t

s e c t io n w ill rev iew and d iscu ss the r e le v a n t stu d ie s of a lcoho l use


5

p a r t ic u la r ly as they p e r ta in to w hat h a s been te rm e d the ten sio n re d u c

tion th e o ry . The second sec tion in c ludes a d isc u ss io n and l i te r a tu r e

rev iew of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy th e o ry and re la te d r e s e a rc h .

S tudies of A lcohol U se

A lm o st s ince m an began re c o rd in g h is h is to ry , he h as a lso

r e c o rd e d the u se of a lcoho lic b e v e ra g e s of one s o r t o r an o th er. D uring

th is long h is to ry , num erous e tio lo g ica l exp lanations fo r a lcoho l con

sum ption have been suggested (see , fo r exam ple: H orton , 1942; B a le s ,

1946; Roebuck & K e s s le r , 1972; P a tr ic k , 1952; Je ll in ek , I960; C hafe tz

& D em one, 1962; and P ittm an & S nyder, 1962), y e t one such exp lanation

h a s been rep ea ted ly p re se n te d th roughou t the h is to ry of the sc ie n tif ic

study of a lcoho l consum ption . T h is exp lanation d ea ls w ith a lc o h o l's

p e rc e iv e d a b ility to a llev ia te v a r io u s types of s t r e s s , anxiety o r te n

sio n e x p e rien ce d by the indiv idual. It h a s been noted, e i th e r im p lic itly

o r e x p lic itly , tha t in m any s itu a tio n s ind iv iduals expe rienc ing c e r ta in

ty p e s of s t r e s s o r ten sio n w ill consum e a lcoho l in an a ttem p t to red u ce

th is s t r e s s o r ten sion . I t should be no ted , how ever, th a t th is p ro p o s i

tion h a s b een d ea lt w ith through a n u m b er of th e o re tic a l ap p ro ac h es and

re s u l ta n t r e s e a r c h d esigns and m e th o d s.

The ten sio n red u c tio n th e o ry is com posed of two b a s ic hypo th

e s e s (C appel, 1975). The f i r s t h y p o th esis s ta te s tha t a lcoho l consum p

tio n re d u c e s s t r e s s o r ten sion . A lthough w idely d is c u s s e d and

a c c e p te d in m uch of the l i te r a tu r e (C appe ll & H erm an , 1972; C appell,


1975), th is h y p o th e sis h a s rece iv ed in c onc lu sive su p p o rt in the r e s e a rc h

li te r a tu r e re s u lt in g p a r t ic u la r ly fro m the d iff ic u ltie s of opera tiona liz ing

valid m e a s u re s of s t r e s s . The second h y p o th e sis is th a t indiv iduals

d r in k a lcoho l in o rd e r to bene fit fro m its p e rc e iv e d te n sio n -red u c in g2

effec ts . It is th is l a t te r hypo thesis w hich is of c e n tra l co n cern in

th is d is s e r ta tio n .

In looking a t the e a rly sc ien tific ex p lan a tio n s fo r a lcoho l con

sum ption , one can see th is ten sion red u c tio n th e o ry a t le a s t im p lic itly

suggested (C appe ll & H erm an , 1972).

One of the f i r s t to recogn ize a t le a s t in the sc ie n tif ic l i te ra tu re

the value of a lcoho l in escap ing re a l ity and i t s p ro b le m s and tensions

was G. T . W. P a tr ic k (1916). He no ted w hat c o n su m e rs of a lcohol

have p ro b ab ly a lw ays known: "In toxicating b e v e ra g e s fu rn is h the e a s

ie s t and c h e ap es t m e an s ev e r d isco v e red fo r e sc a p e fro m re a l ity into

the l ig h te r and f r e e r w orld of o n e 's fa n c ie s " (c ite d in P a tr ic k , 1952:45).

S h o rtly a f te r th is , R ead (1920) reco g n ized the p a r t ic u la r

im p o rtan c e of a lco h o l in re la tio n to c e r ta in m e n ta l o r cognitive p ro b

le m s . "A lcohol is taken to p rom ote the s o c ia l in s tin c ts and a llev ia te

and n a rc o t iz e the m any m e n ta l con flic ts to w hich we a l l to som e ex ten t

a r e v ic tim s" (pp. 242-243).

A s ig n ifican t am ount of the e a r ly a lco h o l l i te r a tu r e supported

^T h is h y p o th esis w ill be lab e led the " te n sio n re d u c tio n hypothe s is " in the re m a in d e r of th is d is s e r ta tio n .


7

som e fo rm of the b a s ic tension red u c tio n th e o ry , a s seen in the l i t e r a

tu re re v ie w by P a tr ic k (1952). He po in ts out the follow ing: "The

a lco h o l a d d ic t and the ch ron ic alcoho lic a r e g e n e ra lly looked upon as

a ttem p tin g to e scap e fro m c e r ta in d is a g re e a b le conditions in th e ir

en v iro n m en t and in th e ir own life o rg a n iz a tio n " (p. 62). He goes on to

c ite M e y e rso n in noting that: "The a lcoho l a d d ic t o r ch ron ic alcoho lic

is d iag n o se d as being a p e rso n who seeks to e scap e fro m h is n e u ro s is ,

fro m h is d ep re s s io n , h is f ru s tra t io n s , h is d is s a tis fa c tio n s with life ,

and a l l the soc ia lly unaccep tab le and p e rs o n a l ly d is ta s te fu l tre n d s in

h is own c h a ra c te r " (M eyerson, 1940; c i te d in P a tr ic k , 1952:62).

E a r ly th e o re tic a l fo rm u la tions co n c ern in g the o rig in s of s tr e s s

and te n sio n in re la tio n to alcohol consum ption c e n te re d around two

m a jo r ap p ro a c h e s .

The f i r s t approach com es fro m the f ie ld of p sy ch o an a ly s is . In

th is a r e a , the s t r e s s and tension re la te d to a lco h o l consum ption a r i s e

fro m p ro b le m a r e a s of the individual inc lud ing sex u a l in fe r io r ity

(S ch ild e r, 1941; H art, 1930; and M oore, 1942), f i l ia l overdependence

(H art, 1930; Knight, 1937; and M oore, 1942), and deve lopm enta l f a i l

u re s in te rm s of fixa tions a t v a rious s tag e s ( fo r l i te r a tu r e rev iew

in th is a r e a see B lum , 1966; Roebuck & K e s s le r , 1972; and M artindale

& M a r tin d a le , 1971).

The second approach to s t r e s s , te n sio n , and a lcoho l consum p

tion c e n te r s around e s ta b lish ed b e h a v io r is t p r in c ip le s . C onger (1956)


w as one of the f i r s t to apply b e h a v io r is t p r in c ip le s to a lcoho l consum p

tion s tu d ie s . He p o s ite d the b e lie f tha t a lcoho l consum ption se rv ed a s

a r e in fo rc e r w hich, in tu rn , is defined in te rm s of d riv e reduc tion and

goes on to note th a t th is reduction in the s tre n g th of a d riv e is s im ply

a s ta te of te n sio n re su ltin g fro m an u n s a tis f ie d d riv e . This approach

h as re c e iv e d fu r th e r e lab o ra tio n by m any w r i te r s in th is a r e a (see

R oebuck & K e s s le r , 1972).

S ince the in tro d u c tio n of the te n sio n red u c tio n th eo ry in the a re a

of a lco h o l consum ption , it h as re ce iv ed m uch a tten tio n both in te rm s of

th e o ry and r e s e a rc h . D espite som e c o n tra d ic to ry find ings and c r i t ic a l

rev iew s (se e C appe ll, 1975), the ten sio n re d u c tio n th e o ry is s t i l l c ited

a s a p la u s ib le exp lanation fo r alcoho l consum ption in the c u rre n t l i t e r a

tu re (M artin d a le & M artin d a le , 1971; C aha lan , 1970; C ahalan , C is in &

C ro s s le y , 1969; K e s se l & W alton, 1965; L u c ia , 1963; C hafe tz & D em one,

1962; B acon , 1973; A llm an , e t a l . , 1972; O p sha ll & H alton, 1972;

D ea rd o rff , e t a l . , 1975; and Rohan, 1975).

T u rn in g to the r e s e a r c h tha t h a s b een conducted in an a ttem p t

to te s t the te n sio n red u c tio n hy p o th esis , one can see the f ie ld is a n a

lyzed in th re e p a r ts ; r e s e a r c h on an im a ls , r e s e a r c h on a lco h o lics , and

r e s e a r c h on the g e n e ra l population.

R e s e a rc h on A nim als

T h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h conducted on th e te n s io n red u c tio n theo ry

w as done by M a sse rm a n , e t a l . (1945) and M a s se rm a n and Yum (1946).


9

They u tiliz e d ca ts in an ex p e rim en t to te s t a lc o h o l's ab ility to d ec re a se

n eu ro tic r e s p o n s e s . E s ta b lish in g conflict s itu a tio n s betw een food and

e le c tr ic shocks o r a i r b la s ts , ex p e rim en ta l n e u ro s is w as p roduced . In

both e x p e rim en ts alcoho l w as found to reduce the e x p e rim e n ta l n e u ro s is .

A dditionally , in a choice situ a tio n betw een p la in m ilk and m ilk with

a lcoho l, the n eu ro tic ca ts chose the co n ta in e r w ith a lcoho l m o re often

than did n o rm a l ca ts (M asse rm an & Yum, 1946).

A nother c la s s ic ex p e rim en t in th is a re a w as p e rfo rm e d by

C onger (1951). He tra in e d and te s te d c a ts in an ap p ro ach -av o id an ce

s itu a tio n (a ligh ted a lley w ith food, u ltim a te ly giving them an e le c tr ic

shock a t th e ir g oals). He found tha t five m in u te s a f te r in jec tio n of

a lcoho l, the ca ts ra n up to food, although w ith the in jec tio n of a p lacebo

they would not. He a lso found th a t in th e se s itu a tio n s a lcoho l reduced

the s tren g th of the f e a r w ithout sign ifican tly affec ting h unger. He

th e re fo re concluded th a t f e a r reduction w as the m e ch an ism of conflict

re so lu tio n .

S ubsequent r e s e a r c h on the ten sion re d u c tio n th e o ry in an im als

has been conducted in n u m e ro u s a re a s th a t w ere su g g es ted in the above

r e s e a rc h . S ince escap e and avoidance a r e thought to be co n tro lle d by

f e a r and anx iety (C appell & H erm an , 1972), th e re have been se v e ra l

supportive s tu d ie s conducted in th is a re a . T hese inc lude r e s e a r c h done

by B ro a d h u rs t and W allgren (1964), W allgren and S avo la inen (1962),

and C h itta l and Sheth (1963). It should be noted , ho w ev er, th a t c e rta in

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

10

of th e se s tu d ie s only found support a t th e h ig h e s t le v e ls of alcohol

in jec tio n . N o n -suppo rtive findings have been re p o r te d by Baum (1970),

and M cM u rray and Jaq u es (1959).

A n o th er a r e a of r e s e a rc h invo lves a c cep tin g the s e iz u re s in

r a t s a s in d ic a to rs of ten sion s ta te s . G re e n b e rg and L e s te r (1953)

exposed r a t s to loud b e ll no ises w hich p re c ip ita te d a p e r io d of fre n e t ic

ac tiv ity , fo llow ed by convulsions and a c a ta to n ic s ta te . With the in tro - (

duction of a lcoho l, even a t m o d e ra te le v e ls , th e r e w as a m uch g r e a te r

r e s is ta n c e to th e se s e iz u re s . This finding w as re p l ic a te d by D em ber,

E llen , an d K r is to f fe rs e n (1953). C aution shou ld be taken , how ever, in

equa ting s e iz u re s in r a t s w ith ten sion s ta te s (C appe ll & H erm an , 1972).

A lthough the g en e ra liz in g of f ind ings in an im a l r e s e a r c h to m an

m ay be q u es tio n ab le , an im al stud ies do p ro v id e som e im p o rtan t in fo rm a

tion . In a rev iew of the l i te ra tu re on the te n s io n red u c tio n th eo ry and

an im a l r e s e a r c h , C appe ll and H erm an (1972) o b se rv e conflicting find

ings in c e r ta in a r e a s (escape and avo idance), y e t g e n e ra l suppo rt in

o th e rs (e x p e r im e n ta l conflict, e x p e rim en ta l n e u ro s is ) . A lthough they

s ta te th a t i t (the te n sio n reduction th e o ry , p a r t ic u la r ly H ypothesis #1)

h as no t b e e n convincingly supported e m p ir ic a lly , they a lso note tha t

the h y p o th e s is has been te s te d in a w ide v a r ie ty of e x p e rim e n ta l s i tu a

tio n s , in a n u m b e r of d iffe ren t sp ec ies and w ith v a ry in g d eg ree s of

so p h is tic a tio n in ex p e rim en ta l m ethodology and d esign (C appell &

H erm an , 1972:59). In sum , the te s ts of the te n s io n red u c tio n


11

h ypo th esis in an im a ls have been inconclusive .

S tre s s in A lcoho lics

T he re la tio n sh ip betw een s t r e s s , ten sion , anx ie ty , and a lco h o lism has

re c e iv e d co n s id e rab le a tten tio n in the r e s e a r c h l i te r a tu r e . F o r p u rp o ses

of th is l i te r a tu r e rev iew , an a lcoho lic is defined a s an ind iv idual who has

been so la b e led by a fo rm a l o rgan iza tio n o r reco g n ized a u th o rity involved

in the tre a tm e n t o r co n tro l of a lco h o lism (L e m ert, 1951, 1967).

One of the f i r s t and m o s t p ro lif ic a r e a s of r e s e a r c h in a lcoho lism

d ea ls w ith the id e n tif ica tio n of an alcoho lic p e rs o n a l ity . T hrough such

d a ta co llec tio n techn iques as p sy ch o an a ly sis , s e l f - r e p o r t s and psycho

lo g ica l te s tin g , th e re have developed s im ila r d e s c r ip tio n s of p e rso n a lity

t r a i t s w hich a r e c h a ra c te r is t ic of a lco h o lics . T h ese p e rs o n a l ity d e s

c r ip tio n s u su a lly inc lude such tr a i t s as em o tiona l im m a tu rity , fee lin g s of

gu ilt, s e x - ro le confusion , a high leve l of anxiety p a r t ic u la r ly in in t e r

p e rs o n a l re la tio n sh ip s , fee lin g s of iso la tio n , p oo r ad ju stm en t to re a l ity ,

low s e lf -e s te e m , and a low f ru s tra t io n to le ra n c e (C an tan zaro , 1967;

B u h le r & L e F e v e r , 1947; H alpe rn , 1946; S chafe r, 1954; W illiam s, 1950;

M cC ord & M cC ord , I960; R obins, B ates & O 'N eal, 1962; and T akka, 1966).

E . M . J e ll in e k (I960), in h is w ork dealing w ith the d is e a se con

ce p t of a lco h o lism , a lso re a l iz e d the im p o rtan c e of te n sio n and i t s r e l a

tion to a lco h o lism when he noted th a t the m o s t com m on fo rm of p r e

a lcoho lic v u ln e ra b ility is a low capacity fo r hand ling te n sio n s (p. 63).

J e ll in e k o p e ra tio n a liz e d h is defin ition of an a lco h o lic in te rm s of o n e 's


12

lo s s of c o n tro l o v er h is d rink ing b eh av io r. O nce an ind iv idual h a s lo s t

co n tro l o v e r h is d rink ing b eh av io r, J e ll in e k view s the dem and fo r

a lcoho l a s com ing fro m two m a jo r so u rc e s :

One p a r t r e f le c ts the n e c e ss i ty to a llay the d is tr e s s in g w ith d raw al sym p tom s, i. e . , a p h y s ica l dem and; the o th e r p a r t re f le c ts the o b sess iv e b e lie f th a t u ltim a te ly a su ffic ien t am ount of a lcoho l w ill b ring about the ten sion red u c tio n w hich, b e fo re the lo s s of co n tro l, w as ach ieved qu ite e a s ily . (Je ll in ek , 1960:146)

C hafe tz and D em one (1962) reco g n ize two c a te g o rie s of a lco h o lic s ,

one w hich is lab e led the "ad d ic ted " alcoho lic and su ffe rs fro m m a jo r

em o tiona l and p sych o lo g ica l p ro b le m s o v er a long p e rio d of tim e , and

one la b e led the " re a c tiv e " o r the "n e u ro tic " a lcoho lic . The re a c tiv e

o r n e u ro tic alcoho lic h a s a re la tiv e ly hea lthy in te g ra te d p re -a lc o h o lic

p e rso n a lity . He u s e s a lcoho l to ex c e ss when he is te m p o ra r ily o v e r

w helm ed by e x te rn a l s t r e s s . E x c e ss iv e d rinking is , th e re fo re , m o s t

often a s s o c ia te d w ith o b se rv ab le , e x te rn a l s t r e s s s itu a tio n s , u su a lly of

s h o rt du ra tio n . T his ex c ess iv e d rink ing ru n s a c o u rse co n s is te n t w ith

te n sio n re le a s e (pp. 20-21).

In an o th er a r t ic le , N oyes and Kolb (1963) fu r th e r e la b o ra te on

th is re la tio n sh ip . A ccord ing to them , "a ll too freq u en tly the u se of

a lcoho l a s a m eans of n a rco tiz in g anx iety becom es hab itua l. The

s tre n g th of the hab it depends upon the d eg ree of anx ie ty w hich p ro m p ts

i t and the capacity of a lcoho l to red u ce anx ie ty " (p. 166).

W illiam s (1950) a lso po in ted out w hat he ca lled an "anxiety

sy n d ro m e" in a lco h o lic s . A ccord ing to W illiam s, i t w as o b se rv ed


13

th a t eventually they (a lco h o lic s in h is study) a s so c ia te d e v e ry u n p le asan t

s itua tion they had to fa c e , o r the an tic ipation of one, w ith th e n ee d fo r a

d rin k and la te r b la m ed th e se situ a tio n s fo r th e ir d rink ing (p. 784).

This c h a ra c te r is t ic of m any a lcoho lics finds ad d itio n a l su ppo rt

in the w ork of H adley and H adley (1971) who found the m o s t o ften c ited

benefit of d rinking in o ld e r a lco h o lics w as a feeling of p h y s ic a l and

em otional re lax a tio n : r e l ie f fro m s tr e s s and s tra in .

K esse l and W alton (1965), in recognizing v a rio u s p e rs o n a l ity

c h a ra c te r is tic s in a lc o h o lic s , conclude tha t p sycho log ica l s a tis fa c tio n s

fro m drinking am ong a lco h o lic s a re :

1. The le ss e n in g of f ru s tra t io n with in c re a s e s in g ra t if ic a tio n .

2. The te m p o ra ry a tta in m en t of a f i rm e r so c ia l foo ting .

3. The r e le a s e fro m so c ia l inhib ition of im p o rta n t p a r t s of the se lf w hich n o rm a lly have to be kept r e p r e s s e d a t g re a t co st to the in d iv id u a l 's se lf in teg ra tio n (p. 65).

The re la tio n sh ip betw een s t r e s s and a lcoho lism can lik ew ise

be seen in s tud ies of a lco h o lic s who have gone "on the w agon" fo r a

p e rio d of tim e , y e t r e s u m e d drink ing a f te r such a p e r io d of ab s tin en ce .

Ludwig (1972) c i te s p sy ch o lo g ica l d is tr e s s (e .g . , "I fe lt s o r r y fo r

m yse lf, " "to get r e l ie f fro m anxiety")as the m o s t fre q u e n t r e a s o n given

by a lcoho lics who have b een ab s tin en t fo r a c e rta in p e r io d of tim e

b efo re they re su m e d th e ir d rink ing h ab its .

In ano ther study conducted by H iggens and M a r la tt (1973)

a lcoho lics w ere co m p a re d to so c ia l d r in k e rs in an e x p e rim e n ta l


14

setting . Using the th r e a t of pa in fu l and non-pain fu l e le c tr ic a l shock

p lus the E ysenck P e rs o n a l i ty N eu ro tic Scale as m e a s u re s of anx ie ty ,

they found no re la tio n sh ip betw een anxiety and alcohol consum ption fo r

e i th e r group.

In yet ano ther a r e a of r e s e a rc h , Lynn and H am pson (1970)

a ttem p ted to look a t the re la tio n sh ip betw een national anx iety le v e ls and

the p reva lence of a lco h o lism . B ased upon q u es tio n a ire s d is tr ib u te d to

m a le co llege studen ts on a c ro s s - c u l tu ra l b a s is , they found th a t " th e re

is a high and s ta t is t ic a lly sig n ifican t c o r re la tio n betw een n a tio n a l

anx iety . . . and a lco h o lism a s a s s e s s e d by deaths fro m a lco h o lism

and c ir rh o s is of the l i v e r " (p. 306).

F inally , th e re is a s ize ab le body of re s e a rc h in th is a r e a th a t

suppo rts the sep a ra tio n of the two ten sion reduction th e o ry h y p o th e se s .

In a s e r ie s of s tud ies conduc ted on a lcoho lics in ex p e rim en ta l se tt in g s

(see M cN am ee, M ello & M endelson , 1968; M endelson, LaDou & Solom on,

1964; and T am erin & M endelson , 1969), a lcoho lics w ere f i r s t a sk ed

about the re la tio n sh ip betw een anx iety and alcohol consum ption and then

given vary ing am ounts of a lcoho l and m e a su re d (using a v a r ie ty of

m eans) in te rm s of the am oun t of ac tu a l ten sion reduction . The s iz e

ab le m a jo r ity of a lco h o lic s con firm ed a b e lie f in the ten sion reducing

p ro p e r t ie s of alcoho l d e sp ite the ac tu a l lack of change o r even in c re a s e

in tension o r anx iety a f te r la rg e am ounts of alcohol consum ption .

In conclusion , m uch of the r e s e a rc h to date has been in te rp re te d


15

to suppo rt the ten sion red u c tio n h y p o th e sis . W here the hy p o th esis h a s

not been supported , i t h a s been in the a r e a of ex p e rim en ta lly designed

and conducted re s e a r c h s tu d ie s.

A lcohol, S tre s s and the G en e ra l P opu la tion

The ten sion red u c tio n hypo th esis h a s been add itiona lly exam ined

in re la tio n sh ip to the drink ing h ab its of the g en e ra l popula tion o r seg

m en ts of the g en e ra l popu la tion who a re no t lab e led a lco h o lics .

A n thropo log ical an a ly s is of c e r ta in g roups has p rov ided in s ig h ts

into the ten sion red u c tio n h y p o th esis .

A rtic le s by H am er (1965) and Robbins (1973) both ind icate tha t,

in situ a tio n s of g re a t c u l tu ra l change o r upheaval, the consum ption of

a lcoho l s e rv e s to red u ce ten sio n s and s t r e s s e s b rough t to b e a r upon the

popula tion . In m any in s ta n c e s , i t functions to p rov ide so c ia l id e n tit ie s

o r coping m ech an ism s in w hich one can find a t le a s t te m p o ra ry s tab ility

o r ca lm in a rap id ly changing so c ia l m ilieu .

In a c ro s s - c u l tu ra l an a ly s is of 118 c u ltu re s , H orton (1943)

found th a t a th eo rem positing a d ire c t re la tio n sh ip betw een drink ing

and anx iety on a so c ie ta l le v e l w as one of two w hich re c e iv e d the g r e a t

e s t am ount of suppo rt. I t should be noted , how ever, th a t anx iety w as

m e a s u re d in d irec tly through in d ic a to rs of su b sis ten ce , in s e c u r ity , and

a c cu ltu ra tio n .

On the o th e r hand, in a rev iew of drink ing p a t te rn s in p r e l i te ra te

s o c ie tie s , Chafetz and D em one (1962) a rg u e th a t the p r e l i te ra te


16

ind iv idual u se s alcoho l m o re to enhance s o c ia l re la tio n s than a s a m eans

of m e e tin g l i f e 's p ro b le m s (p. 75).

J e ll in e k (I960) su ppo rts and expands upon the d iffe re n tia l d r in k

ing p a t te rn s as re la te d to p re l i te ra te and m o re advanced so c ie tie s .

P a r t i c u la r ly in te rm s of a lco h o l's te n sio n red u c tio n p ro p e r t ie s , he

b e liev ed that:

The indiv idual u se of the te n s io n -re d u c in g p ro p e r t ie s of a lc o ho lic b ev e ra g es , in c o n tra s t to the o rig in a l t r ib a l o r com m unal u se , becom es m o re m o tiv a ted a s s o u rc e s of an x ie tie s , f r u s t r a tio n s , and tensions in g e n e ra l becom e m o re indiv idualized in the h ig h e r c iv iliza tio n s than the p red o m in a te ly com m unal te n sions w ere in the p r e l i te ra te so c ie tie s (p. 152).

A s with p rev io u sly rev iew ed a r e a s th a t d ea lt w ith the ten sion

red u c tio n theo ry (H ypothesis 1), th e re is a lso a g re a t am ount of r e s e a r c h

in th is ca teg o ry th a t has been conducted in an e x p e rim en ta l se tting .

In setting up an ap p ro ac h -av o id a n ce situ a tio n using penn ies and

e le c t r i c a l shocks, V ogel-S p ro tt (1967) found suppo rt fo r a lco h o l's

ab ility to r e s to r e in itia l re sp o n s e s to the p enn ies and ignore the shocks

only w hen the shocks w ere se v e re enough to e s ta b lish a m a jo r avoidance

s itu a tio n am ong both the e x p e rim en ta l and co n tro l g roups.

A s ign ifican t nu m b er of r e s e a r c h s tu d ie s have been conducted

u s in g psychophysio log ica l in d ic a to rs of s t r e s s o r anx iety . Such in d ica

to r s inc lude b a sa l sk in conductance , ga lv an ic sk in re sp o n se , and

a d re n a lin e p roduction , a ll of w hich have been a s su m e d a s a p p ro p ria te

m e a s u re s of ten sion o r anx iety (C appe ll & H erm an , 1972).

S upport fo r the ten sion red u c tio n th e o ry (H ypothesis 1), using


17

e i th e r b a s a l skin conductance o r galvan ic sk in re s p o n s e o r both a s

m e a s u re s of ten sion , w ere found by C a rp e n te r (1957), G reen b erg and

C a rp e n te r (1957), and L ie n e rt and T ra x e l (1959), y e t o th e r s tud ies in

th is a r e a found e i th e r no such suppo rt o r con flic ting re s u l ts th a t leave

su p p o rt q u estionab le . T hese la t te r r e p o r ts of find ings can be viewed in

s tu d ie s by C oppersm ith (1964), M cC onnell and B each (1968), and

M cD onnell and C a rp e n te r (1959).

The u se of ad ren a lin e p roduction a s an in d ic a to r of ten sion has

a lso p ro d u ced conflicting re s u lts (see F lee tw ood , 1955; and G oddard,

1958).

The m a jo r p ro b le m in r e s e a rc h u s ing psychophysio log ica l in d ica

to r s a p p e a rs to lie in the re la tio n sh ip b e tw e en s t r e s s o r ten sion and

th e se in d ic a to rs , r a th e r than a c le a r - c u t d iffe re n ce in findings dealing

w ith the ten sion red u c tio n hyp o th esis .

O th e r s tud ie s using m ech an ica l o r a r t i f ic i a l m e an s of inducing

s t r e s s have likew ise p roduced conflicting r e s u l t s .

K orm an , Knopf, and A ustin (I960) p re d ic te d th a t a lcoho l would

im p ro v e p e rfo rm a n ce in s tr e s s fu l s itu a tio n s but would d e c re a s e p e r

fo rm a n c e in n o n - s tr e s s s itu a tio n s . A gain u sing e le c tr ic a l shocks as

s tr e s s -p ro d u c in g m e ch an ism s, th e ir p re d ic tio n s w ere suppo rted w here

p e r fo rm a n c e w as m e a su re d by the s u b je c t 's ab ility to le a rn nonsense

s y lla b le s .

F in a lly , in s tu d ie s using delayed a u d ito ry feedback a s an anxiety -


18

p roducing m e ch an ism , a lcoho l w as found to d is ru p t v e rb a l b eh a v io r to

a g r e a te r ex ten t than a p lacebo o r o th e r d ru g s (H ughes & F o rn ey , 1963;

F o rn ey & H ughes, 1965; H ughes, F o rn ey & G ates, 1963; and H ughes,

F o rn ey & R ic h a rd s , 1965). T hese find ings w ere in te rp re te d as p ro v id

ing sup p o rt fo r the re je c tio n of the ten sion red u c tio n th eo ry (H ypothesis 1).

A no ther m a jo r a r e a of r e s e a rc h on the ten sion reduction th eo ry

dea ling w ith v a r io u s types of s e lf - r e p o r ts w ere conducted in two m a jo r

se ttin g s : co ck ta il p a r t ie s and te s t s itu a tio n s .

Looking f i r s t a t the te s t s itu a tio n s , Lundin and Saw yer (1965)

u sed a group of f r a te rn i ty m e m b e rs to te s t the re la tio n sh ip betw een

a lcoho l and te s t anx iety . U sing the In s titu te fo r P e rs o n a li ty and A bility

T e s t in g 's anx ie ty sca le , they found no re la tio n sh ip betw een te s t anxiety

and a lcoho l consum ption . In a b a s ic re p l ic a tio n of th is study, how ever,

S m art (1968) not only poin ted out m any m e thodo log ica l p ro b le m s with

the Lundin and S aw yer study, but found suppo rt fo r a c u rv i lin e a r r e l a

tionsh ip betw een alcoho l consum ption and te s t anx iety .

In te rm s of a p a r ty - ty p e se ttin g , K alin , M cC le lland and Kahn

(1965) in v ited s tuden ts to a ttend an in fo rm a l d isc u ss io n se s s io n o r a

f r a te rn i ty p a r ty in an a ttem p t to gain in fo rm atio n on drink ing p a t te rn s

in n o rm a l se tt in g s . With the u se of the T h e m atic A ppercep tion T e st,

they found th a t a lcoho l had no effec t on a f e a r -a n x ie ty m e a s u re in the

d isc u ss io n s e s s io n s but a s ig n ifican t e ffec t w as o b se rv ed in the f r a t e r n

ity . s e ttin g .


19

W illiam s (1966) u sed an anxiety and d e p re s s io n -b a s e d ad jec tive

ch e ck lis t w ith w hich studen ts ra te d th e m se lv e s a t co c k ta il p a r t ie s . The

ch e ck lis ts w ere a d m in is te re d a t th re e po in ts: p r io r to the p a r ty , a f te r

sm all am ounts of a lcoho l w ere consum ed and a f te r la rg e am ounts of

alcoho l w ere consum ed . W illiam s found th a t sm a ll am ounts of alcohol

sign ifican tly d e c re a s e d anx iety le v e ls , y e t a f te r consum ing g re a te r

am ounts of a lcoho l the anx iety lev e ls re tu rn e d to ap p ro x im a te ly p r e

p a r ty le v e ls . T h is l a t te r finding w as a ttr ib u te d to the nega tive side

effec ts of heavy a lcoho l consum ption ( e . g . , n a u se a and lo s s of co n tro l

o ver o n e 's a c tio n s).

T h re e re la tiv e ly la rg e - s c a le s tud ies have le n t add itio n a l support

to the te n sio n red u c tio n hypo thesis .

l e s s o r , G ra v e s , H anson and J e s s o r (1968), in a study of a sm all

t r i - e th n ic com m unity in C olo rado , a ttem p ted to app ly M erto n 's (1949)

e n d s-m e an s schem e p lu s a so c ia l co n tro l v a r ia b le to the frequency of

deviant a c tiv ity (e x ce ss iv e alcoho l consum ption). F ocusing upon two

m a jo r p o p u la tio n s -- th e com m unity i ts e lf and a sam p le of high school

s tu d e n ts -- th e y th e o riz e d tha t (1) the g re a te r the ad h e re n ce to dom inant

so c ia l va lues (ends) the le s s the p rev a len ce of e x c e ss iv e drink ing ; (2)

the g r e a te r the oppo rtun ity to achieve th e se v a lu es and goals (m eans)

the low er the p re v a le n c e of drinking; and (3) the g r e a te r the ex ten t of

so c ia l c o n tro l su rro u n d in g d rinking b ehav io r the lo w er the p rev a len ce

of e x c ess iv e d rink ing b eh av io r. They p o s ite d th e se th re e m a jo r


20

hy p o th e se s a t th re e d iffe re n t lev e ls : the s o c io c u ltu ra l sy s tem level,

the s o c ia liz a tio n sy stem level (p a ren ts) , and the p e rso n a lity sy stem

le v e l (ind iv idual). They found tha t in both the com m unity as a whole

and the h igh school studen ts a s a whole the b e s t p re d ic to r of ex c ess iv e

a lcoho l consum ption w as a m u ltiv a riab le exp lana tion including the

m e a n s -e n d s d is ju n c tu re (a f r u s t r a t io n - s t r e s s p roducing condition) at

both the so c io c u ltu ra l sy stem lev e l and the p e rs o n a l ity sy stem level

and the s o c ia l c o n tro l v a ria b le again a t th e se sam e le v e ls .

In 1969, C ahalan , C is in and C ro s s le y (1969) conducted som e

2700 in te rv ie w s w ith responden ts draw n f ro m a n a tio n a l p ro b ab ility

sam p le dea ling w ith th e ir drinking p ra c t ic e s and a t titu d e s . They found

th a t 71% of th o se ca te g o riz e d a s heavy d r in k e rs c ited as one of the

m a jo r b en e fits of a lcoho l consum ption its ab ility to re l ie v e d e p re ss io n

and n erv o u s ten sion . This f igu re r e p r e s e n ts a m uch h ig h e r p ro p o rtio n

citin g th is bene fit than in any o th e r ca teg o ry of d r in k e r (p. 49).

C aha lan , C is in and C ro ss le y a lso a tte m p te d to d elineate two

types of d r in k e rs : so c ia l d r in k e rs who d rin k m a in ly fo r so c ia lly re la te d

r e a s o n s such a s a t fe s tiv e o ccasio n s , c e le b ra t io n s , o r to be m o re so c i

ab le ; and e scap e d r in k e rs who tend to d r in k fo r m o re indiv idual re a so n s

and u se a lcoho l as a drug w hich has the p o w er to a lle v ia te an x ie tie s

(p. 165). They found th a t am ong heavy d r in k e r s , 64% of the women

and 48% of the m en could be c la s s if ie d a s e s c a p e d r in k e rs . This again

w as a l a r g e r p ro p o rtio n than in any o th e r c a te g o ry of d r in k e rs . B ased


21

upon C o n g e r 's (1956) th e o re tic a l fo rm u la tio n s , they concluded tha t those

who a r e e sc a p e d r in k e rs r e p o r t a h ig h e r le v e l of anx ie ty and d ep re ss io n

than do n o n -e sc a p e d r in k e rs . If drink ing te m p o ra r ily a l le v ia te s th e se

h an d icap s , the escap e d r in k e r would have m o re incen tive to d rink

(C ahalan , C is in & C ro ss le y , 1969:178).

C aha lan (1970), using the sam e data a s d e sc r ib e d above, sug

g es te d two add itiona l exp lanations fo r a lcoho l consum ption tha t a re

s t r e s s re la te d : f i r s t , a lien a tio n and m a lad ju stm en t in w hich C ahalan

rea so n e d th a t those w ith high sco re s on th is v a r ia b le w ould be m o re

like ly to u se a lcoho l to re lie v e ten sion and anx iety ; and second, u n fav o r

ab le ex p e c ta tio n s in w hich those who fe e l they have a c c e s s to the a c h iev e

m e n t of th e ir expec ta tio n s a re le s s like ly than o th e rs to d rin k ex c ess iv e ly .

A lthough both of th e se v a r ia b le s w ere found to be re la te d to a lcoho l

consum ption indiv idually , when added to a s tepw ise r e g re s s io n an a ly s is

w ith fo u r o th e r v a r ia b le s (a ll re la te d to so c ia l and p sy ch o lo g ica l a s p e c ts

of the d rink ing s itua tion ), they con tribu ted re la tiv e ly l i t t le to the o v e r

a l l am ount of exp la ined v a rian ce .

On a m o re a b s tra c t level, S e reb ro (1972) a ttem p ted to te s t the

re la tio n sh ip betw een a lcoho l consum ption and anx ie ty am ong u rb an ized

A fr ic a n s . He found tha t to ta l a lcoho l consum ption w as a re la tiv e ly

good in d ic a to r of anx iety lev e l.

S um m ary

A lthough the re s e a r c h on the te n sio n red u c tio n th e o ry h as been


22

w id esp read and the sup p o rt fo r H ypothesis 1 has been in co n c lu siv e

in m any a re a s , it s t i l l s eem s th a t a la rg e body of ev idence e x is ts to

suppo rt the ten sio n red u c tio n hypo thesis (H ypothesis 2) a t th is poin t

in tim e . Even c r i t ic s of the ten sion reduc tion th eo ry ad m it th a t th e re

is a la rg e body of r e s e a r c h which o ffe rs " rea so n ab le su p p o rt" fo r the

in c re a s e d s e lf -a d m in is tra tio n of a lcoho l in c irc u m s c r ib e d s t r e s s s itu a

tions (C appell, 1975:202). F o r th e se re a s o n s , the r e m a in d e r of th is

d is s e r ta tio n w ill a s su m e th a t ind iv iduals do d rin k a lcoho l in o rd e r to

b en e fit fro m its a t le a s t p e rc e iv e d ten sion reducing e ffec t.

S tatus In co n s is ten cy Theory

In looking a t p o te n tia l so u rc e s of s t r e s s o r s t r e s s p ro d u c tio n ,

s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o ry r e p re s e n ts one m a jo r v iab le so u rc e . The

th e o ry of sta tu s in c o n sis ten cy p o s its tha t a s a r e s u l t of having incon

s is te n c ie s betw een ran k in g s on v a rio u s s ta tu s d im en s io n s , an in d iv i

dual is m o re lik e ly to ex p e rien ce s t r e s s than an ind iv idual w hose ra n k

ings a r e co n s is te n t. T h is th e o ry h as , how ever, re c e iv e d m uch c r i t i

c ism on both m e thodo log ica l and th e o re tic a l g rounds. D esp ite th is

c r i t ic is m , the r e s e a r c h connected w ith the th e o ry of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency h as p roduced som e p o s itiv e con trib u tio n s.

In looking a t the concep t of so c ia l c la s s , it w as M ax W eber

(1958), in one of h is m o re p ro m in en t e s s a y s en titled "C la ss , S ta tu s,

and P a r ty , " who f i r s t su g g es ted th a t the tra d itio n a l un id im en s io n a l

view of so c ia l s tra t if ic a tio n w as in a p p ro p ria te . W eber la te r advocated


23

th a t th e re w ere re a l ly th re e d is tin c t s ta tu s h ie ra rc h ie s w hich , taken

in com bination , r e p r e s e n t the m u ltid im ensiona l v a r ia b le of so c ia l

s ta tu s . A ccording to W eber:

The te rm " so c ia l s ta tu s" w ill be app lied to a ty p ica lly e ffec tive c la im to p o s itiv e o r nega tive p r iv ileg e w ith r e s p e c t to so c ia l p r e s t ig e a s f a r a s i t r e s ts on one o r m o re of the following b a s e s : (a) m ode of liv ing , (b) fo rm a l p ro c e s s of education w hich m ay c o n s is t of e m p ir ic a l o r r a t io n a l t r a in ing and ac q u is itio n of the co rresp o n d in g m odes of life , o r (c) on the p r e s t ig e of b ir th o r occupation . (1947:181)

In add ition , W eber cau tioned th a t th e se d im ensions of s ta tu s a re

f requen tly im p e rfe c t ly c o r re la te d . (F o r p u rp o ses of th is c h a p te r , the

following te rm s r e f e r to th is im p e rfe c t c o rre la tio n betw een s ta tu s

d im ensions and a r e c o n s id e re d to be synonom ous: s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy ,

s ta tu s d isc re p an cy , s ta tu s incongruency , and low s ta tu s c r y s ta l l i z a t io n .)

P i t i r im S o rok in (1927), w riting sh o rtly a f te r W e b e r 's death ,

a lso noted the e x is te n c e of th re e b as ic d im ensions of so c ia l s t r a t i f ic a

tion: eco n o m ic ,p o litic a l, and occupationa l. A lthough th e se th re e

d im ensions w ere d iffe re n t fro m those ou tlined by W eber, S orok in a lso

cam e to a s im i la r con c lu sio n about th e ir in te r re la tio n s h ip s . S orokin

no ted that:

T he in te rc o r re la t io n am ong the th re e fo rm s of s tr a t if ic a tio n is f a r f ro m being p e r fe c t; the s tr a ta of each fo rm do no t co incide co m p le te ly w ith one ano th er . . . . This f a c t does not p e rm it us to ana lyze in a sum m ary way a ll th re e fundam e n ta l fo rm s of so c ia l s tra tif ic a tio n . (1927:12)

Sorokin a lso a p p e a rs to be one of the f i r s t th e o r is ts to reco g n ize

an anxiety o r te n sio n th a t is som ehow re la te d to the im p e rfe c t c o r r e la -


2 4

tion of the vario u s s ta tu s d im en s io n s . He d e s c r ib e s th is s itu a tio n as

being " innerly an tag o n is tic . . . m ultibonded s tra tu m m ade up of

m utually co n trad ic to ry , uncongen ial bon d -v a lu es" (1947:289, c ited in

Jack so n , I960).

E m ile B eno it-S m ullyan , w riting in 1944, a lso reco g n ized s e p a r

a te sta tu s h ie ra rc h ie s s im i la r to those p re s e n te d by Sorokin. B en o it-

Sm ullyan p o sited tha t a t le a s t a p a r t ia l explanation fo r the im p e rfe c t

c o r re la tio n betw een th e se s ta tu s d im ensions l ie s in the fa c t tha t a s

o n e 's s ta tu s changes, the change does not ap p e ar in a ll d im ensions

s im u ltaneously . By defin ition , an im balance h as o c c u rre d .

In a dynam ic and m ob ile socie ty , s ta tu s equ ilib riu m is alw ays being d is tu rb e d since pronounced changes in s ta tu s occu r o rd in a r ily in only one type of s ta tu s a t f i r s t , and a re only g radually c o n v e rted into equ ivalen t s ta tu se s in o th e r h ie ra rc h ie s , (p. 160)^

It is gen e ra lly th rough a p ro c e s s of "s ta tu s co n v e rso n " th a t in d iv i

duals experiencing th is s ta te of s ta tu s im balance a c t to m ove to w ard s

"s ta tu s eq u ilib ra tio n " o r a com m on le v e l of po sitio n s on a ll s ta tu s

h ie ra rc h ie s . B eno it-S m ullyan w as p a r t ic u la r ly concerned w ith o u t

com es to s ta tu s im b a la n ces , e sp e c ia lly when s ta tu s conve rs ion p ro c e s s e s

w ere blocked. A ccord ing to B eno it-S m ullyan , th e re w ere h is to r ic a l

grounds fo r supposing th a t w hen le g a l, cu s to m ary , o r o th e r b a r r i e r s

se rio u s ly ham p er the eq u ilib ra tin g tendency, so c ia l ten sio n s of

Ê xam ples of th is m ay be seen in the w ritin g s of E v e re tt H ughes(1945).

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

25

rev o lu tio n a ry m agn itude m ay be g en e ra ted (1944:160).

G e rh a rd L e n sk i (1954), in a p ioneering e ffo r t to conduct r e s e a r c h

in the a r e a of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy and so c ia l te n sio n s, m ade som e

in te re s tin g o b se rv a tio n s . H ow ever, L en sk i d ev ia ted som ew hat fro m

w hat had p rev io u sly been ind ica ted as the v a rio u s s ta tu s d im ensions

upon w hich so c ia l s tra t if ic a tio n w as based . A ccord ing to L ensk i, th e re

w ere fo u r m a jo r s ta tu s d im ensions: education , occupation , incom e,

and ethn icity . He hypo thesized and con firm ed th a t specific p o litic a l

a ttitu d es and b eh a v io rs v a ry a s to the d eg ree and type of sta tu s incon

s is ten c y ex p e rien ced (p. 406). F o r exam ple , L ensk i found that:

1. L ib e ra l p o litic a l tendencie s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith a low d eg ree of s ta tu s c ry s ta ll iz a tio n re g a rd le s s of the re la tio n sh ip of the s ta tu s v a r ia b le s , and

2. C e rta in types of s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c ie s a re m o re c lose ly re la te d to p o litic a l l ib e ra l is m than o th e rs , (p. 411)

A ccording to L enski;

The indiv idual w ith a p o o rly c ry s ta ll iz e d s ta tu s is a p a r t ic u la rtype of m a rg in a l m an, and is su b jec ted to c e r ta in p r e s s u re sby the so c ia l o rd e r which a r e no t fe l t (at le a s t to the sam edegree) by ind iv iduals w ith a m o re highly c ry s ta ll iz e d s ta tu s .(P. 412)4

In h is la te r w ork, L ensk i p o s ite d the hypo thesis tha t p e rso n s

w ith a low deg ree of s ta tu s c ry s ta ll iz a tio n a r e lik e ly to be sub jec ted to

d is tu rb in g e x p e rien ce s in the in te ra c tio n p ro c e s s and have g re a t

4In conducting th is r e s e a rc h , i t should be no ted tha t L ensk i not

only p ro p o sed but a lso u ti liz ed a m ethod f o r m a th em a tic a lly deriv ing an index of s ta tu s inconsistency .


2 6 1

difficu lty in es tab lish ing rew ard in g p a t te rn s of so c ia l in te ra c tio n with

o th e rs (L enski, 1956A:459).

A lthough unable to te s t th is h y p o th e sis d ire c tly , L ensk i fo rm u

la te d th re e secondary hypo theses, d e r iv e d fro m the o r ig in a l one, that

s e rv e d to p rov ide confirm ing evidence fo r the o r ig in a l hypo thesis . He

found that:

1. Low c ry s ta lliz a tio n re sp o n d en ts a r e m o re frequen tly nonp a r tic ip a n ts in vo lun tary re la tio n sh ip s than a re high c ry s ta lliz a tio n re sp o n d en ts,

2. The p ro p o rtio n of longstand ing v o lun ta ry t ie s which have becom e inactive is g r e a te r am ong p e rso n s with poorly c ry s ta ll iz e d s ta tu s than am ong o th e rs , and

3. P e rs o n s with poorly c ry s ta l l iz e d s ta tu s a r e m o re frequen tly m oved to e s ta b lish and m a in ta in vo lun tary t ie s by nonsociab le m o tivations and le s s freq u en tly by sociab le m o tivations than is c h a ra c te r is t ic of o th e r s ( 1956A :460-46l)

The f i r s t m a jo r body of nega tive ev idence fo r L e n sk i 's theory

of s ta tu s inconsistency cam e in an a r t ic le by K enkel (1956). In re sp o n d

ing to K enke l's findings, how ever, L e n sk i (1956B) p rov ided fu r th e r

sp ec ifica tio n of h is th e o re tic a l s ta te m e n ts and resp o n d ed by noting tha t

K enkel had u sed in a p p ro p ria te s ta tu s v a r ia b le s . L en sk i w ent on to in d i

ca te th a t the fo u r v a r iab le s he had u sed w ere chosen pu rposefu lly , and

b e c au se they w ere the m o s t b as ic com ponen ts in the A m erican s tr a t i f i

ca tio n sy stem , no o th e rs w ere ac cep ta b le (195613:368).

R ecen t theo riz ing by E lton F . J a c k s o n (1962) suggested tha t

the u n derly ing p rob lem b as ic to the d iff ic u ltie s ex p e rien ce d in in te r

ac tio n by ind iv iduals w ith in c o n sis ten t s ta tu s e s w as th a t of conflicting


27

e x p e c ta tio n s .

An in d iv id u a l's ran k on a s ta tu s d im ension co n tro ls in p a r t h is expecta tions of o th e rs , h is ex p e c ta tio n s of h im se lf , and o th e r s ' expecta tions of h im . . . . When a p e rso n holds h igh rank on one sta tu s d im ension and low ra n k on an o th er, the expecta tions (both those held by the ind iv idual and by o th e rs ) m ob iliz ed by the ran k p o s itio n s w ill often be in conf lic t. (p. 4 70)5

Ja ck so n w ent on to s ta te that: "Two g e n e ra l co nsequences s tem fro m

th is c e n tra l p rob lem of conflicting exp ec ta tio n s and both of them in

tu rn le a d to p sycho log ica l s t r e s s " (p. 470). The f i r s t consequence

J a c k so n saw w as fru s tra t io n . As a re s u lt of o n e 's in c o n sis ten c ie s ,

o th e r s ' ex p e c ta tio n s of him a re a t le a s t p a r t ia l ly c o n trad ic to ry . The

in d iv idua l is unable to fu lfill a l l of the ex p ec ta tio n s and in tu rn re c e iv e s

n ega tive san c tio n s fro m o th e rs fo r fa iling to do so. A dditionally ,

f r u s tr a t io n m ay o cc u r because the p e rso n w ith in c o n s is te n t rank ings

often ex p e c ts in te ra c tio n to be based upon h is h ig h e s t rank , y e t th is

does n o t o ccu r as a consequence of being ev a lu a ted and b locked a c c o rd

ing to h is low est rank (p. 470).

T he second consequence of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy acco rd in g to

Jack so n w as a s ta te of u n ce rta in ty in te rm s of w hat the in c o n sis ten t

ind iv idual can righ tfu lly expect fro m o th e rs , and w hat they can expect

fro m h im (1962:470).

Ja c k so n u tiliz ed th re e of the fo u r v e r t ic a l s ta tu s h ie ra rc h ie s

5T h is ap p roach to s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o riz in g has been te rm e d the "ex p ec ta tio n -co n flic t ap p ro ach " (A nderson , 1971).


28

(education , occupation and ra c ia l-e th n ic background) th a t w ere sug

g es te d by L ensk i (1954, 1956A) and a ttem p ted to equate in c o n s is te n c ie s

betw een them with the num ber and s e v e r ity of p schophysio log ica l sym p

tom s ex p e rien ce d by the indiv idual. Jack so n fe lt th is w as im p o rtan t

in th a t " it is an in trap u n itiv e , bodily e x p re s se d re a c tio n to s t r e s s ; it

th e re fo re o ffe rs an opportun ity to check suggestions tha t se lf-b la m e

m ay r e s u l t fro m s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy " (1962:470).

F ro m h is a n a ly s is , Jack so n concluded that:

1. Both m o d e ra te and sh arp s ta tu s in co n sisten cy a re p sy ch o lo g ica lly d istu rb in g fo r the ind iv idual, and

2. The re sp o n se to s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy v a r ie s w ith the c h a r a c te r is t i c s of the in c o n sis ten t. Low ach ieved s ta tu s o r an a s c r ib e d s ta tu s su p e rio r to ach ieved s ta tu s in flu en ces the ind iv idual to re sp o n d p o litic a lly . The sex of the incons is te n t in fluences the re sp o n se to d is c re p a n c ie s betw een occupation and education . (1962:470)

R o b ert M itchell (1964) a lso lodged s e v e ra l c r i t ic is m s c o n c e rn

ing both the th e o re tic a l and m e thodo log ica l w ork done by L en sk i (1954,

1956A) and Ja ck so n (1962). M itc h e ll 's m o s t im p o rtan t c r i t ic is m c e n te red

around a p e rc e iv e d lack of ev idence to suppo rt the idea tha t s ta tu s incon

s is ten c y , as m e a s u re d to date , a c tu a lly m e a s u re d an in te ra c t io n effec t

of a l l the d im en sio n s . He a rgued th e re w ere no m eans of d e te rm in in g

w hethe r the e ffec ts m e a su re d w ere not m e re ly due to the m ain e ffec ts of

the s ta tu s d im ensions .

/M itc h e l l/ would have p r e f e r r e d tha t L en sk i and Jack so ndevelop th e ir sum m ary m e a s u re s along m o re tra d itio n a l lin e s ;th a t they add th e ir s e v e ra l d im ensions to g e th e r one a t a tim e ,


29

and then ind ica te tha t no single d im ension o r no s ingle com bina tion of d im ensions adequately ex p la in s w hat ap p e a rs to be an underly ing them e of low s ta tu s c ry s ta lliz a tio n .(M itchell, 1964:324)

A gain , in a "C om m ent, " L ensk i (1964) resp o n d ed to c r i tic is m s ,

th is tim e to those of M itchell. L ensk i po in ted out th a t s ta tu s incon

s is ten c y e ffec ts can be thought of as s ta t is t ic a l in te ra c tio n , o r non

add itive e ffec ts of c e r ta in com binations of s ta tu s ra n k s . He a lso re c o m

m ended th a t th e se in te rac tio n effec ts can be id en tif ied by com paring the

sum of r a te s of the dependent v a riab le fo r c e r ta in c o n s is te n t rank p a t

te rn s w ith the sum of ra te s fo r c e r ta in in c o n s is te n t p a t te rn s .

L a te r , J a ck so n and B urke (1965) a lso reco g n ized th is p rob lem ,

a s su g g ested by M itche ll. They advanced the id e a tha t, th rough the

u ti liz a tio n of a dum m y v a riab le r e g re s s io n techn ique, one could not only

take in to accoun t M itc h e ll 's c r i t ic is m but a lso could p rov ide a m o re

p re c is e m e a s u re m e n t of sta tu s in c o n sisten cy e ffec ts than the techniques

suggested by L e n sk i (p. 557).

Jack so n and B urke , in support of th is contention , reexam ined

the re la tio n sh ip betw een sta tu s in c o n sisten cy and the o c c u rre n c e of

p sy ch o so m atic sym ptom s (Jackson , 1962), u s in g a dum m y v a riab le

re g re s s io n a n a ly s is . T h e ir findings in d ica te th a t the sim ple additive

m ode l (w ith no in te ra c tio n te rm ) is not a fu lly adequate exp lanation of

the v a r ia tio n s in sym ptom le v e l by s ta tu s ; the non -ad d itiv e m odels

(with in te ra c t io n te rm ) f i t the data m uch m o re p re c is e ly (1965:563).

T h is "ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t" exp lanation of J a c k s o n 's of the


29

an d then in d ica te tha t no single d im ension o r no sing le com b in a tion of d im ensions adequately ex p la in s w hat a p p e a rs to be an underly ing them e of low s ta tu s c ry s ta ll iz a tio n .(M itchell, 1964:324)

A gain , in a "C om m ent, " L ensk i (1964) re sp o n d ed to c r i tic is m s ,

th is tim e to those of M itchell. L ensk i po in ted out th a t s ta tu s incon

s is te n c y e ffec ts can be thought of as s ta t is t ic a l in te ra c tio n , o r non

add itive e ffec ts of c e r ta in com binations of s ta tu s ra n k s . He a lso re c o m

m ended th a t th e se in te rac tio n e ffec ts can be id e n tif ied by com paring the

sum of r a t e s of the dependent v a riab le fo r c e r ta in co n s is te n t ran k p a t

te rn s w ith the sum of r a te s fo r c e rta in in c o n s is te n t p a t te rn s .

L a te r , J a ck so n and B urke (1965) a lso re co g n ized th is p rob lem ,

a s su g g es ted by M itche ll. They advanced the id e a th a t, th rough the

u ti liz a tio n of a dum m y v a ria b le r e g re s s io n techn ique , one could not only

take in to accoun t M itc h e ll 's c r i t ic is m but a lso could p rov ide a m o re

p re c is e m e a s u re m e n t of s ta tu s incon sisten cy e ffec ts than the techniques

su g g ested by L en sk i (p. 557).

Ja c k so n and B urke , in support of th is con ten tion , reexam ined

the r e la tio n sh ip betw een s ta tu s incon sisten cy and the o c c u rre n c e of

p sy ch o so m a tic sym ptom s (Jackson , 1962), u s ing a dum m y v a r iab le

r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is . T h e ir findings ind ica te th a t the s im p le additive

m ode l (w ith no in te ra c tio n te rm ) is not a fu lly ad equate exp lanation of

the v a r ia tio n s in sym ptom le v e l by s ta tu s; the n o n -ad d itiv e m ode ls

(with in te ra c t io n te rm ) f i t the data m uch m o re p re c is e ly (1965:563).

T h is "ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t" exp lanation of J a c k s o n 's of the


30

ten sio n -p ro d u c in g n a tu re of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy w as a t le a s t p a r t ia l ly

p re s e n te d o r suggested in p r io r w orks by H ughes (1945) and the e a rly

w ork of L en sk i (1954, 1956A), although it w as no t un til J a c k s o n 's a r t ic le

in 1962 th a t th is app ro ach cam e to the fo re fro n t. In 1966, L ensk i m ade

an added co n tribu tion when he ex p lic itly de lin ea ted h is v iew s on the

e x p e c ta tio n -co n flic t approach .

Ind iv iduals s tr iv e to m ax im ize th e ir sa tis fa c tio n s , even, if n e c e s s a ry , a t the expense of o th e rs . T his m e an s than an ind iv idual w ith in c o n sis ten t s ta tu se s o r ra n k s has a n a tu ra l tendency to think of h im se lf in te rm s of th a t s ta tu s o r rank w hich is h ighest, and to expect o th e rs to do the sam e . M eanw hile , o th e rs who com e in con tac t w ith h im have a v es te d in te r e s t in doing ju s t the opposite , th a t is , in tre a tin g h im in te rm s of h is low est s ta tu s o r ran k . (p. 87)

A v a r ia n t of th is ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t app ro ach is seen in the

Gibbs and M a rtin (1964) theo ry of " s ta tu s in teg ra tio n . " W orking so m e

w hat fro m H ughes ' (1945) id e as dealing w ith ro le con flic t, G ibbs and

M artin m ake use of the following concep ts: ro le s , s ta tu se s , s ta tu s in te

g ra tio n , and ro le conflict. S tatus is seen a s a fo rm of so c ia l id e n tif ic a

tion and the ro le s a re the r ig h ts , d u ties , and ob ligations of a p a r t ic u la r

s ta tu s . By having a s e r ie s of so c ia l id e n tif ic a tio n s , the ind iv idual is

expected to p e r fo rm the ro le s in h e ren t in each s ta tu s he occup ies . If

conform ing to the ro le s of one s ta tu s in te r fe re s w ith conform ing to the

ro le s of a n o th e r s ta tu s (which it is a s su m e d is m o re lik e ly if they a re

poo rly in teg ra ted ) , an indiv idual is confron ted w ith an in com patib ility in

s ta tu se s (1964:23). ^

Â v e ry s im ila r app roach can be seen in the w ritin g s of Sam pson (1963, 1969).


31

P e rh a p s one of the m o re in trigu ing a t te m p ts to r e la te th e o r iz

ing about s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c ie s to th eo riz ing in o th e r a re a s of socia l

sc ience w as p rov ided by G eschw ender (1967). G eschw ender com bined

the ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t approach w ith c e r ta in of the m a in p ro p o sitio n s

of G eorge H om ans (1961), p a r t ic u la r ly h is id e a of "d is tr ib u tiv e ju s tic e . "

G eschw ender no t only reco g n izes it is an in c o n sis ten cy in expecta tions

th a t p ro d u ces s t r e s s fo r indiv iduals with in c o n s is te n t ran k in g s, but

a lso v iew s c e r ta in ran k s as in v estm en ts a n d /o r r e w a rd s . S tre s s is

a lso p roduced then b ecau se of in su ffic ien t p ro f its o r re w a rd s in re la tio n

to the in v e stm en ts m ade.

Of c o u rs e , o the r app roaches have been su g g es ted in the l i t e r a

tu re a s an exp lanation of the o cc u rre n c e of te n sio n o r anx iety e x p e ri

enced by ind iv iduals w ith in c o n sis ten t s ta tu s ran k in g s . One of these

ap p ro ac h es is a lso b ased upon the w ritin g s of G eo rge H om ans (1961),

on the w ork of T hibaut and K elly (1959) and K im b e rly (1962, 1966, 1967,

1970), a l l of which em phasize a b a s ic exchange p e rs p e c t iv e .

H om ans (1961) p ro p o ses tha t ten sio n s a r e d e r iv e d fro m exchange

s itua tions w here p e rs o n s expect the p ro f its of each p a r t ic ip a n t to be

p ro p o rtio n a l to h is in v e stm en ts . H om ans la b e le d th is concept of

expected p ro p o rtio n a lity betw een in v e stm en ts and p ro f it "d is tr ib u tiv e

ju s tic e . "

T h ibau t and K elly (1959) p re s e n t a s lig h tly d iffe re n t app roach to

the ten sio n ex p lanation o ffe red by H om ans. T h is i s the concep t of


32

"c o m p ariso n le v e l" w hich they define as :

T he s tan d a rd ag a in s t which an in d iv idua l ev a lu a te s the a t tr a c t iv e n e s s of a given re la tio n sh ip . A ttra c tiv e n e s s is a function of how c lo se the ou tcom es, th a t is , the re w a rd s and the co s ts of the re la tionsh ip , a r e to w hat the indiv idual fe e ls he d e s e rv e s , (cited in K im b erly , 1970:84-85)

P ro b ab ly the m o s t im p o rtan t spokesm an fo r th is "p ro f itin v e s t-

m e n t" ap p ro ach is K im berly (1962, 1966, 1967, 1970). B ased upon the

w ork of Th ibau t and K elly (1959), K im berly m ak es the arg u m en t tha t

te n sio n s a r e not the d ire c t re s u lt of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy p e r se , but

r a th e r of p o o r r e w a rd -c o s t outcom es tha t a r e often a s s o c ia te d w ith

s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy (K im berly , 1967).

A dam s (1965) ap p e a rs to sep a ra te the " ju s t d is tr ib u tio n of

r e w a rd s " fro m the concept of " re la tiv e d ep riv a tio n . "

F i r s t , the d issa tis fa c tio n a s s o c ia te d w ith re la tiv e d ep riv a tio n re s u l ts fro m fe lt in ju s tice , r a th e r than d ire c tly from re la tiv e dep rivation . Second, w hat is ju s t is b a sed upon s tro n g expecta tions . T h ird , a co m p ara tiv e p ro c e s s is in h e re n t in the developm ent of ex p e c ta tio n s and the p e rc e p tio n of in ju s tice . F o u rth , and fin a lly , fe l t in ju stice is a re s p o n s e to a d isc rep an cy betw een w hat i s p e rce iv ed to be and w hat is p e rce iv ed should be. (c ite d in K im berly , 1970:84)

I t s eem s th a t A dam s a ttem p ted to a r t ic u la te a "p ro f itin v e s t-

m e n t" ap p ro ach in ac co rd w ith the "ex p e c ta tio n -co n flic t" approach of

W eber, L en sk i, and Jackson .

A no ther app roach to an explanation of the ten sion resu ltin g

fro m s ta tu s in co n sisten cy is based upon H e id e r 's (1958) theo ry of

b a lan ce and F e s t in g e r 's theory of cognitive d isso n an ce . A lthough, as

po in ted o u t by K im berly (1966), th is ap p ro ach d ea ls w ith a som ew hat


33

d iffe re n t type of co n sis ten cy than s ta tu s in co n sisten cy (K im berly , 1966:

218), i t is s t i l l of im portance to reco g n ize i ts th e o re tic a l con tribu tions

to th is g en e ra l a re a .

B alance theo ry , a t its m o s t g e n e ra l le v e l, fo cu ses on the te n

dency fo r the a ffec t c h a ra c te r iz in g the in d iv id u a l 's re sp o n se s to p a r ts

of an en tity to be of like sign (H eider, 1958:182-183). D issonance

th e o ry fo cu ses on cognitions w hich im p ly the o b v erse of one ano th er and

w hich ap p e a r to r e s u l t fro m co m m itm en t to b eh av io r w hich re s u l ts in

f ru s tra t io n of an im p o rtan t m otive (B rehm & Cohen, 1962:228-230).

In sum , th is "balance" app roach a s su m e s : "(1) tha t ba lanced

ra n k s a re stab le ; (2) tha t im balanced ran k s tend to change un til they

becom e balanced ; and (3) tha t im balanced ran k s p roduce a s ta te of te n

s io n " (Z e ld itch & A nderson , 1966:249).

O ther T h e o re tic a l C onsid era tio n s

Two add itiona l th e o re tic a l c r i t ic is m s of s ta tu s inconsistency

th e o ry have been p re s e n te d in the l i te r a tu r e th a t w a rra n t co n side ra tion .

The f i r s t , a s noted by Box and F o rd (1969), and B urton (1972)

is th a t the th eo ry of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy , as p re se n te d , is log ically

in co m p le te . C e rta in add itiona l th e o re tic a l a ssu m p tio n s m u s t be m ade

in o r d e r to p re s e n t a m o re log ica lly sound theo ry .

Box and F o rd a rgue tha t the following add itiona l assu m p tio n s

m u s t be m ade:


34

1. The re le v a n t o th e rs alw ays have s ta tu s p ro f ile s in which no rank ing is lo w er than the in c o n s is te n t 's h ig h e st rank.

2. Ego alw ays a ttem p ts to m ax im ize h is s ta tu s .

3. The re le v a n t o th e rs a re aw are of the s ta tu s inconsisten t*s low er o r low est s ta tu s.

4. No so c ia l c o n s tra in ts o p e ra te to in h ib it the b eh av io r of the o th e rs tow ards the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten t.

5. "O b jec tive" s ta tu se s a re s a lie n t to the a c to r s , and a r e cons id e re d re le v a n t in the in te ra c t io n s itu a tio n , (p , 198)

The m a jo r p ro b le m a r i s e s f ro m the fa c t th a t r e s e a r c h evidence

ex is ts w hich in d ica te s a t le a s t one, if no t a l l , of th e se assu m p tio n s a re

fa lse (see Box & F o rd , 1969; B urton , 1972).

The second a r e a of c r i t ic is m d ea ls w ith the re la tio n sh ip betw een

o b jective and su b jec tive eva luation of in c o n s is te n c ie s . T his idea is

b a s ic a lly a fu r th e r ex tension of po in t 5 c ited above fro m Box and F o rd .

N elson (1973) p ro p o ses that:

O bjective in c o n sisten cy m ay be defined in te rm s of an a rb i t r a ry m an ipu la tion of an in d iv id u a l's s ta tu s ra n k s , o r i t m ay be defined in te r m s of the n o rm a tiv e ex p e c ta tio n s linking to g e th er the v a r io u s s ta tu s d im ensions . S ub jec tive c o n s is te n cy , on the o th e r hand, invo lves asking the re sp o n d en t to decide fo r h im se lf w h e th e r o r not he is in c o n sis ten t, (p. 3)

In th is s itu a tio n , p a r t ic u la r ly w hen o b jec tive in co n sisten cy is

defined u sin g the f i r s t defin ition g iven above, i t is qu ite like ly tha t the

th e o r is t - r e s e a r c h (objective) defined s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t and the r e s

pondent (sub jec tive) defined in c o n sis ten t w ill no t y ie ld the sam e e m p ir i

c a l r e s u l ts (S teh r, 1968; N elson, 1973). In fa c t , i t h a s been suggested

th a t " th e re a r e c e r ta in s itu a tio n s in w hich o b jec tive s ta tu s in c o n s is te n


35

c ie s e x is t , y e t th e se in c o n sis ten c ie s m ay be not only ea s ily accom m o

da ted , but dow nright p a la tab le " (H ym an, 1967:396).

Subsequent to the m a jo r th e o re tic a l developm ents of L ensk i

(1964, 1956A, 1956B, 1964) and Ja c k so n (1962), the r e s e a rc h li te ra tu re

h as been re p le te w ith stud ies dealing w ith s ta tu s inco n sisten cy . A s iz e

ab le p o r tio n of th is l i te ra tu re h as , how ev er, not been supportive of the

th eo ry .

In looking a t the re la tio n sh ip betw een s ta tu s inconsistency and

som e d ire c t m e a s u re s of s t r e s s , th e re have only been two stud ies tha t

have d e a lt w ith th is question . The f i r s t , by H e s s e r (1971), dea lt w ith a

sam p le of A m erican P ro te s ta n t c le rg y m en ; y e t he found s ligh t suppo rt

f o r a d ire c t re la tio n sh ip betw een s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy and s tr e s s . The

o th e r study, done by House and H ark in s (1975), a lso supported such a

d ir e c t re la tio n sh ip . It should be noted , how ev er, th a t the se d ire c t

m e a s u re s of s t r e s s a r e som ew hat qu estio n ab le .

In te rm s of in d ire c t m e a s u re s of s t r e s s , re la tio n sh ip s have been

e x p lo re d in the following a re a s . P o s i tiv e d ire c t re la tio n sh ip s have been

found betw een s ta tu s inconsistency and voting b eh av io r o r d e s ire fo r

s o c ia l change by G offman (1957), Segal and Knoke (1968), Segal (1969),

S m ith (1969), P loch (1968), L ensk i (1964, 1967), and E itzen (1970).

N egative findings w ere re p o rte d by K enkel (1956), B ran d e m ey er (1965),

K elly and C ham bliss (1966), B room and Jo n e s (1970), L aum ann and

S egal (1971), O lsen and Tully (1972), Knoke (1969), E itze n (1968), and


36

H ornung (1971).

T h e re h as been add itiona l r e s e a r c h done on L e n sk i1 s (1956)

h y p o th e sis concern ing so c ia l p a r t ic ip a tio n . P o s itiv e suppo rt h a s been

p ro v id e d by G eschw ender (1968) and B aum an (1968). N egative findings

have been ind ica ted by L aum ann and S egal (1971) and Sokol (1961).

In te rm s of s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy and s t r e s s a s m e a s u re d by

p sh ch o so m a tic sym ptom s, suppo rt h as been found by Jack so n (1962)

and Ja c k so n and B urke (1965), although o th e rs such a s M eile and H aese

(1969) and Jack so n and C u rtis (1972) found no such support.

S upport has a lso been p re s e n te d fo r re la tio n sh ip s betw een s ta tu s

in c o n s is te n c y and crew p e rfo rm a n ce by A dam s (1953); sch izoph ren ia

and p sy ch o p a th ies by Dunaham , P h ill ip s and S rin v aso n (1966) and

E itz e n and B a ir (1972); a ttitu d es tow ard seg re g a tio n by F aum an (1968);

r ig h t-w in g e x tre m ism by Rush (1967); p o li tic a l e fficacy by H ornung

(1973); m o rb id ity by Wan (1973); and h ea lth and o th e r soc ia l v a r ia b le s

by P lo ch (1968).

A la ck of support fo r the above re la tio n sh ip s h as a lso been

b ro u g h t fo rw a rd in the ca se of job s a tis fa c tio n by H ym an (1967) and

a ttitu d e s tow ard N eg roes by T re im a n (1966).

N o n-suppo rtive findings have a lso been re p o r te d on ch u rch

like v e r s u s s e c t- lik e re l ig io s ity by D em era th (1965); S eem an 's po w er

le s s n e s s sca le by Hodge and Segal (1970); h o s til ity tow ards im m ig ra n ts

by R uncim an and B agley (1969); so c ia l c la s s id e n tif ic a tio n (e q u ilib ra


tion) by Segal, Segal and Knoke (1970); and c o ro n a ry h e a r t d ise a se

by H oran and B rad fo rd (1974).

F in a lly , Jack so n and C u rtis (1972) p re s e n te d n eg a tiv e findings

on a s e r ie s of dependent v a r ia b le s inc luding so c ia l p a r tic ip a tio n ,

p o litic a l l ib e ra l is m , sa tisfa c tio n and sym ptom s of s t r e s s (p sychoso

m a tic sym ptom s), in to le ra n ce , anom ia, and se lf -p e rc e p tio n s .

R e se a rc h h as a lso been conducted in an a ttem p t to .identify

c e r ta in types of s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c ie s th a t a r e m o re s tr e s s fu l than

o th e rs . R e se a rc h in th is a r e a h as been conducted by L e n sk i (1954,

1956), Jack so n (1961), Jack so n and B urke (1965), Ja c k so n and C u rtis

(1972), L aum an and S egal (1971), Sm ith (1969), T re im a n (1966),

P loch (1968), Hornung (1971), Segal (1969), Knoke (1968, 1972),

O lsen and T ully (1972), Segal and Knoke (1969), B room and Jones

(1970), and E itze n and B ain (1972). As b e fo re , th e se r e s u l t s w ere

m ixed in th e ir su p p o rt of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy e ffec ts .

R e s e a rc h O bjec tives

The m a jo r th e o re tic a l co n cern of th is r e s e a r c h d ea ls w ith the

app lica tio n of s ta tu s in co n sis ten cy th eo ry to the study of a lcoho l con

sum ption . I t h a s been g e n e ra lly h ypo thesized th a t the d eg ree of

s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy , a s a s tre s s -p ro d u c in g c h a ra c te r is t ic , is re la te d

to the am ount of alcoho l an indiv idual con su m es. T h is is b a sed upon

the reco g n ized so c ia l and p h y s ica l functions a lcoho l p e r fo rn rs in

s t r e s s o r ten sion reduction .


38

H u b ert M. B la lock (1965, 1966, 1967A, 1967B ) r a i s e s m any

questio n s concern ing m ethodo log ica l p ro b le m s invo lved in te s tin g

s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c y theo ry .

The m o s t c ru c ia l a r e a of concern is w ith the " id en tif ica tio n "

p ro b le m . B la lock defines the iden tifica tion p ro b le m in te rm s of the

ex is ten ce of too m any unknowns w ithin a p a r t ic u la r study fo r i t to be

so lvab le (1966:52). He e la b o ra te s on th is po in t in the following

m an n er:

If one tak es s ta tu s incon sisten cy a s a p e r fe c t m a th e m a tic a l function of a d iffe rence betw een two s ta tu s e s , and if he a lso w ish es to e s tim a te the s e p a ra te m a in e ffec ts of th e se s ta tu s e s , the th re e " independent" v a r ia b le s w ill be con founded to g e th e r. T his can be seen e m p ir ic a lly by noting th a t one cannot v a ry inconsistency w hile hold ing co n s ta n t bo th s ta tu se s , n o r can he v a ry one s ta tu s w hile holding c o n s ta n t the o th e r s ta tu s and in c o n sis ten cy . W ithout a p r io r i a s su m p tio n s , the s tru c tu ra l p a ra m e te r s canno t be e s tim a te d by le a s t sq u a re s o r any o th e r p u re ly e m p ir ic a l p ro ced u re . (1967B:, 69-70)

A n o th er fa c e t of the id en tifica tion p ro b le m a r i s e s as a r e s u l t

of the re la tio n sh ip betw een the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m ode l, m odes of

a n a ly s is , and exogenous v a r ia b le s . Using L e n s k i 's (1954, 1956)

h y po these s a s an exam ple , L ensk i p o s ite d th a t s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy

p ro d u ces s tr a in o r s t r e s s w hich in tu rn m a n ife s ts i t s e lf in the la ck of

so c ia l p a r t ic ip a tio n o r voting p a t te rn s . The m o d e l u sed fo r a n a ly s is ,

how ever, im p lie s th a t l ib e ra l voting p a t te rn s and the la ck of so c ia l

p a r t ic ip a tio n a r e a d ir e c t r e s u l t of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy . A s a co n se

q uence, the p a r t ic u la r type of s tra in o r s t r e s s r e la te d to s ta tu s


39

in c o n sis ten cy h as rem a in e d u n m e asu red , a t le a s t d ire c tly . By not

being ab le to iden tify th is p a r t ic u la r type of s t r e s s o r s tra in , i t is

thus im p o ss ib le to co n tro l fo r exogenous v a r ia b le s th a t m ay a lso p ro

duce th is type of s t r e s s o r s tra in (B lalock, 1966:52). T his poin t is

a lso d is c u sse d by S teh r (1968).

In an a ttem p t to give d ire c tio n to fu r th e r r e s e a r c h in the a re a

of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy , B la lock p ro p o sed th re e p o ss ib le so lu tions to

the id e n tif ic a tio n p rob lem :

1. By m ak ing a p r io r i a ssu m p tio n s re g a rd in g the signs o r m a g n itu d e s of som e of the coe ffic ien ts ,

2. By finding and m e asu rin g add itiona l exogenous v a r ia b le s th a t a p p e a r in som e but not a ll of the equa tions ,

3. By p o s tu la tin g c e r ta in kinds of n o n - lin e a r re la tio n sh ip s . (1966:52)

A second a r e a of co n cern fo r B la lock is the " s p ec if ica tio n "

p ro b lem . In L e n s k i1 s (1954) o r ig in a l w ritin g s , he a s su m e d th a t s ta tu s

in c o n sis ten cy in fluenced the dependent v a r ia b le w ith the sam e m a g n i

tude r e g a rd le s s of the d ire c tio n of the in c o n sisten cy . B la lock , how

ev e r, con ce iv es of the p o ss ib ili ty of getting such r e s u l t s when:

A. T h e re is an in c o n sisten cy effec t in one d ire c tio n only.

B. The e ffec t is p o s itiv e in one d ire c tio n , bu t nega tive in the o th e r .

C. One o r the o th e r of the m a in effec ts of the s ta tu s v a r ia b le s i s z e ro .

D. The m a in e ffec ts of the s ta tu s v a r ia b le s a r e in opposite d ire c tio n s and the m agn itudes of the in c o n s is te n c y a re qu ite la rg e (a lb e it in opposite d ire c tio n s) .


4 0

E . The com posite tab le shows no in te rac tio n in sp ite of the fa c t th a t th e re a r e in c o n sis ten cy e ffec ts . (B la lock , 1967A:306)

C e r ta in of th e se p o s s ib il i t ie s a re a lso d isc u sse d by M itc h e ll (1964) and

H ym an (1966).

In re sp o n se to J a c k s o n ’s (1962) r e s e a rc h , in w hich the a s s u m p

tion w as m ade th a t n e i th e r s ta tu s v a r ia b le had a sig n ifican t m a in e ffec t

upon the dependent v a r ia b le and th e re is an in c o n sisten cy effec t only

when ach iev ed s ta tu s is low and a s c r ib e d s ta tu s is high, B la lock p o sed

two add itio n a l a l te rn a t iv e s :

A. In co n s is te n cy e ffec ts ap p e a r only when the ac h ieved s ta tu s is h ig h e r than the a s c r ib e d . T his w ould re q u ire th a t two m a in e ffec ts be opposed, how ever.

B. Among o th e r a l te rn a t iv e s , a s itu a tio n w here in c o n sis ten cy e ffec ts a re equa l but in opposite d ire c tio n s . (1967A:306)

A f in a l a l te rn a t iv e a ssu m p tio n is o ffe red by B la lock in the

follow ing m anner:

One m igh t a rg u e it is the lo w er of the two s ta tu se s th a t p r o duces s tr a in s in the ind iv idual and th a t h is beh av io r is due to the s tr a in com ponent ought th e re fo re to be e s s e n tia lly s im i la r in n a tu re to th a t p ro d u ced by the "m a in" effec t of th is p a r t ic u la r v a r ia b le . (1967A:314)

In sum m ing up B la lo c k ’s app roach to s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy , he

no te s th a t one should alw ays eva luate the evidence in fav o r of any

p a r t ic u la r th e o ry ag a in s t a l l p la u sib le r iv a l h y po these s (1967A:308).

T his is ev idenced in h is s ta tem e n t tha t:

T h e re is a sen se in w hich the ex is te n c e of in te ra c t io n can. be help fu l in ap p ra is in g the u ti lity of the in c o n sis ten cy


41

fo rm u la tio n w hen p red ic tin g to specific dependen t v a r i ab les . . . . P ro v id e d one a s su m e s th a t the in d iv id u a l s ta tu s v a r ia b le s p ro d u ce e ffec ts th a t a r e add itive , th en the am ount of in te ra c t io n p re s e n ts a kind of m in im um "n e t" in c o n s is tency e ffec t. Thus, w henever one finds in te ra c t io n , he m igh t su sp e c t an inco n sisten cy effec t, though it m ay be d ifficu lt to p in down to sp ec ific c e lls . E m p ir ic a l su p p o rt fo r o r a g a in s t s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m ode ls w ould th e re fo re seem to hinge on the in te ra c t io n te rm . (B lalock, 1967A:308)

H ere again , how ev er, B la lock w arns tha t in te ra c tio n m ig h t not ind ica te

sta tu s in c o n sis ten cy a lone . It m igh t add itiona lly r e s u l t f ro m a s e r ie s

of p o ten tia l m eth o d o lo g ica l p ro b le m so u rces and ap p ro a c h e s (1967B:70).

In conclusion , th e re fo re , an in te ra c tio n te rm a p p e a rs to r e p r e s e n t an

up p er l im it o r m ax im u m e s tim a te of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy e ffec ts .

In o rd e r to t e s t the v iab ility of the sta tu s in c o n s is te n c y d im en

s ion in re la tio n to a lco h o l consum ption , i t is a lso n e c e s s a r y to co n tro l

fo r the independen t m a in e ffec ts of the sta tu s v a r ia b le s th a t c o m p rise

the b a se s fo r the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m e a s u re (L ensk i, 1954, 1964;

Jack so n , 1962; M itc h e ll , 1964; and Jack so n & B urke , 1965). T hrough

o p e ra tio n a liza tio n of s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy as an in te ra c t io n e ffec t

betw een the m a in s ta tu s v a r ia b le s (L ensk i, 1964; M itc h e ll , 1964; and

Jack so n & B urke , 1965), i t s ex p lan a to ry pow er m u s t then be te s te d in

r e la tio n to the a d d itio n a l am ount of v a rian ce exp la ined in the dependent

v a r ia b le by the n o n -ad d itiv e m o d e l (s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m odel) a s

opposed to the am oun t of v a r ia tio n exp lained by the s im p le add itive

m odel (m odel con tain ing the added effec ts of each m a jo r s ta tu s


4 2

7d im ension only).

In th is s e n s e , the f i r s t r e s e a r c h hypo thesis can be p re s e n te d

in the following m a n n e r:

H I: The n o n -ad d itiv e (s ta tu s inconsistency) m o d e l w ill exp la in a g r e a t e r am ount of v a rian ce in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the s im p le add itive m odel.

As h a s b een o b se rv e d in m uch of the l i te ra tu re d ea ling w ith

sta tu s in c o n sis ten cy , th e re ap p e a r to be c e rta in types of s ta tu s in co n

s is te n c ie s m o re s tr e s s f u l than o th e rs (see p rev io u s d isc u ss io n ) . It

is , th e re fo re , an ad d itio n a l co n c e rn of th is r e s e a r c h to a lso a ttem p t to

d isco v e r c e r ta in ty p e s of in c o n s is te n c ie s . It w as J a c k so n (1962) who

concluded th a t the a c tu a l coping m ethods u ti liz ed by the in c o n s is te n t

w ere dependent upon the type of in c o n sisten cy . In su m m a riz in g h is

findings and com bin ing them w ith those of L ensk i (1954, 1956), he found

th a t in situ a tio n s of h ig h -a s c r ib e d and low -ach ieved s ta tu s ran k in g s

ind iv iduals tend to resp o n d so m a tica lly , and w ith lo w -a s c r ib e d and

h ig h -ach iev ed ra n k in g s they tend to resp o n d p o litic a lly (p. 479).

Jack so n p o s its an exp lanation fo r th is d iffe re n ce in th e se f in d

ings to the p o s s ib il i ty that:

A p e rs o n w hose ach iev em en t ran k s a r e in fe r io r to h is a s c r ib e d ran k is lik e ly to view h is situ a tio n a s one of p e r s o n a l fa i lu re . Unlike the low s ta tu s co n s is te n t, he cannot ju s tify h is la ck of su ccess in te r m s of a s c r ib e d hand icaps . H is d iff icu ltie s

Îf th e re is no s ig n ifican t in c re a s e in the exp la ined v a r ia n c e by the n on -add itive m o d e l, then p a rs im o n y d ic ta te s the u se of th e m o re s im p lis tic add itive m ode l.


43th e re fo re tend to s tim u la te fee lin g s of p e rs o n a l defic iency andse lf-b la m e . (1962:477)

He goes on to s ta te th a t "the in c o n sis ten t of low occupation and

education tends to develop sym p tom s; an in te rn a lly d ire c te d , p a s s iv e ,

non -adap tive re s p o n s e " (Jackson , 1962:477).

F o r those in c o n s is te n ts w ith h ig h -ach iev ed ran k s and low -

a s c r ib e d ran k s , J a ck so n (1962) a t tr ib u te s d iffe re n tia l re sp o n s e s to

the b lam ing of o th e rs and not o n e 's se lf fo r o n e 's p ro b le m s. An in d iv i

dual exhib iting th is type of s ta tu s con fig u ra tio n h as a lso le a rn e d , v ia

h is h ig h -ach iev ed s ta tu se s , to re sp o n d m o re ac tiv e ly to p ro b le m s and

to see them in th e ir so c ia l context.

B ecause of the n a tu re of a lcoho l consum ption , the n a tu re of the

e ffec ts of alcohol consum ption , and the p rev io u sly su g g ested e tio lo g i

ca l exp lanations of a lcoho l consum ption (see B acon, 1962; M artin d a le

& M artin d a le , 1971; Roebuck & K e s s le r , 1972; and C hafe tz & D em one,

1962), it seem s m o re p la u sib le to a ssu m e th a t a lcoho l consum ption

would be m o re p re v a le n t in in c o n s is te n c ie s w ith lo w -ach iev ed and h igh -

a s c r ib e d ran k s . The rea so n in g is b a sed upon the in trap u n itiv e n a tu re ,

n o n -adap tive consequences , and the p e rs o n a l s t r e s s red u c tio n p ro p e r

tie s th a t a r e com m only a s s o c ia te d w ith alcoho l consum ption .

G iven the above assu m p tio n , the follow ing hyp o th eses a r e

suggested :

H2: The n o n -ad d itiv e m ode l w ill e jq jla in a g r e a te r am ount of v a r ia n c e in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the s im p le add itive m ode l w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the


ex ten t to which the ra c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupation rank ing .

H3: The n on -add itive m ode l w ill exp la in a g re a te r am ount of v a r ian ce in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the sim ple add itive m odel w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the incom e rank ing .

H4: The n o n -add itive m ode l w ill exp la in a g r e a te r am ount ofv a rian ce in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the sim ple add itive m odel when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which the ra c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the education ranking .

Jac k so n (1962) a lso su g g ested two add itio n a l hypo theses b ased

upon d iffe re n ces in sex. F o r fe m a le s , he found h ig h e r sym ptom le v e ls

w hen th e ir educationa l ranking is s u p e r io r to th e ir h u sb an d 's occupa

tio n a l rank ing . He a ttr ib u te d th is to the se lf -b la m e and s ta tu s d e p riv a

tion e x p e rien ce d by the woman who h as " m a r r ie d b eneath h e rs e lf . "

A gain, ob se rv in g the s im ila r i ty b e tw een p sy ch o so m a tic sym ptom s and

a lco h o l consum ption in te rm s of th e ir be ing o b se rv ab le ou tcom es of

s e lf -b la m e , the following hypo th esis is suggested :

H5: F o r fe m a le s , the n o n -ad d itiv e m ode l w ill exp la in a g r e a te r am ount of v a ria n c e in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the sim ple add itive m o d e l w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir education ranking exceeds th e ir h u sb an d 's o ccupation rank ing .

F in a lly , fo r m a le s , J a ck so n (1962) no ted th a t sym ptom lev e l

w as c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith the ex ten t th a t the o cc upationa l rank w as

s u p e r io r to the educationa l rank . The ex p lanation o ffe red fo r th is f ind

ing l ie s in an unders tand ing of m o b ility oppo rtun ity . The p o o rly ed ucated

m a le w ith a h ig h -p re s t ig e occupation canno t expec t o r r e a l iz e fu r th e r


45

m o b ility o p p o rtu n itie s —if he does, h is in c o n sis ten cy w ill only in c re a s e

a s e d u c a tio n a l m o b ility is often im p o ss ib le . The f in a l two hypo theses

th e re fo re r e a d as follow s:

H6: F o r m a le s , the non -add itive m ode l w ill ex p la in a g r e a te r am ount of v a r ia n c e in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the s im p le add itive m odel when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which th e ir o ccupation rank ing exceeds th e ir education ranking .

H7: F o r m a le s , the non -add itive m ode l w ill exp la in a g r e a te r am ount of v a ria n c e in the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the s im ple add itive m ode l when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir incom e rank ing exceeds th e ir education ranking .


CH A PTER II

METHODS

P opu la tion

The se le c tio n of an ap p ro p ria te popula tion upon w hich to te s t

the r e s e a r c h h y po these s invo lves co n s id e ra tio n of th re e m a jo r fa c to rs .

The f i r s t fa c to r to be co n s id e re d invo lves the id e n tif ica tio n of

f a c to rs o r v a r ia b le s th a t s y s te m a tic a lly influence the am ount of alcoho l

consum ption . T hese sy ste m a tic in fluences include such v a r ia b le s as

d eg ree of u rb an iza tio n , sex , age , re lig io u s a ffilia tio n , and reg io n of

the coun try (R iley & M arden , 1947; M ulford , 1964; C ahalan , C is in &

C ro ss le y , 1969; and C hafe tz, 1974). To te s t the g e n e ra l adequacy of

th e se re s e a rc h h y p o th ese s, it is th e re fo re d e s ira b le to se le c t a popu la

tion tha t exh ib its v a r ia tio n on a ll of the se v a r ia b le s . In addition , it

is d e s ira b le to s e le c t a popu la tion in w hich the v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im en

sion v a r ia b le s a lso exh ib it w ide v a r ia tio n as they too sy ste m a tic a lly

a ffec t the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption (R iley & M ard en , 1946;

M ulford , 1964; C ahalan , C is in & C ro s s le y , 1969; and C hafe tz, 1974).

The second m a jo r f a c to r co n c e rn s the type of beh av io r under

study. B ecause of the focus of th is r e s e a r c h on the am ount of a lcoho l

consum ed by the g e n e ra l u n re s tr ic te d popula tion , i t is n e c e s s a ry to

exclude c a se s w here p o te n tia l consum ption is a t le a s t fo rm a lly r e s

tr ic te d . F o r th is re a s o n , i t is im p o rtan t to exclude a l l in s ti tu tio n a liz e d ’

46


47

popu la tions whose consum ption p a t te rn s a r e , a t b e s t, d is ru p ted . A lso ,

a l l of those under the leg a l d rink ing age should be excluded as th e ir

a c c e s s to alcoho lic b ev e ra g e s is a lso lim ited .

F ina lly , because the focus of th is r e s e a r c h is on the ex p lana

tion of v a r ian ce in the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption as re la te d to the

v a r ia b le s under study, i t is n e c e s s a ry to e lim in a te c e rta in segm ents

of the u n iv e rse whose d rink ing p a t te rn s a r e d e te rm in ed p red o m in a te ly

fo r o th e r re a so n s . In p a r t ic u la r , i t s eem s n e c e ss a ry to e lim ina te

fro m study those who ab s ta in fro m d rin k in g a lcoho lic b ev e ra g es , a s

th e ir b eh a v io r has a high like lihood of being d e te rm in ed by re lig io u s

a ffi lia tio n o r p h y sica l h ea lth r e a s o n s (se e , fo r exam ple, Roebuck &

K e s s le r , 1972; Skolnick, 1958; P re s to n , 1969; and C hafetz, 1974).

In sum , the m o s t a p p ro p r ia te popu la tion fo r study in th is

r e s e a r c h endeavor c o n s is ts of the e n t ire popu la tion of the U nited S ta tes

th a t is n o n in stitu tionalized , o v er 20 y e a rs of age , and n o n ab s ta in e rs .

Sam ple

B ecause of p ro b le m s and lim ita tio n s on re s o u rc e s fo r c o l le c

tion of a na tio n a l sam p le , the c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h w ill be conducted

th rough the secondary a n a ly s is of a p re v io u s ly g a th e re d n a tional

sam p le dea ling w ith a lcoho l consum ption . The o rig in a l sam ple w as

d raw n by H aro ld M ulford in con junction w ith the N ational Opinion

R e se a rc h C en te r in the su m m e r of 1963 and inc luded 1515 re sp o n d en ts .

Of th e se 1515 re sp o n d en ts , it w as found th a t 1068 w ere n o n a b s ta in e rs .


48

The u n iv e rse sam pled in th is study co n s is te d of the to ta l non

in s ti tu tio n a liz e d population of the U nited S ta tes , 21 y e a rs of age o r

o ld e r . The sam pling was u sed b ased upon age , sex , r a c e , and

em ploym ent s ta tu s .

The p r im a ry sam pling un its em ployed w ere deriv ed from the

N ational O pinion R esea rc h C e n te r 's 1953 m a s te r sam p le . These

p r im a r y sam pling un its had been s e le c te d w ith p ro b a b ilit ie s p ro p o r

tio n a te to th e ir e s tim a te d 1953 pop u la tio n s . P opu la tion sh ifts since

1953, how ever, have ren d e re d tha t se t of p r im a ry sam pling un its le s s

a c c u ra te . In an a ttem p t to update th a t sam p le y e t m in im ize the num ber

of sam p ling un its tha t needed to be changed , the following p ro ced u re

w as in s ti tu te d , B as ic a lly , it invo lved the co m p ariso n of the d e s ire d

I960 p ro b a b ilit ie s of se le c tio n fo r p r im a ry sam pling u n its to th e ir

o r ig in a l p ro b a b ilit ie s . This m ethod p r e s e r v e s the s tra tif ic a tio n b ased

upon the 1950 c la ss if ic a tio n of geog rap h ic reg io n s , s ize of la rg e s t

tow n, m ed ian fam ily incom e, econom ic c h a ra c te r is t ic s , and in the

south , by race . C ounties w hich the C en su s B u reau c la s s if ie d a s non

m e tro p o lita n in 1950 but as m e tro p o lita n in I960 w ere , how ever, sh ifted

to the m e tro p o lita n s tra ta .

W ithin each se le c ted p r im a ry sam p ling un it, lo c a li tie s were

o rd e re d acco rd ing to c itie s w ith b lock s ta t i s t ic s . O ther U rban P la c e s ,

U rb an ized M inor C iv il D iv isions, and th e N onurban ized M inor C ivil

D iv is ions w ere o rd e re d by I960 p opu la tion w ith in each of these


49

c a te g o r ie s . L o c a litie s w ere se le c ted fro m th is l i s t us ing a random

s ta r t and applying a desig n a ted skip in te rv a l to the cum ulative I960

popu la tion . T h is p rov ided s tra t if ic a tio n ac co rd in g to s ize and u rban

type of lo c a lity , and a t the sam e tim e se le c tio n with p ro b ab ility p ro

p o rtio n a te to s ize .

W here av a ilab le , I960 cen su s block s ta t is t ic s w ere u sed . B locks

w ere se le c te d w ith p ro b a b ilit ie s p ro p o rtio n a te to the popula tion in the

block . In p la ces w ithout b lock s ta t is t ic s , c en su s enu m era tio n d is tr ic ts

w e re s e le c te d w ith p ro b a b ilit ie s p ro p o rtio n a l to the num ber of h o u se

ho ld s . The se le c ted d is tr ic ts w ere then d iv ided into segm en ts and

e s tim a te d (by fie ld counts) of the num ber of househo ld s w ith in each

segm en t. The se le c tio n of segm en ts w as then m ade w ith p rob ab ility

p ro p o rtio n a te to the num ber of househo ld s. At the block o r segm ent

le v e l, the in te rv ie w e r beg ins h e r tr a v e l p a t te rn a t a random dw elling

un it w hich h as been p rev io u sly d esig n a ted and p ro cee d s in a specified

d ire c tio n un til h e r quotas have been fil le d . In the south, segm en ts

have been se le c ted by ra c e of the re sp o n d en ts b ecau se a c cu racy of

re sp o n se is in c re a s e d when N egroes a r e in te rv ie w ed by N eg roes .

E lse w h e re , the in te rv ie w e r is given no ra c e quo tas.

The quotas c a ll fo r app ro x im ate ly equal n u m b e rs of m en and w om en

w ith the ex a c t p ro p o rtio n in each location d e te rm in ed by the I960

ce n su s . F o r w om en, the add itiona l re q u ire m e n t w as im posed tha t

th e re be the p ro p e r p ro p o rtio n of em ployed and unem ployed w om en in


the location . A gain, th e se a r e b a sed upon the I960 ce n su s . F o r m en,

the added re q u ire m e n t is tha t th e re be the p ro p e r p ro p o rtio n of m en

o v er and under 30 y e a rs of age in the location .

T hese p a r t ic u la r quotas w ere e s ta b lish e d b ec au se em ployed

w om en and m en u n d e r 30 y e a rs of age a re the m o s t d ifficu lt to find a t

hom e fo r in terv iew ing .

The ac tu a l in te rv iew in g took p lace during the m onths of A pril,

M ay, June and Ju ly , 1963. The in te rv ie w s w ere conducted by tra in e d

p ro fe s s io n a l in te rv ie w e rs w orking fo r the N ational O pinion R e sea rc h

C en te r. The a v e ra g e am ount of tim e re q u ire d fo r each in te rv ie w d ea l

ing w ith d rink ing b eh a v io r and a ttitu d es is u nava ilab le a s th is data w as

co llec ted sim u ltan eo u sly w ith da ta concern ing m ag az in e and book re a d

ing, p r e - m a r i ta l sex , and the B e tte r B u s in ess B u reau . The ave rage

to ta l tim e p e r in te rv ie w w as sligh tly o v er one h o u r.

The re p re s e n ta tiv e n e s s of the sam ple w as checked ag a in s t the

I960 U nited S ta tes cen su s data . Only m in o r d isc re p a n c ie s* w ere

d e tec te d w ith r e g a rd to sex , age , re s id e n c e , and incom e d is tr ib u tio n .

The la r g e s t d is c re p a n c ie s w ere found in re la tio n to education . In the

1963 sam p le , ed uca tiona l a tta in m en t a p p e a red to be o v e rre p re se n te d ,

w ith a m axim um c a teg o ry d isc re p an cy of 5. 3%. If educa tio n a l a t ta in

m e n t w as not o v e rs ta te d by som e re sp o n d en ts , a s m ay w ell have been

*The m axim um d isc re p an cy am ounted to le s s than 3% v a ria tio n in c e r ta in c a te g o r ie s .


51

the c a s e (see S tephan & M cC arthy , 1958:147), then the low er educationa l

c a te g o r ie s m ay have been u n d e rre p re se n te d in the sam ple to an ex ten t

th a t cou ld in fla te the o v e ra ll p rev a len ce of d rink ing value by a m ax i

m um of th re e p e rce n tag e po in ts (M ulford, 1964:635).

A f in a l po in t tha t w a rra n ts d is c u s s io n in th is sec tion involves

in te rv ie w e r b ia s . It h as been found in c e r ta in stu d ie s (M ulford & M ille r ,

1959, 1963; and K irsch , Newcome & C is in , 1965) th a t d rinking in te r

v ie w e rs r e p o r te d p ro p o rtio n a te ly m o re d r in k e rs than did absta in ing

in te rv ie w e rs . In th is p a r t ic u la r sam p le , d rink ing in te rv ie w e rs in te r

v iew ed 1272 resp o n d en ts and found th a t 74% of them d rin k . A bstain ing

in te rv ie w e rs in te rv ie w ed 243 resp o n d en ts an d found th a t 51% of them

d rink .

B ec au se of the sam pling p ro c e d u re s u s e d in th is r e s e a rc h ,

c e r ta in p o te n tia l exp lanations concern ing the so u rce of th is b ia s ap p ear

to be c o n tro lle d . A lthough som e freed o m of cho ice w as allow ed fo r

in te rv ie w e rs to choose th e ir re sp o n d en ts , th ey w ere in s tru c te d to

s ta r t a t a c e r ta in po in t on a c e r ta in b lock and go in a specific d ire c

tion u n ti l the quota w as filled , thus g re a t ly lim itin g the am ount of choice

in re sp o n d e n t se lec tio n . A lso , the like lihood of finding w ide d is p a r i tie s

in d r in k in g b eh a v io rs w ithin the sam e b lo ck se e m s to d im in ish the

po te n tia l f o r b ia se d resp o n d en t se le c tio n on the p a r t of the in te rv ie w e r .

A n o th er p o ssib le sou rce of b ia s could be th a t d rink ing and

ab s ta in in g in te rv ie w e rs d iffe re n tia lly in flu en ced the r e s p o n s e s of th e ir


52

r e s p e c t iv e re sp o n d en ts . This so u rce w as, how ever, not te s tab le due

to the la c k of a p p ro p ria te data.

A th ird and m o re like ly so u rce a c co rd in g to M ulford (1964)

in v o lv es the eco lo g ica l cond itions. I t i s lik e ly th a t in su rv ey s such a s

th e se , w h ere the in te rv ie w e rs live in the sam e g e n e ra l lo c a le a s th e ir

re s p o n d e n ts , th a t they tend to sh a re s im i la r a ttitu d e s and b e lie fs

inc lud ing those involving drink ing . To te s t th is h y p o th e sis , M ulford

no ted th a t "w ithin geog raph ic reg io n s the d iffe re n c e s in r e s u l ts

r e p o r te d by the two g roups of in te rv ie w e rs w e re red u ced by ap p ro x i

m a te ly 10 p e rce n ta g e p o in ts" (1964:635). He a lso found s im i la r r e s u l ts

w hen he co n tro lle d fo r re sp o n d e n t 's re lig io n . A lthough unable to con

t r o l f o r bo th v a r ia b le s sim u ltan eo u sly (b ecau se of re su ltin g sm all

N 's ) , h e su g g ests th a t they would exp la in a s ize ab le p o rtio n of th is

v a r ia tio n in drink ing re sp o n se s (1964:636).

In s tru m e n ta tio n

In o rd e r to m e a s u re the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption , th re e

m a jo r f a c to r s m u s t be con sid e red : the n u m b er of a b s ta in e r s , the

f req u en c y of consum ption by d r in k e rs , and the q u an tity of a lcoho l

consum ed in each d rink ing s itua tion .

To m e a s u re the p rev a len ce of a b s ta in e r s , th is study u ti lis e d a

q u es tio n s im i la r to th a t rep ea ted ly u se d by the G allup P o ll (see C an tr il,

1951, and the A m erican In s titu te of P u b lic O pinion, P r e s s R e lease 5,


53

1964). A lthough the re l ia b i li ty and valid ity fo r th is m e a s u re w as

unknown, an in d ica to r of r e l ia b i li ty can be view ed in th e com p ariso n

w ith o th e r p rev a len ce s tu d ie s b a sed upon n a tio n a l sam p les (see R iley

& M ard en , 1947; C aha lan , C is in & C ro ss le y , 1969; and C hafe tz , 1974).

The ac tu a l am ount o r d eg ree of a lcoho l consum ption w as m e a

su red by the use of a Q u an tity -F req u en cy (Q -F) index. T h is p a r t ic u la r

Q -F index w as o rig in a lly developed by B acon and S tra u s s (1953) fo r

u se in th e ir study of co llege d rink ing p a t te rn s . In add ition , th is Q -F

index w as subsequen tly adap ted fo r s tud ie s of d rink ing b eh av io r in the

s ta te s of W ashington (see M axw ell, 1958) and Iowa (see M ulfo rd &

M ille r , 1960A). The quantity p o rtio n of th is index is b a se d upon the

n u m b e r of d rin k s o rd in a r ily consum ed a t one " s itt in g " of the alcoho lic

b ev e ra g e (b e e r , w ine, o r liquor) m o s t f req u en tly consum ed by the

resp o n d en t. T hese quan tity m e a s u re s and a lcoho lic b e v e ra g e type a r e

then co n v e rted to ounces of ab so lu te a lcoho l consum ed a t one sitting .

The ab so lu te alcoho l consum ption le v e ls a r e then c o llap sed into b a s i

ca lly two c a te g o rie s : sm a ll, and m edium and la rg e am o u n ts . F r e

quency is defined in te rm s of the av e ra g e n u m b e r of re p o r te d s itt in g s

during the p reced in g y e a r . H is to r ic a lly , th is Q -F index h a s been

b ro k en in to the follow ing five c a te g o rie s b a se d upon v a r io u s com bina

tions of the quantity and freq u en cy m e a s u re s .

Type 1 D rinks in fre q u en tly (once a m onth a t m o st) and con

sum es s m a ll am oun ts (not m o re than ap p ro x im a te ly


54

1. 6 ounces of ab so lu te a lco h o l o r 1-3 b o ttle s of b ee r,

o r 1-3 g la s s e s of w ine, o r 1-2 d rin k s of liq u o r.

Type 2 D rinks in freq u en tly and co n su m es m edium to la rg e

am ounts (m ore than 1. 6 o unces of ab so lu te alcohol).

Type 3 D rinks m o re than once a m on th but consum es sm a ll

am ounts.

T ype 4 D rinks m o re than once a m on th but consum es m edium

to la rg e am ounts.

T ype 5 D rinks m o re than once a w eek and consum es m edium 2

to la rg e am ounts.

F o r th is p a r t ic u la r an a ly s is , how ev er, th is typology w as expanded

to inc lude e igh t c a te g o rie s . These e igh t c a te g o r ie s can be found on the

n ex t page .

T he reaso n in g behind th is expanded typology com es fro m m any

s o u rc e s . F i r s t , on th e o re tic a l g ro u n d s, i t a p p e a rs th a t the s t r e s s -

red u c tio n p ro p e r t ie s of alcoho l exh ib it th e m s e lv e s w ith the consum ption

of the f i r s t few d r in k s , and in m any c a se s consum ption of la rg e am ounts

re in tro d u c e s a s t r e s s fa c to r (see , f o r ex am p le , S joberg , 1969; W illiam s

1966; Je ll in e k , I960; G reen b erg , 1963; K e s se l & W alton, 1965; and

M cN am ee , M ello & M endelson, 1968). The f iv e -c a te g o ry typology of

M u lfo rd and M ille r does not fu lly d e m o n s tra te the a p p ro p ria te d if fe r-

2See M ulfo rd and M ille r , 1960A; 27 fo r a m o re d e ta iled d e s c r ip

tion of th is Q u an tity -F req u en cy Index.


55

e n c es o r le v e ls in th is r e s p e c t . In p a r t ic u la r , the e igh t ca teg o ry Q -F

index no t only m o re c le a r ly d e lin ea tes the v a r io u s freq u en cy c a te g o rie s ;

it re c o g n iz e s C atego ry 7 (m ore than once a w e e k /s m a ll am ounts) as a

s e p a ra te ca teg o ry no t to be confused w ith C a teg o ry 4 of the f iv e -c a te -

go ry Q -F index w hich a lso inc ludes le s s f re q u e n t m ed ium to heavy

c o n s u m e rs .

C a teg o ry of Q -F index F req u en cy

1-12 tim es p e r y e a r

1-12 tim e s p e r y e a r

2 -3 tim e s p e r m onth

2-3 tim e s p e r m onth

once a w eek

once a w eek

m o re than once a w eek

m o re than once a w eek

Q uantity

s m a ll ( le s s than 1. 6 ounces of ab so lu te alcohol)

m ed ium to la rg e am ounts (m o re than 1. 6 ounces of ab so lu te alcohol)

s m a ll

m ed ium to la rg e

sm a ll

m ed ium to la rg e

s m a ll

m ed ium to la rg e

On m e thodo log ica l g rounds, the five ca teg o ry Q -F index se rv e s

to d e c re a s e the am ount of in fo rm atio n a v a ilab le fo r a n a ly s is , and

ad d itio n a lly functions to confuse the c la r i ty of the quan tity and frequency

of u se by com bining p o te n tia lly d is s im i la r c a te g o r ie s (see C ahalan ,

C is in & C ro s s le y , 1969).


56

A c o m p ariso n of the freq u en cy of the two indexes can be seen

below:

5 C a tego ry Q -F Index 8 C a teg o ry Q -F Index

C ateg o ry % of D r in k e rs * C a teg o ry % of D r in k e rs *

1 39 .6 1 39. 6

2 5. 6 2 5. 6

3 18.5 3 10. 0

4 22. 9 4 4. 3

5 10. 6 5 8 .4

M issin g 2 .9 6 5. 0

7 13. 6

8 10. 6

M issin g 2 .9

^rounded to the n e a re s t ten th of a p e rc e n t

A lthough th e re have been no d ir e c t e m p ir ic a l te s ts of v a lid ity

and re l ia b i l i ty fo r the Q -F index, in d ire c t ev idence h as been o ffe red

by M ulfo rd and M ille r (1959, I960) in th a t they note a c lo se r e la tio n

ship betw een the Q -F index and the n u m b er of the re p o r te d ow nersh ip

of ind iv idual liq u o r p e rm its , a tten d an ce a t p a r t ie s w here liq u o r is

se rv e d , having m o re liq u o r on hand, having m o re p ro b le m s due to

d rink ing , and fee ling th a t they d rin k too m uch (M ulford & M ille r , 1960A:

28). In a co m p ariso n of s e lf - ra t in g and q u an tity -freq u e n cy m e a s u re s of


57

d rink ing , G a r re t t and B ah r found th a t am ong w om en the d is tr ib u tio n s

w ere ap p ro x im a te ly s im i la r . F o r m en , how ever, th e re w as a tendency

am ong h o m e le s s and u p e r incom e m en to p e rc e iv e the ex ten t of th e ir

d rink ing a s being le s s than th e ir r e p o r ts of quan tity and frequency

w ould in d ica te (G a rre tt & B ah r, 1974:1303).

E d u ca tio n a l lev e l was o p e ra tio n a liz e d by ask ing the re sponden t

the la s t g rad e com pleted in school. Fo llow ing the p ro ced u re s suggested

by L e n sk i (1954), education w as tr ic o to m iz e d w ith a rank of 1 being

h igh , and a ran k of 3 ind icating low rank ing in te rm s of the education

s ta tu s d im ension . Jack so n (1962) and Ja c k s o n and B urke (1965), in

ana lyzing a 1957 sam p le , noted th a t, in g e n e ra l, an o ld e r p e rso n ho ld

ing a s im i la r occupationa l and ethn ic ra n k of a younger p e rso n would

not be expected to have a s m uch education . T h e re fo re , they d iffe r

en tia lly ran k ed the education s ta tu s d im en s io n fo r those responden ts

above and below the age of 45. F ollow ing th e ir lead , the education

s ta tu s d im en sio n is a lso d iffe re n tia lly ran k ed in the c u rre n t re s e a rc h ,

although due to the fac t tha t th is da ta co lle c tio n o c c u rre d som e six

y e a rs la te r , the age cutting po in t is be tw een 39 o r le s s and 40 o r

m o re y e a rs of age . The re su ltin g ran k in g is as follow s:

Rank 1 At le a s t som e co llege

Rank 2 C om pleted high school and 9 to 11 y e a rs of education

fo r those 40 y e a rs of age and o v e r


58

R ank 3 8 y e a rs of education and 9 to 11 y e a rs of education fo r

those under the age of 40 .

O ccupation w as m e a s u re d in te r m s of the Duncan sca le of occu

p a tio n a l p re s tig e . The Duncan s c a le of o cc upationa l p re s tig e i s b a sed

upon the frequency of "ex ce llen t" and "good" re sp o n se s to v a rio u s

o cc upationa l ca teg o rie s found in the NORC p re s tig e sca le . T hese a re

u se d r a th e r than the a v e ra g es of the f iv e -ca te g o ry re sp o n se s (exce llen t,

good, a v e ra g e , som ew hat below a v e ra g e , and poor) u tiliz ed by the

NORC p re s tig e sca le b ecause of the la c k of c la r ity in m eaning fo r the

l a t t e r th re e re sp o n se ca teg o rie s (see R e is s , 1961:117). O ccupation

w as then tr ic o to m iz e d w ith the o ccu p a tio n s rank ing in the top o n e - th ird

a s 3. The re s u ltin g ran k s can b a s ic a lly be d e s c r ib e d as follow s:

Rank 1 P ro fe s s io n a l, te ch n ic a l and k in d re d w o rk e rs ; and

m a n a g e rs , o ffic ia ls , and p r o p r ie to r s excep t fa rm ;

Rank 2 F a rm e r s and fa rm m a n a g e rs , c le r ic a l and k in d red

w o rk e rs , s a le s w o rk e rs , and c ra f tsm e n , fo rem en and

k in d re d w o rk e rs ;

Rank 3 O p e ra tiv e s and k in d re d w o rk e rs , s e rv ic e w o rk e rs ,

fa rm la b o re r s and fo re m e n , and la b o re r s .

In ca se s of m a le and s ing le fe m a le re sp o n d en ts , the re sp o n d e n t 's

^ F o r a m o re d e ta iled d e s c r ip tio n of the c h a ra c te r is t ic s of the D uncan s c a le , see R e iss , 1961.


59own occupation w as u ti liz e d . F o r m a r r ie d , sep a ra te d , d iv o rced , and

widow ed fem a le s , the h u sb a n d 's occupation w as u sed .

Incom e w as m e a s u re d in te rm s of to ta l fam ily incom e in 1962.

D esp ite the fa c t th a t q uestions have been ra i s e d concern ing the u se of

to ta l fam ily incom e in s tu d ie s dea ling w ith s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy (see

G eschw ender, 1970), T re im a n a rg u e s th a t it is m o re p la u sib le to b a se

the incom e m e a s u re on to ta l fam ily incom e than on ind iv idual incom e

b ec au se of the n a tu re of ex p e c ta tio n s of ind iv iduals w ith given le v e ls of

e d u ca tio n .(T re im an , 1970:162). Incom e is a lso tr ic o to m iz e d in th is

an a ly s is , and p lacem en t in a p a r t ic u la r rank is b ased upon w hich one-

th ird of the incom e le v e ls the resp o n d en t fe ll. Thus, if the re s p o n

d e n t 's fam ily incom e w as in the h ig h e s t o n e - th ird of a l l re sp o n d en ts , a

ra n k of 1 w as ass ig n ed . The re s u ltin g ran k s a r e a s fo llow s:

Rank 1 $8, 000 and o v er;

Rank 2 $5, 000 to $7, 999;

R ank 3 U nder $ 5 ,0 0 0 .

T h re e rank p o s itio n s w e re e s ta b lis h e d on the r a c ia l- e th n ic

s ta tu s d im ension (RER). T h e se ra n k s w ere b ased upon the w ork of

Ja c k so n (1962) and B o g a rd u s ' (1959) study of so c ia l d is ta n ce . C hanges

had to be m ade, how ever, b ec au se of the n a tu re of the o r ig in a l data ,

and a c o n c e rn fo r m a in ta in ing la rg e enough c e ll s ize s to m ake a n a ly s is

p o ss ib le . E thn ic background w as m e a s u re d in te rm s of f a th e r 's

n a tio n a lity background , and m u ltip le re s p o n s e s w ere accep ted . R e s


60

pondents w ith m ixed h e r i ta g e w e re ran k ed acco rd ing to th e ir h ig h e st

e thn ic ran k . The reaso n in g fo r th is com es not only fro m a need to

m a in ta in la rg e ce ll fre q u e n c ie s , bu t a lso fro m the tendency of the in d iv i

dual to ev a luate h im se lf in te rm s of h is h ig h e r rank ing s ta tu se s (see

L e n sk i, 1954). The re su ltin g ra n k s w ere es ta b lish ed :

Rank 1 E ng lish , W elsh, and S co ttish

Rank 2 I r is h , S candinavian , G erm an , A u strian , S w iss, D utch,

F ren ch , F re n c h C anad ian , B elg ian and L uxem b o u rg ian

Rank 3 N egro , Jew ish , C zechoslovak ian , H ungarian , R um an ian ,

B u lg a rian , Y ugoslav ian , A lbanian , R ussian , I ta lia n ,

G reek , Span ish , P o rtu g u e s e , M exican and P u e rto

R ic a n .

The s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m e a s u re w as then c o n s tru c ted fro m the

v a r io u s com binations of rank ings of the p a r t ic u la r v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im e n

s ions (educa tion , occupation , incom e and ra c ia l-e th n ic background)

being ana lyzed . A gain, b a sed upon the w ritin g s of Jack so n (I960 , 1962)

and Jack so n and B urke (1965), the s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy v a r ia b le is

d iv ided into th re e types o r ra n k s . T h e se types o r ran k s a r e a s fo llow s:

Rank 1 S tatus c o n s is te n ts - - p e r s o n s w ith s im i la r ran k s on a l l

the v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im en s io n s being ana lyzed (e. g . ,

1111, 2222, 3333);

Rank 2 M odera te in c o n s is te n ts - -p e r s o n s having a o n e -s te p

dev iation betw een th e ir tr ic o to m iz e d s ta tu s ran k s


61

( e .g . , 1112, 2233, 2223, 3332, e tc .) ;

Rank 3 S harp in c o n s is te n ts - -p e r s o n s w ith a tw o -s tep d ev ia tio n

betw een th e i r s ta tu s ran k s (e. g . , 1113, 1233, 3311,

3331, e tc .) .

C o n tro l V a ria b le s

In an a ttem p t to ga in a m o re in -d ep th look a t the effec t of s ta tu s

in c o n sis ten cy upon a lcoho l consum ption , i t is n e c e ss a ry to co n tro l c e r

ta in o th e r v a r ia b le s th a t m a y in fluence e i th e r the opera tio n of s ta tu s

inco n sisten cy e ffec ts , o r a lco h o l consum ption itse lf . As a co n seq u en ce ,

the following v a r ia b le s w ill be u sed as co n tro l v a r ia b le s : age , sex , and

com m unity size .

In looking f i r s t a t the re la tio n sh ip betw een age and s ta tu s in c o n

s is ten c y , the s itua tion w a r r a n ts som e co n s id e ra tio n .

Thom as Sm ith (1969) in d ic a te d th a t the re la tio n sh ip betw een

s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy and s t r e s s a p p e a rs to have a c u rv i lin e a r r e la t io n

sh ip o v e r one 's life span. He po in ted out th a t an in c o n sis te n t in d iv id u a l

e x p e rien ce s the g r e a te s t am o u n t of incon sisten cy -p ro d u ced s t r e s s d u r

ing the m idd le, m o s t p ro d u c tiv e y e a rs (app rox im ate ly 30-50 y e a r s of

age) w ith le s s s t r e s s o c c u rr in g during h is e a rly and la te y e a r s . The

rea so n in g behind th is is th a t d u ring h is younger y e a rs an in c o n s is te n t

m ay reco g n ize o r a ssu m e h is c u r r e n t s ta tu s rank ings a r e ju s t te m p o r

a ry and they w ill p ro b ab ly change in a few sh o rt y e a rs . On the o th e r

hand, the indiv idual p a s t 50 y e a r s of age a s s u m e s h is s ta tu s ra n k in g s


62

have becom e fixed and he is no lo n g e r re sp o n s ib le fo r h is s itua tion ;

he can thus p lace the re s p o n s ib il ity fo r h is in c o n s is te n t ran k in g s upon

s itua tions and c irc u m s ta n c e s c u r re n t ly ou tside of h is co n tro l (Sm ith,

1969). In te stin g h is th e o ry , Sm ith found suppo rt fo r h is fo rm u la tio n s

in re la tio n to citing p re fe re n c e .

In te rm s of a lco h o l consum ption and age , h ow ever, n a tio n a l and

s ta te -b a s e d sam p les have in d ica ted a l in e a r , in v e rse re la tio n sh ip

betw een age and th o se who d rin k (see R iley & M arden , 1947; M ulford

& M ille r , 1959, 1963; M u lfo rd , 1964; M axw ell, 1958; and C aha lan ,

C is in & C ro sse ly , 1969), b u t the am ount of a lcoho l consum ed a p p e a rs

to v a ry in a c u rv i lin e a r fash io n w ith age (see C ahalan , C is in &

C ro ss le y , 1969).

The v a r iab le age is subsequen tly b roken into two c a te g o r ie s and

subsam p le s c re a te d . The two c a te g o rie s a re b a sed upon the age in y e a rs

of the responden t: the f i r s t sam p le is com posed of those re sp o n d en ts

21-30 y e a rs of age and th o se 50 y e a rs of age and o v e r; the second

sam p le , those betw een 30 and 49 y e a rs of age .

The second c o n tro l v a r ia b le in th is r e s e a r c h is sex . In re la tio n

to s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy , sex h a s been re p o r te d to have had s ig n ifican t

a ffec ts upon c e r ta in f ind ings (see Jack so n , 1962). A lso , sex h as been

found to be an im p o rta n t v a r ia b le in explain ing d if fe re n tia l r a te s of

a lcoho l consum ption (see R iley & M arden , 1947; M axw ell, 1952;

M ulfo rd & M ille r , 1959, 1963; M ulfo rd , 1964; and C aha lan , C is in &


63

C ro s s le y , 1969).

A fin a l co n tro l v a r ia b le is com m unity s ize o r d eg ree of u rb a n

iz a tio n . P a rk e r (1963) su g g ested th a t the effec ts of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency a r e m o re p rev a le n t in the l a r g e r u rb an com m un ities . T he r e a

soning h e re is th a t in the l a r g e r u rb a n com m unities in te rp e r s o n a l

re la tio n s a r e m o re im p e rs o n a l and seg m en ta l than in s m a l le r com m un

it ie s . In addition, com m unity s ize h a s a lso been re la te d to a lcoho l

consum ption in a s im i la r m a n n e r (see R iley & M arden , 1947; M axw ell,

1952; M ulfo rd & M ille r , 1959, 1963; M ulfo rd , 1964; and C aha lan , C is in

& C ro s s le y , 1969).

U sing the v a r ia b le com m unity s iz e , the sam ple w ill be b ro k en

into th re e su b sam p les; th e se su b sa m p le s r e p re s e n t re sp o n d en ts in the

follow ing th re e types of co m m u n ities : com m un ities of u n d e r 10 ,000

in h a b ita n ts , com m unities w ith 10, 000 to 100, 000 in h a b ita n ts , and co m

m u n itie s w ith o ver 100, 000 in h a b ita n ts .

T esting of the v a r io u s h y p o th e se s w ill then o cc u r n o t only fo r

the to ta l sam p le , but a lso fo r each subsam p le d esc r ib e d above.

A lthough it w ould be d e s ira b le to te s t the h y po these s on c e r ta in

su b sam p le s b ased on the com binations of the above co n tro l v a r ia b le s ,

the re s u ltin g c e ll s iz e s r e s t r i c t u s f ro m doing such a n a ly s is .

A n a ly s is

T he fin a l co n c e rn of th is c h a p te r is the p re s e n ta tio n of the

m e an s of a n a ly s is u ti liz e d in th is s tudy.


64

A s d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r , th is study is concerned w ith eva luating

the con tribu tions of the s ta tu s in co n sisten cy m odel o v e r the s im ple

v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im en s io n s m ode l in the explanation of d if fe re n tia l

alcoho l consum ption . T h is is done by com paring the ex p lan a to ry pow er

of the fo u r v a r ia b le , v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im ension , add itive m o d e l to the

nonadditive , five v a r ia b le m ode l com posed of the sam e fo u r v e r t ic a l

s ta tu s d im ensions p lu s a s ta tu s inconsistency v a r iab le (in th is ca se

re p re s e n te d by an in te ra c t io n te rm ). If the nonadditive m o d e l does

not p rov ide sig n ifican t add itio n a l exp lanato ry pow er o v e r the add itive

m odel, then p a rs im o n y d ic ta te s the la ck of u tility of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency as a p re d ic to r of a lcoho l consum ption . This co m p a riso n of

m ode ls w ill then be p e r fo rm e d in v ario u s s itua tions a s d ic ta te d by

the a fo rem en tioned h y p o th e se s , and upon c e rta in su b sa m p le s a s d ic

ta ted by the co n tro l v a r ia b le s .

A ccording to p a s t r e s e a r c h and w riting (see Ja c k s o n & B urke ,

1965; Jack so n & C u r t is , 1972; Hodge & T re im an , 1966; T re im a n ,

1966; and House & H a rk in s , 1975), the m o s t a p p ro p ria te techn ique fo r

te s tin g the e ffec ts of s ta tu s inco n sisten cy is by the u se of a n o n lin ea r,

du m m y -v ariab le r e g r e s s io n equa tion . To fu lfill th e se r e q u ire m e n ts ,

the technique of M u ltip le C la ss if ic a tio n A nalysis (MCA) w ill be used .

MCA is e s s e n tia lly a m u ltip le r e g re s s io n techn ique using

dum m y v a r ia b le s . I t d e m o n s tra te s the re la tio n sh ip of each p re d ic to r

v a ria b le to a dependen t v a r ia b le , both befo re and a f te r a d ju stin g fo r


65

the e ffec ts of the o th e r p r e d ic to r s .

The s ta t is t ic a l m o d e l fo r th is technique is p re s e n te d below:

Yijk = Y + » ! + b j = e ijk

(W here: Y ^ . . . = the sc o re (on the dependent v a riab le ) ofthe ind iv idual k who fa l ls in ca te g o ry i ofp re d ic to r A, ca tego ry j of p re d ic to r B, e tc .

Y = g ran d m ean on the dependent v a r ia b le

a^ = the "e ffec t" of m e m b ersh ip in the i ^ca teg o ry of p re d ic to r A

bj = the "e ffec t" of m e m b ersh ip in the j**1 ca teg o ry of p re d ic to r B

e ijk = e r r o r te rm of th is ind iv idual(A ndrew s, M organ & Sonquist, 1967:103) .

T h e re a r e two m a jo r advan tages in using MCA o v er tra d itio n a l

r e g re s s io n tech n iq u es . F i r s t , by concern ing its e lf w ith the dev ia tion

in the g rand m ean of the dependen t v a r ia b le in s te ad of the in te rc e p t

of the r e g re s s io n line on the Y ax is , i t s r e s u l ts a r e m o re e a s ily u n d e r

stood. Second, by o p e ra tin g fro m the g rand m ean, one can now look

a t the e ffec ts of low s c o re s on ind iv idual v a r ia b le s , w here t r a d itio n

ally we have e s ta b lish e d a r e g r e s s io n line based upon the com bined

low s c o re s of the independen t v a r ia b le s and only looked a t the e ffec ts

of m edium and high s c o re s fo r each indiv idual p re d ic to r v a r ia b le when

using dum m y v a r ia b le s (see Jack so n & B urke , 1965; Ja c k so n & C u r tis ,

1972; Hodge & T re im an , 1966; T re im an , 1966).


66

MCA re p o r ts the n a tu re of the re la tio n sh ip of c la s s e s of p r e

d ic to rs , com plete p re d ic to r s , and a l l p re d ic to r s to g e th er to the

dependent v a r iab le .

Below is a d e sc r ip tio n of the MCA output w hich w ill be p r e

sen ted in the nex t ch ap te r:

. . . F o r each c a teg o ry of each p re d ic to r :. . D eviation of raw m ean fo r the ca teg o ry fro m the g ran d

m ean (th is in d ica tes the g ro s s o r unad ju sted e ffec t of the p red ic to r)

. . D eviation of ca teg o ry m ean fro m g rand m ean a f te r a d ju s ting fo r e ffec ts of o th e r p re d ic to r s , i . e . , a ll o th e r p r e d ic to rs have been "held co n s ta n t"

. . . F o r each p re d ic to r :. . E ta and E ta^: E ta is the c o r re la tio n ra t io and in d ica te s

the ab ility of the p re d ic to r , u s ing the c a te g o rie s g iven , to exp lain v a r ia tio n in the dependent v a r ia b le . E ta^ in d ica tes the p ro p o rtio n of the to ta l sum of s q u a re s exp lainab le by the p re d ic to r

. . .B e ta and B eta^: th e se a r e d ire c tly analogous to E ta s ta t i s t ic s , but a r e b a sed upon the ad ju sted m eans r a th e r than raw m e an s . B eta p ro v id e s a m e a s u re of the ab ility of the p re d ic to r to exp lain v a r ia tio n in the dependent v a r ia b le a f te r ad ju sting fo r the e ffec ts of a l l o th e r p re d ic to r s . T h is is not in te rm s of p e rc e n t of v a rian ce exp lained

. . . F o r a ll p re d ic to r s co n s id e re d to ge ther:. .A m u ltip le c o rre la tio n coe ffic ien t (ad ju sted fo r d e g re e s

of freed o m ). T h is co e ffic ien t (when squared) in d ic a te s the p ro p o rtio n of v a r ia n c e in the dependent v a r ia b le exp lained by a l l p re d ic to r s to g e th e r (a f te r ad ju stin g fo r d eg ree s of freedom ). (A ndrew s, e t a l . , 1967:21-22).

A ndrew s, e t a l. (1967:117-119), note th a t the be ta r e p o r te d in

MCA w hen sq u ared does not ind ica te the p e rc e n t of v a rian ce exp la ined .

Thus the b e ta co e ffic ien ts m u s t be in te rp re te d with cau tion and u se fu l


67

only fo r ind ica ting the re la tiv e im p o rtan ce of the v a r io u s p re d ic to r s .

The p e rc e n t of v a r ia n c e exp la ined fo r each p re d ic to r is a v a ilab le by

p e rfo rm in g m u ltip le ru n s of the p ro g ra m and ob serv in g the d e c re a s e

in the to ta l exp la ined sum of sq u a re s . This p ro c e d u re w ill be p e r

fo rm ed only fo r the s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy p re d ic to r , and the p e rc e n t of

v a rian ce exp lained ,, o v e r and above tha t exp la ined by the add itive

m odel, re co rd e d .

F inally , an F te s t w ill be p e rfo rm e d upon the s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency v a r iab le in an a t te m p t to see if, a ll by i tse lf , it ex p la in s a

s ign ifican t (p ^ .0 5 ) p o rtio n of the v a rian ce in the dependen t v a r ia b le .


C H A P T E R III

FINDINGS

T his c h a p te r p re s e n ts the m a jo r r e s e a r c h find ings b ased upon

and o rg an ized a ro u n d the hypo theses p re s e n te d in C h ap te r I. M ultip le

C la ss if ic a tio n A n a ly s is is u sed to analyze the sp ec ific data . F i r s t ,

how ever, the f re q u e n c ie s fo r the th re e s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy ran k s by

re s e a rc h h y p o th e se s is p re se n te d .

T ab le 1

F req u en cy of S tatus Inco n sis ten cy R anks by R e se a rc h H ypotheses

S tatus In co n sis ten cy R ank

H ypothesis N um ber1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 133 408 373 384 181 301 1612 509 215 219 227 98 96 513 308 49 55 46 14 17 9

T o ta l 950 672 647 657 293 414 221

HYPOTHESIS 1: The n o n -add itive ( s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy )

m ode l w ill exp lain a g r e a t e r am ount of

v a r ia n c e in the com sum ption of a lcoho l

than w ill the s im ple ad d itive m ode l.

In exam in ing T ab le 2 , two th ings a r e ev iden t. F i r s t , n e i th e r

m ode l ex p la in s a v e ry la rg e am ount of v a r ia n c e in the am ount of

68


69

2a lcoho l consum ption ( r = . 015, . 016). Second, the n o n -add itive

(s ta tu s inconsistency ) m ode l exp la in s a lm o s t no add itiona l v a ria n c e

(r^ = . 016) o v e r and above the m o re p a rs im o n io u s add itive m odel

( r = . 015). The s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy v a r ia b le i t s e lf (e ta = . 059,

b e ta = .061) o ffe rs co m p ara tiv e ly l i t t le to the non -ad d itiv e m ode l. In

add ition , a s ind ica ted in T able 3, th is co n tribu tion is a c tu a lly opera ting

in the r e v e r s e d ire c tio n fro m th a t suggested in C h ap te r I.

T ab le 2

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels as P r e d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption

in the T o ta l Sam ple

A dditiveM odel

E ducation

O ccupation Incom e

R acial-E thnicRank

StatusIncons is te n c y

M ultip le3,

e ta . 053 . 137 .0 6 4 . 077b e ta . 064 . 144 . 025 . 070 .015

N on-add itiveM odel

e ta . 053 . 137 . 064 . 077 .0 5 9b e ta . 060 . 146 . 026 . 063 .061 .016

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 57; N = 950 (w ill v a ry b ec au se of m iss in g data) a A djusted fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m

In the an a ly s is of the su b sa m p le s b a s e d on age , sex , and com

m unity s ize (see A ppendix A), the in c re a s e d con trib u tio n of the non

add itive m o d e l o v er the add itive m ode l w as m in im a l a t b e s t and in

m an y c a se s ac tu a lly exp la ined le s s v a ria n c e in the dependen t v a r ia b le


70

(w hen ad ju sted fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m ).

T ab le 3

C om parison of D ev ia tions f ro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy fo r the

T o ta l S am ple

Status In co n s is te n cy Rank

D evia tions fro m G rand M ean

D evia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro lsa N

1 . 290 . 300 1332 .0 4 0 .043 5093 - . 190 - . 200 308

C o n tro l l in g fo r a l l of the o th e r v a r ia b le s

HYPOTHESIS 2: The n o n -ad d itiv e m ode l w ill explain a

g r e a te r am oun t of v a r ia n c e in the consum p

tion of a lco h o l than w ill the sim ple add itive

m o d e l w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined

a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l-e th n ic

rank ing ex c eed s the occupation rank ing .

A lthough, a s ind ica ted in T ab le 4, the n on -add itive m ode l does

e x p la in add itiona l v a rian ce ( r 2 = . 002) o v e r the add itive m odel

( r 2 = . 001), the d iffe ren ce betw een the two along w ith the m in isc u le

m agn itude of the n on -add itive m ode l i t s e lf tend not to suppo rt the

h y p o th e sis .

In looking a t T ab le 5 below , add itio n a l suppo rt fo r re je c tio n of

the non -ad d itiv e m ode l can be found in the dev iation fro m the g ran d

m e an in the sh arp ly s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t ca teg o ry ( - . 309).


71

Table 4

C om parison of the A dditive and N on-additive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption

when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined as the E x ten t to w hich the R ac ia l-E th n ic R ank

ing E x c eed s the O ccupation Ranking

A dditive R a c ia l-E th n ic Status M u ltip le3,M odel R ank O ccupation In consis tency r

e ta .0 5 4 . 067be ta .0 2 2 . 054 . 001


e ta . 054 . 067 .0 3 6b e ta . 027 . 054 .043 . 002

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 57; N = 672 aA djusting fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

T ab le 5

C om parison of the D ev ia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S ta tu s In co n s is ten cy when S tatus

In co n s is te n cy is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich the S o c ia l-E th n ic Ranking E x

ceed s the O ccupation Ranking

S tatus In co n sis ten cy Rank

D ev ia tion fro m G ran d M ean

D evia tions in G ran d M ean w ith C o n tro ls3, N

1 - . 008 - . 034 4082 .0 8 6 . 136 2153 -.309 - . 310 49

C o n tro l l in g fo r a l l of the o th e r v a r ia b le s


72

The su b sa m p le s b a sed on age , sex , and com m unity s ize (see

A ppendix A) a lso fa ile d to show any sign ifican t co n tribu tion of the

non -add itive m ode l o v er the s im p le r add itive m odel.

HYPOTHESIS 3: The non -add itive m odel w ill exp lain a

g r e a te r am ount of v a rian ce in the consum p

tion of a lcoho l than w ill the sim p le add itive

m odel when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined

a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l-e th n ic

rank ing exceeds the incom e ranking .

A s ev idenced in T able 6, the n on -add itive m ode l ( r^ = . 028)

ac tu a lly exp la in s le s s ad ju sted v a rian ce in the dependent v a r ia b le than

the add itive m odel ( r^ = .031). A lso , a s seen in T ab le 7, the c a te

g o rie s of s ta tu s co n s is te n cy ac tu a lly re v e a l an in v e rse re la tio n sh ip

to the a lcoho l consum ption index.

In v ir tu a lly a l l of the sub sam p les b ased on sex , age and com

m unity s ize (see A ppendix A), the add itive m ode l exp la in s m o re

v a rian ce in the dependent v a r ia b le than the m o re com plex n o n -ad d i

tive m odel.


73

Table 6

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N o n-add itive M odels as P r e d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcoho l C onsum ption

when the In te rac tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to which the R a c ia l-E th n ic Ranking

E xceeds the Incom e R anking

A dditive R ac ia l-E th n ic S tatus M ultip le3,M odel Rank O ccupation Incons i s tency r 2

e ta . 076 . 186b e ta . 060 . 221 . 031


eta . 076 . 186 . 127b e ta . 035 . 128 .0 8 8 . 028

N ote. G ran d M ean = 3. 52; N = 647 aA d ju sted fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m

T able 7

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations fro m the G ran d M ean by C a te g o rie s of S ta tus In co n s is ten cy w hen S tatus

In co n s is te n cy is D efined as the E x ten t to w hich the R a c ia l-E th n ic Ranking E x

ceeds the Incom e R anking

S ta tus In co n s is te n cy Rank


D ev ia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro ls3, N

1 .2 6 7 . 167 3732 - .2 6 8 - . 130 2193 - . 742 - .6 1 4 55

a C o n tro lling fo r a l l of the o th e r v a r ia b le s


74

HYPOTHESIS 4: The n o n -ad d itiv e m ode l w ill exp lain a

g r e a t e r am oun t of v a r ian ce in the co n su m p

tion of a lco h o l than w ill the s im ple add itiv e

m o d e l w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined

a s th e ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic

rank ing exceeds the education rank ing ,

again we see a s itu a tio n w here the non -ad d itiv e

explains m o re v a r ia n c e in the dependent v a r ia b le

than the add itive m odel (r^ = . 002) y e t the to ta l am ount of ex p la in ed

v a r ia n c e is so sm a ll tha t the ad d itio n a l exp lained v a ria n c e is in c o n

seq u en tia l.

T a b le 8

C om parison of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol Consum ption

when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined as the E xtent to w hich the R a c ia l-E th n ic Ranking

E xceeds the E d u c a tio n Ranking

A dditive R ac ia l-E th n ic Status M ultip le aM odel Rank E d u ca tio n In consis tency r

e ta . 052 . 065b e ta .024 .0 5 2 . 002


e ta . 052 .065 .025b e ta .023 . 052 .018 . 004

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 62; N = 657 aA d justed fo r d e g ree s of f re e d o m

In Table 8

m o d e l ( r 2 = . 004)


75

In looking a t T ab le 9 below , the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy v a r ia b le

ac tually exh ib its a c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip to a lcoho l consum ption , but

even h e re the am ount of change betw een ca te g o rie s is re la tiv e ly sm all.

Table 9

C om parison of the D evia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S tatus Inconsis tency when S tatus In

co n s is te n cy is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich the R ac ia l-E th n ic Ranking E xceeds the

E ducation Ranking

S tatus Inconsis tency Rank

D evia tions from G rand M ean

D evia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro ls3- N

1 . 035 . O il 3852 - . 087 - . 049 2273 . 137 . 145 46

a C ontro iling fo r a l l o th e r v a r ia b le s

S ubsam ples b ased on sex , age and com m unity s ize (A ppendix

A) p rov ide such a m in im a l am ount of exp lained v a ria n c e in alcohol

consum ption through e i th e r the additive o r n o n -add itive m odel tha t

th e ir r e s u lts a re r e n d e re d u s e le s s .

HYPOTHESIS 5: F o r fem a le s , the n o n -add itive m ode l w ill

exp lain a g re a te r am ount of v a rian ce in the

consum ption of alcoho l than w ill the sim ple

add itive m odel when the in te ra c tio n te rm is

defined as the ex ten t to w hich th e ir education

rank ing is s u p e rio r to th e ir h u sb an d 's occupa

tion ranking .


76

A s in d ica ted in T ab le 10 below , the n o n -ad d itiv e m odel, by-

in c re a s in g the d e g re e s of f reed o m over the a d d itiv e m ode l, ac tually

exp la in s le s s v a r ia n c e (r^ = . 034) in the dependen t v a r ia b le than the

add itive m ode l ( r 2 = . 039).

T ab le 10

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A mount of A lcohol C onsum ption fo r

F e m a le s w hen the In te rac tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir E ducation R anking E x

ceeds th e ir H usband 's O ccupation Ranking

A dditive H usband 's S ta tus M ultip le3,M odel E ducation O ccupation In co n s is te n cy r 2

e ta .1 1 3 . 198b e ta . 139 . 270 .039


e ta . 113 . 198 . 151b e ta . 117 . 145 . 109 .034

N ote. G rand M ean = 2. 67; N = 293 ^ A d justed fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

A gain , a s exh ib ited in p r io r ta b le s , the s ta tu s in co n sisten cy

m e a s u re ac tu a lly exh ib its a b a s ic a lly in v e rse re la tio n sh ip with the

am ount of a lcoho l consum ption . T his re la tio n sh ip is d em o n stra ted in

T ab le 11 below .

In the a n a ly s is of the su b sam p le s b a s e d on age and com m unity

s ize (see A ppendix A) a l l of the su b sam p les exh ib it an ac tu a l d e c re a s e


77

Table 11

C om parison of the D ev ia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S tatus In co n s is te n cy fo r F em a le s

when S tatus In co n s is te n cy is D efined a s the E x ten t to which th e ir E ducation Ranking

E xceeds th e ir H u sb a n d 's O ccupation Ranking

Status In co n s is te n cy Rank

D evia tions f ro m G rand M ean

D evia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro ls3, N

1 . 265 . 192 1812 - . 393 - .3 1 3 983 - .6 6 9 - .2 9 3 14

a C on tro lling fo r a l l o th e r v a r ia b le s

in the am ount of explained v a r ia n c e in the dependent v a r ia b le ex cep t

f o r one. In the subsam ple b a se d upon a com m unity s ize of un d er

10, 000, th e re is a co m p ara tiv e ly s ize ab le in c re a se in the am ount of

exp la ined v arian ce betw een the ad d itiv e m ode l ( r^ = . 004) and the n o n

ad d itiv e m ode l (r^ = . 025). F u r th e r a n a ly s is , how ever, re v e a ls th a t

the re la tio n sh ip betw een s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c y and the am ount of a lco h o l

consum ption is again in v e rse in n a tu re .

HYPOTHESIS 6: F o r m a le s , the n o n -add itive m odel w ill

exp la in a g r e a te r am ount of v a r ian ce in the

consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the s im p le

ad d itive m o d e l when the in te ra c tio n te rm is

defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir occu p a

tion ran k in g is s u p e r io r to th e ir education

rank ing .


78

T able 12 in d ic a te s a cond ition w here once m o re the n o n -ad d i

tive m ode l ( r^ = . 005) ex p la in s add itio n a l v a rian ce in the dependent

v a r ia b le ov er tha t exp la ined by the sim p le additive m ode l ( r^ = . 000),

but again the to ta l am ount of v a r ia n c e exp lained is so sm a ll th a t the

in c re a s e in the v a r ia n c e exp la ined is neg lig ib le .

T ab le 12

C om parison of the A dditive and N on-add itive M odels a s P re d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption fo r

M ales when the In te ra c tio n T e rm is D efined as the E x ten t to w hich th e ir O ccupation Ranking

E x c eed s th e ir E ducation Ranking

A dditive S tatus M ultip le aM odel O ccupation E ducation In consis tency r *

eta . 040 . 090be ta . 059 . 135 . 000


e ta . 040 . 090 . 070b e ta . 014 . 070 .0 4 9 . 005

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 26; N = 414 aA djusted fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

A lso , as seen in T ab le 13 below , the in v e rse re la tio n sh ip

betw een s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy and the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption

o b se rv ed in p rev io u sly p re s e n te d ta b le s a p p e a rs aga in u n d e r the te s t

of th is p a r t ic u la r h y p o th e sis .

The a n a ly s is of su b sa m p le s b ased on age and com m unity s ize

(see A ppendix A) a lso f a i l to show any sign ifican t ev idence th a t would


79

su p p o rt the n on -add itive m ode l o v er the m o re p a rs im o n io u s add itive

m ode l.

T ab le 13

C o m p ariso n of the D ev ia tions fro m the G rand M ean by C a teg o rie s of S tatus In co n s is ten cy fo r M ale s w hen

S tatus In co n s is ten cy is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir O ccupation Ranking E xceeds

th e ir E ducation Ranking

S tatus In co n sis ten cy Rank


D evia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro ls 3, N

1 . 115 . 079 3012 - . 263 - . 179 963 - .5 5 7 - .3 9 9 17

C ontro lling fo r a l l o th e r v a r ia b le s

HYPOTHESIS 7: F o r m a le s , the n o n -add itive m ode l w ill

exp la in a g r e a te r am ount of v a r ia n c e in

the consum ption of a lcoho l than w ill the

sim p le add itive m odel w hen the in te ra c t io n

te r m is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir

incom e rank ing is s u p e r io r to th e i r ed u c a

tion rank ing .

In looking a t T a b le 14 below , w hen ad justing fo r the d e g re e s of

fre e d o m the n o n -add itive m o d e l ( r^ = . 002) exp la in s le s s v a r ia n c e in

the dependent v a r ia b le than the m o re sim p le add itive m ode l

(r^ = . 004), thus lead ing one to r e j e c t H ypo thesis 7. T ab le 15 p r o

v id e s add itiona l ev idence fo r re je c tio n of H ypothesis 7 in th a t the


80

s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c y v a r ia b le ac tu a lly ex h ib its a c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n

ship w ith the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption .

Table 14

C o m p a riso n of the A dditive and N on-A dditive M odels a s P r e d ic to r s of the A m ount of A lcohol C onsum ption fo r

M a le s w hen the In te rac tio n T e rm is D efined a s the E x ten t to w hich th e ir Incom e R anking E x ceed s

th e ir E ducation Ranking

A dditiveM odel Incom e Education

S ta tu sIn c o n s is te n cy

M ultip le3,r 2

e ta . 117 . 080b e ta . 126 . 019 .004


e ta . 117 . 080 . 122b e ta . 026 . 084 . 131 .002

N ote . G ran d M ean = 4. 14; N = 221 a A d ju sted fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m

T able 15

C o m p a riso n of the D eviations fro m the G ran d M ean by C a te g o r ie s of S tatus In consis tency f o r M ale s w hen

S ta tu s In co n s is ten cy is D efined a s th e E x ten t to w hich th e ir Incom e Ranking ex c eed s th e ir

E ducation Ranking

S ta tu s In co n s is te n cy Rank

D eviations fro m G rand M ean

D ev ia tions in G rand M ean w ith C o n tro ls3, N

1 - . 159 - . 181 1612 .604 .661 513 - .5 8 5 - .5 0 6 9

a C on tro llin g fo r a l l o th e r v a r ia b le s


81

A lthough the subsam p le b a se d upon those m a le s w ith ages

be tw een 30 - 49 does show a re la tiv e ly la rg e in c re a s e in the exp la ined

v a r ia n c e by the non -add itive m ode l ( r^ = . 039) o v e r the add itive m ode l 2

( r = . 015), and the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy v a r ia b le does exh ib it the

la r g e s t b e ta sc o re in the n o n -add itive equa tion (see A ppendix A),

e x tre m e cau tion should be taken in d raw ing any conc lusions as the

s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy v a r ia b le exh ib its a c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip to

the am o u n t of a lcoho l consum ption . A ll o th e r su b sam p le s b ased upon

age and com m unity s ize fa i l to show m uch sup p o rt fo r H ypothesis 7

( see A ppendix A).

In sum m ary , the an a ly ses p re s e n te d in th is ch a p te r ind ica te

the n e e d to r e je c t a ll seven h y p o th ese s. N ot only do the non -add itive

m o d e ls fa i l to exp lain a s ign ifican tly g r e a t e r am ount of v a r ia n c e in the

d ependen t v a r ia b le over and above the m o re p a rs im o n io u s add itive

m o d e ls , but a lso , in those c a se s w h ere the n o n -add itive m odel does

ex p la in s ligh tly m o re v a ria n c e ,th e e ffe c ts of the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy

v a r ia b le a r e in n o n -th e o rized d ire c tio n s .


CH A PTER IV

CONCLUSIONS AND IM PLICATIONS

S um m ary of T heory , M ethods, and F ind ings

T he sc ien tif ic study of the n a tu re of a lcoho l consum ption is

re p le te w ith conc lusions ind ica ting th a t a lcoho l consum ption s e rv e s an

im p o rta n t function of anx ie ty red u c tio n . Y et the co n c e rn w ith the n a tu re

and so u rces of th is anx ie ty as i t r e la te s to d if fe re n tia ls in a lcoho l con

sum ption h a s re c e iv e d only se le c ted a tten tion . T h is w ork a tte m p ts ,

th rough the u tiliz a tio n of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o ry , to look a t one

p o te n tia l so u rce of anx ie ty and i t s re s u l ta n t re la tio n sh ip to the n a tu re

of a lco h o l consum ption . U tiliz ing the th e o re tic a l w ork of L e n sk i and

Ja c k so n in the a r e a of s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy , th is w ork a ttem p ts to

a s s e s s the u tility of th is th e o re tic a l f ram ew o rk to p rov ide add itio n a l

in fo rm a tio n concern ing d if fe re n tia ls in alcoho l consum ption .

A ccord ing to the w orks of L ensk i, Jack so n , and o th e rs , the

con fig u ra tio n of the g rouped d im en sio n s r e p re s e n ts an im p o rtan t

so u rce of in fo rm atio n involving hum an b eh a v io rs in a r e a s rang ing

f ro m voting b eh a v io rs to p sy ch o so m a tic i l ln e s s e s . T h e ir m a jo r th e o r

e t ic a l f ram ew o rk su g g ests th a t in s itu a tio n s w here th e re is a low

d eg ree of co n s is te n cy betw een the dom inan t v e r t ic a l s ta tu s h ie r a r c h ie s ,

in d iv idua ls w ill ex p e rien ce a g r e a t e r d eg ree of anx ie ty a s a r e s u l t of

in c re a s e d d ifficu lties w ith so c ia l in te ra c tio n . Ind iv iduals who have

82


83

r a th e r la rg e in c o n s is te n c ie s am ong th e ir s ta tu s ran k in g s p re s e n t con

flic ting exp ec ta tio n s upon w hich to b ase so c ia l in te ra c t io n , and a s a

r e s u lt , m any tim e s fin d th e m se lv e s o p era ting on a d if fe re n t se t of

s ta tu s -b a se d ex p e c ta tio n s than those view ed by o th e rs in the in te rac tio n

situa tion . In c re a se d anx ie ty in the s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t ind iv idual thus

re p re s e n ts an o u tcom e of the in te ra c tio n s itua tion .

Follow ing f ro m the th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency theory p lus the reco g n itio n of alcoho l consum ption a s an anx ie ty -

reducing agent, the q u es tio n a r i s e s : do ind iv iduals w ith in c o n sis ten t

s ta tu s consum e m o re a lcoho l? If in fa c t they do, the s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency v a r ia b le shou ld p ro v id e add itiona l ex p lan a to ry p o w er in re la tio n

to alcoho l consum ption . W orking fro m a se t of h y p o th e se s developed

by Jack so n (1962), b a s e d upon v ario u s types of s ta tu s c o n fig u ra tio n s ,

the c u r re n t w ork a t te m p ts to a s s e s s the im p o rtan c e of s ta tu s incon

s is ten c y a s i t r e la te s to a lco h o l consum ption .

In o rd e r to a c c u ra te ly te s t the im p o rtan c e of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency , it is n e c e s s a ry to co n tro l fo r the independen t e ffe c ts of the

v e r t ic a l s ta tu s ra n k in g s . T h is is acco m p lish ed in th is w ork by com

paring the s im p le a d d itiv e m ode l (one contain ing only the v e r t ic a l s ta tu s

d im ensions) to a n o n -ad d itiv e m odel (containing bo th th e v e r t ic a l s ta tu s

d im ensions and the s ta tu s in co n sis ten cy te rm ) in te r m s of th e ir ab ility

to exp lain v a r ia n c e in the dependent v a r ia b le . If the n o n -ad d itiv e

m odel does no t p ro v id e a sig n ifican t im provem en t in e x p lan a to ry


84

ab ility o v e r the add itive m odel, p a rs im o n y d ic ta te s the u se of the

m o re s im p le add itive m odel.

To te s t the re la tiv e con tribu tions of th e two m o d e ls w ith the

sta tu s in c o n s is te n c y te rm in the no n -ad d itiv e m ode l being b ased on a

s e r ie s of s ta tu s co n figu ra tions , seco n d ary a n a ly s is w as conducted on

a 1963 n a tio n a l p ro b ab ility sam ple of the n o n in s titu tio n a lized popu la

tion . A fte r rem oving fro m the sam ple a l l of those who ab s ta in fro m

a lcoho l consum ption , the re su ltin g sam p le con ta in ed an N of 1068.

E duca tion , occupation , incom e, and r a c ia l- e th n ic ran k r e p r e

sen ted th e fo u r v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im ensions u ti liz e d . T hese w ere then

tr ic o to m iz e d to have high, m edium , and low ran k s fo r each d im ension .

A lcohol consum ption w as o p e ra tio n a lize d by s lig h tly a l te r in g a quan ti-

ty -fre q u e n c y index re su ltin g in an e ig h t-c a te g o ry index. S tatus incon

s is te n c y w as defined in te rm s of the m agn itude of the ran k dev ia tions

betw een the p a r t ic u la r v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im en s io n s .

T he da ta w ere then ana lyzed in r e la tio n to the two m ode ls

using M u ltip le C la ss if ic a tio n A n a ly sis (MCA). The ex p lan a to ry pow er

of th e se tw o m ode ls w as a lso te s te d on a s e r ie s of subsam p les b ased

on sex , ag e , and com m unity size using the sam e ana ly tic technique.

A n in v e stig a tio n of the findings r e n d e r s th re e conspicuous

po in ts .

F i r s t , n e i th e r the add itive n o r the n o n -ad d itiv e m ode l exp la in

a v e ry la rg e am ount of v a r ia n c e in the dependen t v a r ia b le . The


85

a n a ly se s conducted on the to ta l sam p le , using both m o d e ls , exp la ined

only a m ax im um of ju s t un d er 4% of the v a r ia n c e . E ven w hen b roken

down into v a rio u s su b sam p le s b ased on age, sex , o r com m unity s ize ,

the m axim um am ount of v a r ia n c e exp la ined by e i th e r m odel w as only

7. 5%.

Secondly, when co n tro llin g fo r the d e g ree s of freed o m , the

m a jo r ity of te s ts in d ica ted th a t the n o n -add itive s ta tu s inco n sisten cy

m o d e l ac tu a lly exp lained le s s v a ria n c e than did the m o re p a rs im o n

ious add itive m odel. In those c a se s w here the non -ad d itiv e m ode l did

exp la in add itiona l v a r ia n c e o v e r and above the ad d itive m ode l, the

am ount of add itiona l exp la ined v a ria n c e w as so sm a ll a s to re n d e r it

n o n -s ig n if ican t both in a s ta t is t ic a l and p ra c t ic a l sen se .

F in a lly , in a s ize ab le n u m b er of the te s t s , the s ta tu s in c o n s is

te n cy v a r ia b le exh ib ited a c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip w ith a lcoho l con

sum ption . T hese c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip s w e re , how ever, a t v a r

ia n ce w ith those suggested by s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o ry ; although

th e re w as a lso w ide v a r ia tio n betw een te s ts a s to the n a tu re of th is

c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip . T h e re w e re no te s ts conducted as the to ta l

sam p le in w hich the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy v a r ia b le a ffec ted the depend

en t v a r ia b le in the th e o riz e d d ire c tio n . T hose not exh ib iting a c u rv i

l in e a r re la tio n sh ip in d ica ted , in s te ad , an in v e rse re la tio n sh ip betw een

s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy and a lcoho l consum ption .

In sum , the c u r re n t r e s e a r c h in d ica te s th a t a l l seven hyp o th eses


should be re je c te d , p a r t ic u la r ly in lig h t of B la lo ck 's m e th o d o lo g ica l

c r i t ic is m s , tha t su g g es ts th a t the in te ra c tio n te rm re p r e s e n ts an up p er

l im it o r m ax im um e s tim a te of s ta tu s inco n sisten cy e ffe c ts . I t th e r e

fo re m u s t be concluded th a t s ta tu s in co n sisten cy th e o ry a s i t r e la te s

to d iffe re n tia ls in a lcoho l consum ption is of v e ry li t t le v a lu e .

Im p lica tio n s

The th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s of the above find ings can be seen

in b a s ic a lly two a r e a s .

The f i r s t of th e se a r e a s invo lves the so c io c u ltu ra l n a tu re of

a lco h o l consum ption . R o b e rt B a les (1945), in a ttem p tin g to exp la in

c u l tu ra l d iffe re n ces in r a t e s of a lco h o lism , ou tlined th re e m a jo r f a c

to r s th a t influence the r a t e s of a lcoho lism :

1. The d eg ree to w hich th e cu ltu re o p e ra te s to b r in g abou t acu te need s f o r ad ju stm en t, o r in n e r ten sio n s in i ts m e m b e rs (e. g . , c u l tu ra l ly induced anx ie ty , g u ilt, e t c . ).

2. The s o r t of a t t i tu d e s tow ard drinking w hich the c u l tu re p ro d u ces in i t s m e m b e rs . . . . The c ru c ia l fa c to r seem s to be w he the r a g iven a ttitu d e tow ard d rink ing p o s itiv e ly su g g ests d rin k in g to th e ind iv idual as a m e an s of r e l ie v ing h is in n e r te n s io n s , o r w hether such a thought a ro u s e s a strong c o u n te r anx ie ty .

3. The d eg ree to w hich the cu ltu re p ro v id e s su ita b le su b stitu te m ean s of sa tis fa c tio n . In o th e r w o rd s, th e re is r e a s o n to b e liev e th a t if the in n e r te n sio n s a r e su ffic ien tly acu te c e r ta in in d iv idua ls w ill becom e com pu lsively h ab itu a te din sp ite of opposed s o c ia l a ttitu d es u n le ss s u b stitu te w ays of s a tis fa c tio n a r e p ro v id ed . (B a les , 1945:482)

Looking a t the f i r s t fa c to r and, in p a r t ic u la r , i ts p o s s ib le r e l a

tio n sh ip to s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy and its ten sio n -p ro d u c in g e i f e c ts , we


87

m ay have the fo llow ing s itu a tio n o cc u rrin g . In v iew ing th e c u l tu ra l

context of s ta tu s h ie r a r c h ie s and th e ir in c o n s is te n c ie s , the ac tu a l

f requency of s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t ind iv iduals a s co m p a re d to the f r e

quency of s ta tu s c o n s is te n t ind iv iduals should be n o ted . If, in fa c t, the

p ro p o rtio n of s ta tu s in c o n s is te n t indiv iduals is r e la t iv e ly high, the

g e n e ra l popu la tion m ay be m o re p re p a re d and a d ju s te d to not only

in te ra c t w ith, bu t a lso to ac cep t the phenom enon of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency. In e x tre m e c a s e s , s ta tu s in c o n sis ten t in d iv id u a ls m ay ac tu a lly

r e p re s e n t the n o rm and co n s is te n t ind iv iduals the e x t re m e s . T h is

could c re a te a s itu a tio n w here the occupying of c o n s is te n t s ta tu te s m ay

c re a te ten sio n b e c a u se of th e ir ab n o rm ality , o r , a t le a s t , nu llify the

te n sio n -p ro d u c in g e ffec ts of s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy .

If the above w ere tru e , then we should a lso ta k e in to accoun t

those c u l tu ra l co nd itions th a t c re a te a high d eg ree of s ta tu s in c o n s is

tency. One such cond ition m igh t be the n a tu re o r p h a s e of the econom ic

cycle . If, a t a g iv en po in t in tim e , th e re e x is ts a h igh p e rce n ta g e of

the popu la tion th a t is e i th e r unem ployed o r u n d e r em p loyed , in c o n s is

ten t s ta tu se s w ould tend to r e f le c t m o re of a n o rm .

B a le s ' seco n d fa c to r m ay ind ica te th a t, a lthough a lcoho l con

sum ption does s e rv e a reco g n ized ten sion red u c tio n function , c e r ta in

types of a t t itu d e s to w ard d rink ing and re s u lta n t s o c ia l co n tro ls m ay

r e s t r i c t an in d iv id u a l f ro m using alcoho l fo r te n s io n -re d u c tio n p u r

p o ses . A lthough th is p ro p o s itio n dealing w ith a t t i tu d e s to w ard d rinking


88

m ay seem questio n ab le in te rm s of i ts g e n e ra liz a b il ity to a sam ple

b ased upon the g e n e ra l popu la tion of the U nited S ta tes , th e re does e x is t

som e ev idence th a t a t le a s t m ay in d ire c tly su ppo rt it. A s d is c u sse d

b e fo re , m any s tu d ie s (see S jobert, 1969; W illiam s, 1966; Je ll in e k ,

I960; G reen b e rg , 1963; K esse l & W alton, 1965; an d M cN am ee , M ello

& M endelson , 1968) ind ica te tha t upon consum ing la rg e am ounts of

a lcoho l a s t r e s s fa c to r is re in tro d u c e d into the drink ing s itua tion . It

a p p e a rs a s a p la u sib le exp lanation fo r the so u rce of th is s t r e s s m ay

v e ry w ell be c u ltu ra l a ttitu d es govern ing the d rink ing situ a tio n . 1 If

th is is t ru e , then the Q -F sca le u ti liz e d in th is r e s e a r c h m ay s e rv e to

b ia s the r e s u l t s b ec au se it r e p re s e n ts an in te rv a l m e a s u re b a sed in

p a r t on the quan tity of a lcoho l consum ed.

The th ird f a c to r in Bales* an a ly s is a lso p ro v id e s valuab le in

sig h t in to the u n d ers tand ing of th is phenom ena. We m ay have a s itu a

tion w h ere s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy is indeed s t r e s s p roducing , how ever,

the c u l tu re m ay p rov ide a w ide v a r ie ty of o th e r s tr e s s - re d u c t io n

m e c h a n ism s av a ilab le to the ind iv idual. A lte rn a tiv e s tr e s s - r e d u c t io n

m e c h a n ism s in th is soc ie ty m ay take the fo rm of in c re a s e d u se s of

both le g a l and il le g a l d rug u s e , an in c re a s e in re c re a t io n a l a c tiv i tie s

and tim e av a ilab le fo r re c re a tio n , v a r io u s re l ig io u s and o th e r c e r e

m o n ia l a c tiv i t ie s , and ch ild and spouse abuse to nam e a few . A lso ,

^ P o ss ib ly we have a g e n e ra l a ttitu d e tow ard d rink ing th a t s ta te s d rink ing is a c cep ta b le , y e t ex c e ss iv e d rin k in g is no t.


89

if f a c to r s two and th re e of B a le s ' a r t ic le a r e taken to g e th e r, we m ig h t

find a situ a tio n o pera ting w here th e re a r e s tr e s s - re d u c t io n su b s t itu te s

av a ilab le th a t have few er neg a tiv e san c tio n s p laced upon them than

th o se p la ced upon alcoho l consum ption .

The second a re a of th e o re tic a l co n s id e ra tio n in ligh t of the

p r e s e n t find ings involves the a d e q u ac ie s of s ta tu s - in c o n s is te n c y th e o ry .

One of the f i r s t q uestions in th is a r e a involves the sa lien cy

of o n e 's p o s itio n on v a rio u s "o b je c tiv e" s ta tu s d im ensions . Box and

F o rd (1969), in th e ir th e o re tic a l c r i t iq u e of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy , a rg u e

th a t in o rd e r fo r s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy to be a com plete th eo ry , a d d i

tio n a l assu m p tio n s m u s t be m ade . One of th e ir suggested ad d itio n a l

a s su m p tio n s is th a t " 'o b je c t iv e ' s ta tu s e s a r e sa lien t to the a c to r s and

c o n s id e re d re le v a n t to the in te ra c t io n s itu a tio n " (p. 198). In o th e r

w o rd s , a lthough an indiv idual m ay e x p e rie n c e in co n sisten cy am ong h is

o b jec tive s ta tu s ran k in g s, th is does n o t n e c e s s a r i ly m ean th e se s ta

tu s e s a r e re le v a n t o r sa lie n t to e i th e r h im o r those with whom he in t e r

a c ts . S itua tions m ay v ery w ell e x is t w h ere ind iv iduals a r e ev a lu a te d

on th e ir ran k in g in a single s ta tu s h ie ra rc h y and th e ir re la tiv e p la c e

m e n t on o th e rs is of no concern . ^

A lso , it m ay be the c a se w h e re , by us ing som ew hat a r t i f ic ia l

o b jec tive m e a s u re s of s ta tu s , we a r e overlook ing the m o re re le v a n t

2See a lso , H ym an, 1967.


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sub jec tive r e a l i t ie s of s ta tu s position ing . As s u g g es ted by both M ey er

and Ham m ond (1972) and N elson (1973), the a r b i t r a r y o b jec tive s ta tu s

p o sitio n s a ss ig n ed to a p a r t ic u la r indiv idual m ay n o t r e f le c t the tru e

n a tu re of the n o rm a tiv e expecta tions (sub jec tive s ta tu re s ) of th a t in d i

v id u a l's s ta tu s p o s itio n s . The ex isten ce of in c o n s is te n c ie s betw een the

ob jective sta tu s ran k in g s m ay no t n e c e ss a r i ly r e f le c t the n o rm a tiv e

expecta tions w hich m ay , in fac t, c lu s te r in a v e ry c o n s is te n t m a n n e r.

Both of th e se c r i t ic is m s of s ta tu s in co n sisten cy th e o ry in d ica te the

need fo r in c re a s e d know ledge of both the an teced en t a n d c o n c u rre n t

cond itions su rro u n d in g the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten t in d iv id u a l (see A nisef &

B asso n , 1968).

In sum , th e se find ings suggest the re la tio n sh ip betw een s ta tu s

in c o n sis ten cy and a lco h o l consum ption m ay r e p r e s e n t a n a r e a of

th e o re tic a l co n c e rn th a t is too iso la ted , a r t i f ic ia l and s im p lis tic to

w a rra n t a s ig n ifican t co n trib u tio n to know ledge of a lc o h o l consum ption .

The la rg e body of n eg a tiv e find ings in r e s e a rc h dea ling w ith s ta tu s

in co n sisten cy th e o ry , along w ith the c r i t ic is m s p re s e n te d above, ap p e a r

to suggest tha t the th e o ry i t s e lf m ay su ffer fro m som e s e r io u s th e o re ti

c a l o v e rs ig h ts . P o s s ib ly the appeal of such a r e la tiv e ly s im p lis tic f o rm

u la tion has c re a te d a n o v e re m p h a s is on i ts p o te n tia l e x p lan a to ry

a b i li t ie s . U nquestionab ly , add itio n a l in s ig h ts a r e n ee d ed in both the

a re a s of alcoho l consu m p tio n and s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy th e o ry .

The p ra c t ic a l im p lic a tio n s of th is r e s e a r c h can be sum m ed up


in the follow ing m a n n e r. T his p a r t ic u la r r e s e a r c h in d ica te s tha t

n e i th e r the fo u r v e r t ic a l s ta tu s d im en sio n s n o r the s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy

m e a s u re go v e ry f a r in explain ing the d if fe re n tia l r a te s of a lcoho l

consum ption . A lso , w hen looking a t p a s t r e s e a r c h on the n a tu re of

a lcoho l consum ption , do we find any s ing le v a r ia b le th a t p ro v id es v e ry

m uch in fo rm a tio n concern ing the d if fe re n tia ls in r a te s of alcoho l con

sum ption? The im p lic a tio n of th is , p lu s the fa c t th a t the n a tu re of

a lcoho l consum ption in the U nited S ta tes is a com plex a r r a y of w idely

v ary ing b e h a v io rs , le ad s us to conclude th a t a lcoho l consum ption is no t

a s im p le , e a s i ly u n d ers to o d phenom ena.

In o rd e r fo r u s to gain a b e t te r u n d ers ta n d in g of the na tu re of

a lcoho l consum ption , we need to g re a t ly expand both the s ize and the

v a r ie ty of e x p lan a to ry m ode ls u sed in a t te m p ts to u n d e rs ta n d th e se

d if fe re n tia l r a te s of consum ption . M odels b a s e d upon th re e o r fo u r

"com m onp lace" v a r ia b le s ap p e a r to a s s u m e a too s im p lis tic p ic tu re

of a lco h o l consum ption . We need to c o n s tru c t la r g e r and m o re v a r ie d

m o d e ls ; if we a r e going to b e t te r u n d e rs ta n d th is phenom ena.

If, f o r exam p le , we w ere to focus in on the te n sio n -re d u c tio n

e xp lana tion fo r d iffe re n tia ls in a lcoho l consum ption we should n e c e s

s a r i ly expand the scope of o u r a n a ly s is . T h e re h a s been a v e ry la rg e

volum e of w ork in the a re a , y e t v e ry few s y s te m a tic a tte m p ts to pu ll

th is in fo rm a tio n to g e th e r in the fo rm of an ex p lan a to ry m ode l. An

im p o rta n t p re l im in a ry s ta te in m ode l build ing invo lves the co n s tru c tio n


92

of a fram e w o rk into w hich p rev io u s r e s e a r c h can be p laced , o rg an ized ,

and unders to o d .

One such po ten tia lly u se fu l f ra m e w o rk m igh t be co n s tru c te d u sing

the w ritin g s of B a les (1945) and J e s s o r e t a l. (1968). Taking B a le s '

th re e v a r ia b le s : am ount of te n sio n c re a te d in the env ironm en t, a t t i

tu d es to w ard a lcoho l consum ption , and a l te rn a t iv e m eans of a c c ep ta b le

te n s io n -re d u c tio n and com bining them w ith J e s s o r e t al. 's th re e le v e ls

of an a ly s is : the P e rs o n a li ty S ystem , the S ocia liza tion S ystem , and the

S o c io c u ltu ra l S ystem , we can develop the follow ing th re e by th re e

fram ew o rk :

P e rs o n a li tyS ystem

S o cia liza tionSystem

S o c io c u ltu ra lS y stem

A m ount of ten sio n c re a te d

A ttitid e s tow ard a lcoho l consum ption

A ccep tab le a l te rn a t iv e s f o r te n sio n -re d u c tio n

By then ass ig n in g p a s t r e s e a r c h find ings and o th e r re le v a n t

in fo rm a tio n to the a p p ro p ria te ce lls of the above ta b le , we m ay th e n be

ab le to m o re e a s ily iden tify a r e a s needing m o re in fo rm ation and

re s e a r c h , the ex is ten ce of conflic ting r e s e a r c h , the p r im a ry v e r s u s

s e co n d a rily im p o rtan t v a r ia b le s , the in te r re la tio n s h ip s betw een the

c e lls and the v a r ia b le s w ith in them , and hopefully , a m o re c le a r u n d e r


93

standing of one seg m e n t of a com plex phenom ena. I t is only w ith such

a fram ew o rk as th is th a t r e s e a r c h in the a r e a of a lco h o l consum ption

could m ake s ig n ifican t con trib u tio n s in the p r a c t ic a l r e a lm .

Suggestions fo r F u r th e r R esea rc h

In ligh t of the above d iscu ss io n s , one of the f i r s t suggestions

fo r fu r th e r r e s e a r c h in th is a re a involves the u se of a Q -F index as

a m e a s u re of a lco h o l consum ption . B ecause of the com plex n a tu re of

the phenom ena, fu tu re r e s e a r c h should a lso be c o n c e rn ed w ith o r look

into such fa c to rs a s the v a r ia b il ity of the quantity con su m ed a t one s i t

ting, the im p ac t of o th e rs in the d rinking s itua tion upon quan tity , f r e

quency, and v a r ia b il i ty , and the d iffe re n ces in d rin k in g s itu a tio n s

based upon type of b ev e ra g e consum ed.

In add ition , w hen u tiliz in g the type of Q -F index a s exem p lified

in th is r e s e a rc h , i t a p p e a rs to c a r ry with it an im p o r ta n t im p lied

assum ption . As n o te d e a r l i e r , such a sum m ative m e a s u re s e rv e s to

d e sc r ib e the n a tu re of a lcoho l consum ption a s b a s ic a lly a l in e a r

phenom ena b a se d upon ap p ro x im ate ly equal w eighting fo r both the

quantity and freq u en c y fa c to r s . It seem s p la u sib le , b a s e d upon p a s t

r e s e a rc h dealing w ith the c u rv i lin e a r re la tio n sh ip be tw een the q uan ti

ty of alcoho l consum ed a t one sitting and it s s t r e s s - r e d u c in g e ffec ts

th a t such a l in e a r m e a s u re is in a p p ro p ria te . If, indeed , d r in k e rs

recogn ize th is c u rv i l in e a r re la tio n sh ip and do have a t le a s t a c e r ta in

am ount of co n tro l o v e r the drink ing s itua tion , the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy


94

m odel m ig h t m o re ap p ro p ria te ly be te s te d in te rm s of the frequency

of d rin k in g s itu a tio n s when only sm a ll am oun ts of alcoho l a r e con

sum ed.

U tiliz ing the th re e by th re e f ra m e w o rk p re s e n te d above, the

s ta tu s in c o n s is te n c y v a r ia b le should be re te s te d . I t m ay be tha t, in

g e n e ra l, the s ta tu s inco n sisten cy fa c to r e x is tin g in the S o c iocu ltu ra l

System co lum n m ay be re n d e re d u s e le s s a s a r e s u l t of conditions

ex is tin g in the P e rs o n a li ty o r S ocia liza tio n S y stem s . It m ay be,

how ever, th a t i t is u se fu l under c e r ta in cond itions d ic ta ted by th e se

two s y s te m s . If so , we need to iden tify th o se re le v a n t cond itions.

A n o ther a r e a of concern fo r f u r th e r r e s e a r c h involves the

fu r th e r ex p lo ra tio n of s tre s s -p ro d u c in g cond itions w hich, follow ing

the te n s io n -re d u c tio n assum ption , would tend to in c re a s e a lcoho l con

sum ption . A lthough th is r e s e a r c h d id not in d ica te th a t s ta tu s incon

s is te n c y a s a s t r e s s p ro d u c e r lead to in c re a s e d a lcoho l consum ption ,

th e re m ay v e ry w ell be o th e r s tr e s s -p ro d u c in g so c ia l s itua tions

( e .g . , cogn itive d issonance) tha t do le ad to in c re a s e d a lcoho l con

sum ption .

A lso , in an a ttem p t to gain a b e t te r und ers tan d in g of d if fe r

e n tia ls in a lcoho l consum ption , r e s e a r c h s im i la r to th is w ork a re

m uch need ed . P o te n tia l exp lanato ry v a r ia b le s , b a sed upon reco g n ized

so c io lo g ica l th e o r ie s , should be in c re a s in g ly te s te d a s to th e ir con

trib u tio n to the unders tand ing of a lcoho l consum ption . Only th ro u g h


95

such a p ro c e s s can we focus in on m o re a c c u ra te u n d e rs tand ing of

fa c to r s th a t a ffec t a lcoho l consum ption .

Follow ing B a le s ' (1945) m odel, fu r th e r r e s e a r c h is needed in

th re e add itiona l a r e a s . The f i r s t invo lves the need fo r m o re sp ec ific

te s tin g re g a rd in g the sa lien cy of the te n sio n -re d u c tio n p ro p e r t ie s of

a lcoho l consum ption . Is the re la tio n sh ip c u rv i lin e a r in n a tu re , does

i t o p e ra te only un d er c e r ta in cond itions , w hat a r e those cond itions,

is th e re a d iffe ren ce betw een the ac tu a l a b ility of alcoho l to red u ce

ten sion and the p e rc e iv e d a b ility of a lcoho l to red u ce ten sio n ?

Secondly, a ssum ing the te n sio n red u c tio n p ro p e r t ie s of a lco h o l

consum ption a re op era tin g , w hat a r e the m a jo r so u rces of the in i t ia l

s t r e s s ? A re , fo r exam ple , only c e r ta in types of s t r e s s o rig in a tin g

fro m sp ec ific s o u rc e s those tha t a r e re l ie v e d by a lcoho l consum ption?

What is the re la tio n sh ip betw een " free f lo a tin g " anx iety v e rs u s p a r t i

c u la r sou rce (e .g . , s t r e s s fu l life events) s t r e s s as they re la te to

a lcoho l consum ption?

T h ird , a r e th e re a lte rn a t iv e s tr e s s - r e d u c t io n m e ch an ism s

av a ilab le to an ind iv idual in a p a r t ic u la r so c ia l se tting? If y e s , w hat

a r e they, and why is one type of s t r e s s red u c tio n m ech an ism chosen

o v e r a n o th e r?

A fin a l r e s e a r c h em p h as is fo r fu tu re co n s id e ra tio n invo lves

the expansion of o u r exp lan a to ry m ode ls dea ling w ith alcoho l co n su m p

tion . T ra d itio n a lly , we have a ttem p ted to u ti liz e exp lana to ry m o d e ls


96

dealing w ith only a s m a ll n u m b er of v a r ia b le s . G iven the com plex

n a tu re of alcoho l consum ption , th e se m ode ls have g e n e ra lly fa llen

sh o rt in th e ir e x p lan a to ry a b i li t ie s . In an a ttem p t to b e t te r o u r u n d e r

standing of th is phenom ena, we need to in c re a s in g ly expand both the

s ize and scope of th e se m ode ls in o rd e r to b e t te r co m p reh en d the

ac tu a l n a tu re of a lco h o l consum ption .

S um m ary

T h is study a tte m p te d to te s t the u tility of s ta tu s in c o n sisten cy

theo ry as an ex p lan a to ry too l fo r the fu r th e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of the

d iffe re n tia l r a te s of a lco h o l consum ption . R ecogn izing the te n sio n -

reduction p ro p e r t ie s of alcoho l consum ption, s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy

w as suggested a s a p o te n tia l so u rce of in c re a s e d s t r e s s w hich, in

tu rn , would le ad to in c re a s e d alcohol consum ption . I t w as hypothe

sized tha t the n o n -ad d itiv e (s ta tu s inconsistency) m o d e l w ould exp lain

a sign ifican tly g r e a te r am ount of v a r ian ce in a lco h o l consum ption than

the m o re p a rs im o n io u s add itive (v e r tic a l s ta tu s d im en sio n s) m odel.

The h y p o th e se s w e re te s te d using a 1963 p ro b a b ility sam ple

of the n o n in s ti tu tio n a lized popula tion of the U nited S ta te s o v e r 20 y e a rs

of age . U sing a M u ltip le C la ss if ic a tio n A n a ly sis tech n iq u e , it w as

found tha t the s ta tu s in c o n sis ten cy m odel does no t add s ign ifican tly

to the unders tan d in g of d if fe re n tia l r a te s of a lcoho l consum ption o ver

and above the ad d itiv e m ode l.

In conc lusion , d e sp ite the fa c t tha t th is p a r t ic u la r r e s e a r c h


endeavo r did no t suppo rt the p o ss ib ili ty of s ta tu s inco n sisten cy th eo ry

a s a c o n tr ib u to r to the unders tand ing of a lco h o l consum ption , i t does

r e p r e s e n t a good exam ple of the type of th e o re tic a l co n cern s tha t

should be d ea lt w ith in the a re a of d if fe re n tia l a lcoho l consum ption .

This r e s e a r c h w ill, hopefully , guide fu r th e r r e s e a r c h in the a r e a of

a lcoho l consum ption into the ex p lo ra tio n of o th e r p o ten tia lly f ru itfu l

in s ig h ts o rig in a tin g fro m c u rre n t so c io lo g ica l know ledge.


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113

A PPEN D IX A

T able 1. C om parison of the ad d itiv e and n o n -add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to rs of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s only

A dditiveM odel

E d u c ation

O ccupation Incom e

R ac ia l-E thnicRank

S tatusIncon

s is ten cyM ultip le3-

r 2

e tab e ta

. 070

. 037. 046 . 061

. 171

. 179.111 . 063 . 014


e tab e ta

. 070

. 032. 046 . 038

. 171

. 191. I l l . 109

. 050

. 046 . 022

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 30; N = 519 Â d justed fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m

T able 2i. C om parison of the ad d itiv e and n on -add itive m odels as p re d ic to rs of the am ount of alcoho l consum ption fo r fem a le s only

A dditiveM odel

E ducation

O ccupation Incom e

R a c ia l- E thnic Rank

S tatusIncon

sis ten cyM ultip le3,

r2

e tab e ta

. 050

. 076. 178 . 127

. 147

. 124. 120 . 104 . 030

N on-add itive M odel

e tab e ta

. 050

. 072. 178 . 148

. 147

. 100. 120 . 084

. 062

. 050 . 023

N o te . G rand M ean = 2. 79; N = 431 aA d ju sted fo r the d e g ree s of freed o m


114

T able 3. C om parison of the ad d itive and n on -add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r those 21-29 and 50 and o v e r y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

E d u cation

O ccupation Incom e

R ac ia l - E thnic Rank

S ta tusIncon

s is ten c yM ultip le3-

r 2

etab e ta

. 033

. 062. 072 . 095

. 132

. 145. 042 . 053 . 010


e tab e ta

. 033

. 031. 072 . 063

. 132

. 132. 042 . 042

. 124

. 139 . 014

N ote. G rand M ean = Â d justed fo r the deg

3. 35; N = 484 r e e s of f reed o m

Table 4. C o m p ariso n of the add itive and non -ad d itiv e m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r those 30-49 y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

E d u c ation

O ccupation Incom e

R a c ia l- E thnic Rank

S tatusIncon

s is ten c yM ultip le a

r 2

e tab e ta

. 074

. 070; 078 . 043

. 168

. 171. 151 . 078 . 018


e tab e ta

. 074

. 090. 078 . 036

. 168

. 164. 151 . 132

. 003

. 625 . 023

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 78; N = 466 Â d ju sted fo r the d eg ree s of f reed o m


115

T able 5. C om parison of the add itiv e and non-add itive m o d e lsas p re d ic to rs of the am ount of alcoho l consum ption of those living in co m m u n ities w ith u nder 10, 000 in h a b itan ts

A dditiveM odel

E d u cation

O ccupation Incom e

R ac ia l- E thnic Rank

S tatusIncon

sis ten c yM u ltip le3-

e tab e ta

. 080

. 024. 114 . 140

. 181

. 220. 107 . 066 . 038


e tab e ta

. 080

. 016. 114. I I 2

. 181

. 193. 107 . 076

. 040

. 027 . 014

N ote. G rand M ean = Â d ju sted fo r the deg

3. 26; N = 321 re e s of f reed o m

T able 6. C om parison of the ad d itiv e and non-add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of alcoho l consum ption fo r those liv ing in co m m u n ities w ith betw een 10, 000-100, 000 in h a b ita n ts

A dditiveM odel

E d u cation

O ccupation Incom e

R ac ia l-E thnicRank

S tatusIncon

sis ten cyM u ltip le3-

r2

e tab e ta

. 126

. 088. 127 . 050

. 169

. 201. 116 . 140 . 034


e tab e ta

. 126

. 125. 127 . 073

. 169

. 161. 116 . 110

. 067

. 061 .0 2 4

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 52; N = 311 aA d justed fo r the d eg ree s of f reed o m


116

Table 7. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m o d e ls as p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r th o se liv ing in com m un ities w ith o v e r 100, 000 in h a b ita n ts

A dditiveM odel

E d u c a- O ccupa tion tion Incom e

R ac ia l- S ta tu s E thnic In co n - Rank s is ten c y

M u ltip le3-r 2*

etabe ta

.0 6 9 . 075

.0 5 0 .041. 123 . 116

. 138

. 064 . 017

N on-additiveM odel

e tab e ta

.0 6 9 . 075

. 093 . 074. 123 . 140

.1 3 8 .095

.118 .085 . 008


Table 8. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occu p ation ran k in g fo r m a le s only

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic R ank

O ccupation

S tatus Incon- M u ltip le3- sis ten cy r^

e tab e ta

. 056

. 054. 069 . 078 . 003

N on-additive M odel

e tab e ta

. 056

. 052. 069 . 043

. 049

. 039 . 008

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 22; N = 387 Â d justed fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m


117

T able 9. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupation rank ing fo r fem a le s only

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E th n ic Rank

O ccupation

S ta tus Incons is ten c y

M ultip le a r^

e tabe ta

. 152

. 086. 155 . 103 . 015


e tab e ta

. 152

. 063. 155 . 126

. 083

. 088 . 015

Note. G rand M ean = 2. 69; N = 285 a A djusted fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

T able 10. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l-e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupatio n rank ing fo r those 21-29 and 50 and o v e r y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E th n ic Rank

O ccupation

S ta tus Incons is ten c y

M ultip le3-r 2

e tab e ta

. 089

. 094.055 . 056 . 001

N on-additiveM odel

e tabeta

. 089

. 089. 055 . 030

. 060

. 075 . 003



Table 11. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupation rank ing fo r those 30-49 y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic Rank

O ccupation

S ta tu s Incons is te n c y

M ultiple a r 2

e tab e ta

. 164

. 143. 120 . 047 .016


etab e ta

. 164

. 097. 120 . 101

. 053

. 054 . 010

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 82; N = 316 aA djusted fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m

T able 12. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic rank ing ex ceed s the occupation rank ing fo r those liv ing in com m un ities w ith under 10, 000 in h ab itan ts

A dditiveM odel


O ccupation


M ultiple a r 2

e tabe ta

.1 1 9

. 094. 112 . 072 . 001


e tabe ta

. 119

. 062. 112 .094

. 033

. 053 .005

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 22; N = 239 aA djusted fo r th e d e g re e s of freed o m


119

T ab le 13. C om parison of the ad d itiv e and non-add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to rs of the am oun t of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te r m is defined a s the ex ten t to which the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupation rank ing fo r th o se liv ing in com m unities with betw een 10, 000-100, 000 in h ab itan ts

A dditiveM odel


O ccupation

S tatus Incons is ten c y

M u ltip le3-r 2

e tab e ta

. 114

. 071. 149 . 132 . 008


e tab e ta

. 114

. 094. 149 .0 8 3

. 075

. 051 . 001

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 56 aA d justed fo r the d eg ree s

; N = 213 of fre e d o m

Table 14. C om parison of the a d d itiv e and non-add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to rs of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te r m is defined a s the ex ten t to which the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the occupation rank ing fo r th o se liv ing in com m unities w ith o v e r 100, 000 inhab itan ts

A dditiveM odel


O ccupation


M ultip le3-r 2

e tab e ta

. 060

. 060. 034 . 005 . 015

N o n -add itive M odel

e tab e ta

. 060

.019. 034 . 032

. 075

. 071 . 020

N o te . G rand M ean = 3. 97; N = 220 aA d justed fo r the d eg ree s of fre e d o m


120

Table 15. C o m p ariso n of the add itive and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm in defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic ranking exceeds the incom e rank ing fo r m a le s only

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic Rank Incom e

Status Incons is ten c y

M u ltip le3,r 2

e tabe ta

. 091

. 086. 169 . 200 . 024


e tab e ta

. 091

. 093. 169 . 110

. 125

. 097 . 021

N ote. G rand M ean 4. 07; aA d justed fo r the d e g ree s

N = 366 of f reed o m

Table 16. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the incom e fo r fe m a le s only

A dditiveM odel



M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 106

. 063. 236 . 268 . 045


e tab e ta

. 106

. 069. 236 . 184

. 128

. 084 . 038

N ote . G rand M ean ^ 2. 81; N = 281 aA djusted fo r the d e g re e s of fre e d o m


121

T able 17. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which the ra c ia l- e th n ic ranking exceeds the incom e rank ing fo r those 21-29 and 50 and over y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel



M u ltip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 054

. 104. 190 . 232 . 035


e tab e ta

.0 5 4

. 007. 190 . 160

. 143

. 112 . 030

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 36; N = 375 Â djusted fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m

T able 18. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the incom e rank ing fo r those 30-49 y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel


S tatus Incons is ten cy

M u ltip le3-r 2

e tab e ta

. 166

. 021.2 2 7 . 230 .0 3 8


e tab e ta

. 166

. 051.2 2 7 • . 186

.0 9 6

.0 5 4 .0 3 2

N ote . G rand M ean = 3. 75; N = 269 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m


122

T able 19. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -ad d itiv e m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic rank ing ex c eed s the incom e ran k in g fo r those living in co m m u n ities w ith under 10, 000 inhab itan ts

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E th n ic Rank Incom e

S tatus In co n s is te n c y

M ultip le a r 2

e tabeta

. 155

. 011.258.2 6 4 .051

N on-additiveM odel

e tabeta

. 155

. 070. 258 . 181

. 147

. 085 .044

Note. G rand M ean = 3. 24; N = 246 aA djusted fo r th e d e g re e s of freed o m

T able 20. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -ad d itiv e m ode ls a s p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l-e th n ic rank ing e x c eed s the incom e ran k in g fo r those liv ing in co m m u n itie s w ith betw een 10, 000-100, 000 inhab itan ts

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E th n ic Rank Incom e

S tatus In co n s is te n c y

M ultip le3,r 2

e tab eta

. 098

. 013. 160 . 153 . 005

N on-additiveM odel

e tab e ta

. 098

. 065. 160 . 101

.0 8 0

.0 5 5 .005

N ote. G rand M ean = 2. 38; N = 195 aA djusted fo r th e d e g re e s of freed o m


123

T ab le 21. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and non -ad d itiv e m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which the r a c ia l-e th n ic rank ing exceeds the incom e rank ing of those liv ing in co m m u n ities w ith o v er 100, 000 inhab itan ts

A dditiveM odel


S ta tus Incons is te n c y

M ultip le3,r 2

e tab e ta

.083

. 130. 186 .2 5 7 . 027


e tab e ta

.083

. 052. 186 . 153

. 162

. 125 . 023

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 00; N = 206 Â d justed fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m

T ab le 22. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and no n -ad d itiv e m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l-e th n ic ran k in g exceeds the education rank ing fo r m a le s only

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic Rank Education

S ta tu s Incons is ten c y

M ultip le3,

e tabe ta

. 078

. 070. 079 . 083 .000


e tab e ta

. 078

. 058. 079 .045

. 070

. 040 .005

N ote. G ran d M ean = 4. 20; N = 376 Â d ju s te d fo r the d eg ree s of freed o m


124

T able 23. C o m p a riso n of the add itiv e and n o n -add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the ra c ia l-e th n ic rank ing exceeds the education rank ing fo r fem a le s only

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l E thn ic Rank Education


M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 156

. 159. 082 . 072 . 010


e tab e ta

. 156

. 103. 082 . 069

.065

. 071 .003

N ote. G rand M ean = 2. 85 a A d justed fo r the d e g re e s

; N = 281 of freed o m

T able 24. C o m p a riso n of the ad d itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing ex ceed s the education rank ing fo r those 21-29 and 50 and o v er in y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E thn ic Rank E ducation

S ta tus Incons is te n c y

M ultip le3-r2

e tab e ta

. 050

. 079. 076 . 109 .001


e tab e ta

. 050

. 036. 076 . 052

. 080

. 067 .006

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 46; N = 367 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m


125

T able 25. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and non -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of alcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which the r a c ia l- e th n ic ranking exceeds the e d u c a tion rank ing fo r those 30-49 y e a rs of age

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic Rank E ducation


M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 125

. 163. 054 . 077 . 006


e tab e ta

. 125

. 836. 054 . 064

. 110

. I l l . 003

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 84 aA djusted fo r the d e g re e s

; N = 288 of f reed o m

T able 26. C o m p a riso n of the ad d itive and non-add itive m o d e ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the ed u ca tio n rank ing fo r th o se liv ing in com m un ities w ith u n d e r 10, 000 in h a b ita n ts

A dditiveM odel

R ac ia l- E thn ic Rank E ducation


M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 113

.073. 142 . 145 . 009


e tab e ta

. 113

.0 9 0. 142 . 093

. 084

. 063 . 002

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 35; N = 246 aA djusted fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m


126

T able 27. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m o d e ls as p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l .consum ption w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the r a c ia l- e th n ic rank ing exceeds the education ran k in g fo r those liv ing in com m un ities w ith betw een 10, 000-100 , 000 in hab itan ts

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E th n ic R ank E ducation


M ultip le a r 2

e tabe ta

. 098

. 120. 095 . 123 . 003


e tab e ta

. 098

. 105. 095 . 130

. 064

. 064 . 003

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 61 aA djusted fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

T able 28. C o m p a riso n of the ad d itive and non -ad d itiv e m o d e ls a s p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e r a c ia l- e th n ic ranking exceeds the ed u cation ran k in g fo r th o se liv ing in com m u n ities w ith o v er 100, 000 in h ab itan ts

A dditiveM odel

R a c ia l- E thn ic R ank E ducation


M u ltip le3-

e tab e ta

. 042

. 089. 024 . 080 . 015


e tab e ta

.0 4 2

.0 6 6. 024 . 017

. 147

. 156 . 006



127

T able 29. C o m p a riso n of the ad d itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r fe m a le s 21-29 and 50 and o v er y e a rs of age w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which th e ir education rank ing exceeds th e ir h u sb an d 's o ccu p ation rank ing

A dditiveM odel E ducation

H usband 'sO ccupation

S tatus Incons is te n c y

M ultip le3-r 2

e tabe ta

. 168

. 197. 229 .298 . 053


e tab e ta

. 168

. 183. 229 . 189

. 159

. 105 . 038

N ote. G rand M ean = 2. 42; N = 126 Â d ju sted fo r th e d e g re e s of f reed o m

T able 30. C o m p a riso n of the add itiv e and non -ad d itiv e m o d e ls a s the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r fe m a le s 30-49 y e a rs of age w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir education rank ing ex ceed s th e ir h u sb an d 's occupation rank ing



S tatus Incons is te n c y

M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 121

.0 9 9.2 0 4.2 5 7 . 024


e tab e ta

. 121

.0 9 9. 204 . 142

. 155

. 120 .0 1 8



128

Table 31. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption fo r fe m a le s living in co m m u n ities w ith un d er 10, 000 in h ab itan ts when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the educa tio n rank ing exceeds th e ir h u sb a n d 's occupation ranking




M ultip le3-r 2

e tabeta

. 107

. 090. 188 .2 5 6 .0 0 4


e tabe ta

. 107

. 023. 188 . 156

. 117

. 078 . 025

N ote. G ran d M ean = 2. 35; N = 96 aA d justed fo r th e d e g re e s of freed o m

T able 32. C o m p a riso n of the add itive an d no n -ad d itiv e m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lco h o l consum ption fo r fe m a le s liv ing in co m m u n itie s w ith betw een 10, 000-100, 000 in hab itan ts w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the education ra n k ing ex ceed s th e ir h u sb an d 's o ccupa tion rank ing




M ultip le3-r 2

etabe ta

. 231

.2 3 9.251 . 309 . 075


etabe ta

.231

.2 5 2.251 . 193

. 174

. 126 . 062

N ote. G ran d M ean = 2. 88; N = 104 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m


129

T able 33. C o m parison of the a d d itiv e and n on -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to rs of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r fe m a le s liv ing in co m m u n ities w ith o v er 100, 000 inhab itan ts when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined as the ex ten t to w hich the edu ca tio n rank ing exceeds th e ir h u sb an d 's o cc u p a tio n a l rank ing

A dd itiveM odel E ducation

H u sb a n d 'sO ccupation


M ultip le3,r2

e tab e ta

. 069

. 189. 175 . 275 . 012

N on-ad d itiv eM odel

e tab e ta

. 069

. 113. 175 . 151

. 181

. 144 . 010

N ote. G rand M ean = 2. 75; N = 93 a A d ju sted fo r the d eg ree s of fre e d o m

T able 34. C o m parison of the a d d itiv e and n o n -add itive m ode ls as p re d ic to r s of the am oun t of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s 21-29 and 50 and o v e r y e a rs of age when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which th e ir occupation ran k in g ex ceed s th e ir education ranking

A dd itiveM odel O ccupation E d u c a tio n

Status Incons is ten c y

M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 056

. 068. 045 . 068 . 011

N on -ad d itiv e M odel

e tab e ta

. 056

. 056. 045 . 034

. 042

. 039 .0 1 9

N o te . G rand M ean = 4. 04; N = 245 a A d ju sted fo r the d e g ree s of f reed o m


130

Table 35. C o m p ariso n of the add itiv e and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s 30-49 y e a rs of age when the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which th e ir occupation rank ing ex ceed s the education rank ing

A dditiveM odel O ccupation E ducation


M ultip le a

e tab e ta

. 070

. 162. 134 .2 4 3 . 008


e tab e ta

. 070

. 126. 134 . 149

. 113

. 086 . 003

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 60 Â djusted fo r the d eg ree s

; N = 168 of f reed o m

T able 36. C o m p ariso n of the add itiv e and n o n -add itive m ode ls a s p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m u n ities w ith tinder 10, 000 in hab itan ts when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir occupation rank ing exceeds th e ir education rank ing

A dditiveM odel O ccupation E du ca tio n


M ultip le3-r2

e tab e ta

. 137

. 164. 111 . 175 . 004


e tab e ta

. 137

. 160. I l l .0 7 4

. 152

. 151 . 008

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 62; N = 147 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m


131

Table 37. C o m p ariso n of the ad d itive and non-add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m un ities w ith betw een 10, 000-100, 000 in h a b ita n ts w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to which the occupation rank ing exceeds the ed u c a tio n rank ing

A dditiveM odel O ccupation E d u c a tio n

S tatus Inconsis ten cy

M u ltip le3,r 2

e tab e ta

. 129

. 133. 098 .0 6 6 . 011


e tab e ta

. 129

.0 7 4. 098 . 102

. 056

. 064 . 026

N ote. G rand M ean = 4. 35 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s

; N = 134 of fre e d o m

T able 38. C o m p ariso n of the add itiv e and n on -add itive m o d e ls as p re d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m un ities w ith o ver 100, 000 inhab itan ts w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the occupation ranking ex c eed s the education rank ing

A dditiveM odel O ccupation E d u c a tio n

S tatus Inconsis ten cy

M u ltip le3,

e tabeta

.098

. 267. 093 . 277 . 015


e tab e ta

.0 9 8

.198.0 9 3 . 146

. 149

. 138 . 002

N ote. G rand M eans = 4. 88 j N = 1 3 3 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of fre e d o m


132

T able 39. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and non -ad d itiv e m o d e ls a s p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s 21-29 and 50 and o v e r y e a rs of ag e w hen the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich th e ir in c o m e rank ing exceeds th e ir educa tion rank ing

A dditiveM odel Incom e E ducation


M ultip le a r 2

e tab e ta

. 151

. 103. 155 . 116 . 011


e tabe ta

. 151

. 088. 155 . 141

.061

. 077 . 006


T able 40. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and non -ad d itiv e m o d e ls a s P r e d ic to r s of the am ount of alcoho l consu m p tio n fo r m a le s 30-49 y e a rs of age when the in te ra c t io n te rm is d efined a s the ex ten t to w hich the incom e rank ing ex ceed s the education rank ing



M u ltip le3-r2

e tab e ta

. 186

. 063. 205 . 158 . 015


e tab e ta

. 186

. 033. 205 . 192

.191

.207 . 039

N ote. G rand M ean = 3. 89; N = 139 Â djusted fo r the d e g re e s of f reed o m


133

T able 41. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and no n -ad d itiv e m ode ls a s p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m unities un d er 10, 000 in h a b ita n ts w hen the in te ra c tio n te rm is defined as the ex ten t to w hich the incom e rank ing exceeds the ed ucation rank ing


S tatus Inconsis ten c y

M u ltip le3,r 2

etabe ta

.2 1 9

. 277. 116 . 110 . 025


e tabeta

. 219

. 410. 116 . 122

. 175

. 227 . 041

Note. G rand M ean = 4. 39; N = 40 aA d justed fo r the d e g re e s of freed o m

T able 42. C o m p a riso n of the add itive and non -ad d itiv e m ode l as p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of alcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m unities w ith betw een 10, 000-100, 000 in h ab itan ts when the in te ra c t io n te rm is defined a s the ex ten t to w hich the incom e rank ing ex ceed s the education ranking



M ultip le3-

etabe ta

. 208

. 266. 104 . 96 . 20

N on-additiveM odel

etabe ta

. 208

. 127. 104 . 115

. 163

. 207 . 34



134

T able 43. C o m p a riso n s of the add itive and n o n -ad d itiv e m o d e ls a s p r e d ic to r s of the am ount of a lcoho l consum ption fo r m a le s liv ing in com m un ities w ith o v e r 100, 000 in h a b ita n ts when the in te ra c tio n te rm is d efined a s the ex ten t to w hich the incom e rank ing ex c eed s the ed ucation rank ing

A dditive S tatus Incon M u ltip le3,M odel Incom e E duca tio n sis ten c y r 2

e ta . 134 . 073b e ta . 167 .1 1 4 . 005


e ta . 134 . 073 . 032b e ta . 175 . 096 .051 .0 1 8



Status Inconsistency and Alcohol Consumption

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