S&T in Society V5ch1

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1. WHY THE NEED FOR THIS S&T COURSE? Well, first of all you need to know that this S&T course concerns the significance of science and technology in society, rather than the detailed technical issues. At the same time it hopes to convince you that everyone needs to take an interest in technical issues, whether or not they are scientists or technologists. Otherwise, we shall all be at the mercy of those who, even though they have technical knowledge, may not have the broad view necessary to make wise, informed judgements about its significance. If you are a science or engineering student, the course hopes to help you develop this

broader view. If you are in other fields of study, you also need this broader view because you may well find yourselves in senior management positions, making important strategic decisions which have a substantial technological component.

Take a look in any of the business weekly magazines – Economist, Time, Newsweek, Business Week – they all have an S&T section. Why? Perhaps because it is important for business and civic leaders, who may or may not be scientists or technologists, to have an overview of developments in S&T so that their decisions take these into account.

Just think of the advantages to any business, or country, had they been aware of the growing possibilities of the internet, or of genetic

engineering the late 1980s!

So, this course is about Science & Technology in Society. Or possibly Science & Technology as

Society. In other words S&T is such a fundamental part of modern society that to separate it in any way from society would be misconceived. For more on this, see Chapter 1 of ‘Science, Technology and Society’ by Robert McGinn, taking care to note that the book is written from a USA perspective.

2. WHY THE NEED FOR THIS COURSE IN THE CARIBBEAN?

If we were following a S&T course in the USA, or other industrialised country, our main concern would possibly be the problems of technology, especially regarding the environment. To glimpse the extent of these problems, have a look at the contents page of ‘Technology and the Future’ by Albert Teich, or ‘Science, Technology and Society – Papers from ‘Science’ 1948-88’ edited by Rosemary Chalk for the AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). In a ‘developing’ country like Jamaica, or within the Caribbean region, our main concern may be not the problems of ‘too much’ technology, but perhaps of too little . This is not meant to suggest that we should dismiss the well-founded concerns over the environment, working conditions, job losses, social and cultural effects, ethical issues etc. It simply means that our approach needs to be broader. The focus of this S&T course is very much the final essay which is entitled ‘Technology Strategy in Jamaica (or the Caribbean) and its Implementation’. The intention is action-oriented, to challenge you to come up with a well-reasoned strategy which includes an

assessment of where we are at with S&T at present, where we would like to go and how we can get there. By implication, this means that we can, and must, make better use of science and technology in our overall development, aware however of its double-edged nature. Most analysts of economic growth (which is not, of course, the same as development) have stressed the central role played by technological advance, and by extension, scientific advance. These include the economist Adam Smith (‘The Wealth of Nations’ 1776) and Karl Marx (‘Das Kapital’ 1867). More recently, since the 1950s, regression analyses have suggested that technology is the ‘missing factor’ responsible for economic growth, once the contribution of the basic factors of production (land, labour and capital) have been taken into account. Now we recognise that technology means more than mechanisation or automation - it means knowledge and a receptive social and cultural environment. We need technological capability as much as the hardware and software. We cannot escape from the effects of the ‘post-industrial’ age, where sophisticated manufacturing

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methods have been combined with advanced computer and communications technologies. And yet in some ways, developing countries have not yet been through an industrial age. This poses a problem if we hope to share the material advantages of industrialised countries – we need not only to keep up with the latest technology as best we can, but also to make up for lost time, developing the physical, social and cultural infrastructure which it took the industrialised countries at least 100 years to develop! In the Foreword to the 1990-95 Jamaica S&T Plan, the then Minister of Finance, Development and Planning, P.J. Patterson says that ‘a country without a properly organised S&T system is destined for backwardness ….’ At the G15 conference in June 2000, as Prime Minister, he ‘called for strategies to ensure that technological progress brings truly global benefits, and its potential mobilised to free people from poverty’.

Similarly, a Scientific Research Council (SRC) document suggests that ‘the richest countries are those that have best been able to advance scientific knowledge and to use technology to generate national wealth …’ In launching the Western Chapter of the Schools S&T Societies in 1997, Dr. Conrad Douglas, Chairman of the SRC, reinforces this point when he said ‘the main difference between the quality of life in one society and another is often more visibly and directly related to the extent of appreciation and application of science and technology in these societies…’ Such is the challenge of our times, and for the students on this S&T course. For more on this, see the Appendix for:

P.J.Patterson’s comments (1991, 2000) Role of the SRC (Scientific Research Council) A Jamaican Perspective: Dr.Douglas (1997) Preface to ‘Discovering the Future’ (2000)

3. THE STRUCTURE OF THE COURSE

To be in a position to suggest a meaningful S&T strategy for Jamaica/ the Caribbean, we need to be aware of a range of background issues. If you examine the S&T Course Outline or the contents pages of this Reader, you will see how the structure of the course

attempts to address this. It starts with an outline history of S&T, both ancient and modern, including the development of what is called ‘the scientific method’. Without knowing how we have reached our present level of science and technology, where it all began and when, we cannot sensibly begin to suggest where we

need to go. Remember Garvey’s aphorism that a people without a knowledge of their history is like a tree without roots? And don’t be deceived, Jamaica has a scientific tradition and Black people have made much more of a contribution than is commonly known. Have a look at Chapter 1 of the local book ‘Discovering the Future – the emergence, development and future of science & technology in Jamaica’ as well as ‘Blacks in Science: ancient and modern’ by Ivan van Sertima which examines the science of Africa and its diaspora. Then to the meanings of science and technology and the relationship between them. Not only is there no agreed ‘definition’ of either science or technology, but their relationship is far from clear. Does technology need science, or is it that science needs technology? How connected are they in any case? What is certain is that technology is by no means just ‘applied science’ as many would believe. We then examine the broad social / cultural impacts of S&T, which have been both positive and negative. There is a vast range of this material available both in print and on the internet. The sources mentioned above (‘Technology and the Future’ by Albert Teich, or

‘Science, Technology and Society – Papers from ‘Science’ 1948-88’ edited by Rosemary Chalk) are invaluable here. One of the most burning issues is the effect of technology on both the quantity and quality of jobs available. Because we eventually want to suggest ways of implementing an effective S&T strategy, the work on ‘determinants’ or ‘sources of change’ is vital. There is less to be found in the literature on this, most of which is descriptive, concentrating on the impact. So the challenge here is more considerable. What drives technology, what holds it back? There are a myriad of factors including its own momentum, chance discovery, the push from scientific / technological innovation, the pull of particular economic/ social/ political/ military/ commercial forces etc? Moving nearer to home, we then cover a range of ideas which relate to technology in developing countries,

before finally focussing on Jamaica and the Caribbean, in terms of appropriate strategy and its implementation. We shall examine the 1990-95 Jamaica S&T Plan and draw on the recent contributions from those who have expertise and influence locally.

PLEASE NOTE: The course revolves around discussion sessions. To make these useful, you will need to read between classes and attend both regularly, and actively! In addition to this S&T reader, you will need to be active in the library and on the internet. The references at the end of the Course Outline are there to be used, with most of the material being in the UTECH library at Q121-Q179, or in the reserved, reference or

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periodical sections. The local book ‘Discovering the Future’ is available to UTECH students at a 40% discount from Pelican Publishers at 39 Lady Musgave Road. Towards the end of the course, you may also want to obtain a copy of the 1990-95 Jamaica S&T Plan.

There is no final examination and thus a high standard will be looked for in both class and written contributions, based on your reading and research . However, because of the importance of the subject matter to our national and regional development, this is how it should be.

4. EXAMPLES OF S&T ISSUES

S&T is all around us. It has endless potential but also seen and unseen dangers.

In production, why is the sugar industry struggling for survival? Is the bauxite industry as beneficial as it could be? What on earth happened to our manufacturing sector? And if we do update our technologies,

does it have to mean lost jobs? Is our education system, do we promote and fund S&T sufficiently in schools, at UTECH, at UWI? Where should the focus be – at the primary, secondary, tertiary or vocational levels? Will the inclusion of science in GSAT help? What about the revised fee structure at UWI, reducing the cost for science students? Is our research agenda appropriate to our local needs, or is it too narrow, searching for international recognition rather than meeting local needs?

On the environment, our air is much cleaner than that in many countries, especially industrialised ones. Can we keep it that way? How concerned do we need to be about deforestation (we apparently have one of the

greatest rates of deforestation in the world)? What about the death of most of our coral reefs, due to agricultural run-off, sewage effluents etc? What about coastal erosion in Negril? How many of these problems are of our own making? How much worse might they become if we become ‘more developed’? How much of the damage is of a global nature - CFCs/ ozone layer, global warming etc. Although technology has created many of these environmental problems, it also helps to find at least partial cures. The bauxite companies in Jamaica have used technology to reduce dust, noise and ground water pollutants. There is always the possibility of using leaner energy sources, especially in Jamaica, with access to sun, wind and wave power.

Computer and communication technologies seem to offer a whole new world of large markets, instant information and seamless communication. We must run with this, as is happening with the promotion of the computer industry by Minister Philip Paulwell. But do we need to be careful about the effects of indiscriminate use on our childrens’ cognitive development, on brain damage (cell-phones), on our cultural development (cable TV / mass tourism) and on the development of a ‘digital divide’ within Jamaica?

Transport is another current issue. Where are we going, after a decade of relying on cars and robot taxis? Are we finally applying sustainable

technologies in terms of new buses and a promised railway service? What part will our new super-highways play in these developments? We did well in phasing out leaded gasoline ahead of many other countries.

On crime, the police have bought in new vehicles, and guns. But what other technology could help them in the detection and suppress-ion of crime? In any case, the use of crime-fighting technology must be supplemented with social re-construction. Preventing bogus voting

using sophisticated voting machines is a particular, clear example of using technology to reduce one type of crime – but will it work? Is the technology appropriate? Does it tackle the root of the problem, or only the symptoms? Finally, in the medical field, what type of medicine can we afford? Medicare in the USA is virtually bankrupt, despite the country’s wealth. What is an appropriate balance between cheaper prevention and expensive, technology-based cure? In face of AIDS, do we need to find affordable treatments, or use condoms more, or change our behaviours? What is the role of technology here? In terms of basic research, genetic engineering and human cloning may seem to offer almost unimaginable possibilities (organ banks etc) but what of the ethical dangers, including eugenics?

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5. SOME USEFUL QUESTIONS TO ASK ABOUT TECHNOLOGY

1. Social shaping of technology. Technology is contested terrain. How does it reflect the society and culture in which it is made and used? In particular, how does it reflect the power and interests of the people and groups who make and use it, and others with the power to shape its creation and use? 2. Invention and innovation. What is the process of invention? Who does it, what, why, and who pays for it? Is there a ‘need’ or a ‘demand’ that creates invention? Does invention create demand? How do new technologies get put to use? 3. The users of technology. How do they affect technology, how does technology affect their lives? How does new technology change people's lives - their families, their beliefs, their daily activities? 4. Technology and work. How does new technology shape the work people do? How do the systems of work shape new technology? What is the relationship between new technologies and unemployment? 5. Technological systems. The internal structure of technology. How do systems of machines and people fit together? How do the interactions of these machines bring about innovation? Basic idea: you can't look at individual machines, have to look at complete systems of machines, and the people who invent, produce, and use them.

6. Technology and culture. How does the culture of everyday life - the beliefs and ideals that we as a society and as groups in the society hold - interact with technology? How is technology used, and what does it mean, in a cultural sense? 7. The culture of technology. Technology has its internal culture, its experts, its makers. How do the beliefs and interactions of these people shape technology? 8. Technology and politics. What are the political implications of technology? How do ideologies shape politics? Technologies are sometimes ways of ‘solving’ political debates; how and why does that happen? 9. Technology and race, class and gender. How has technology been shaped by and shaped our ideas about race, class and gender? How has technology served as a tool to enforce and reinforce those ideas? 10. Better for whom? New technologies are not adopted because they are ‘better’ in some pure sense. For whom is new technology better? Technologies do not evolve; they are changed for some purpose, by someone. Why, and for whom? 11. Do machines make history? New machines can shape and suggest, but they rarely demand. Social and cultural change is more complicated than is suggested by technological determinism, the idea that machines make history.

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Is technology making life better? What do you think? Does the cell-phone, the fact that many of us have cell-phones, make our lives better? Well, sure they do in some ways. We can keep in touch with family and friends, we can do our business away from the office, we can even send text messages. But have they made our manners worse in class, in meetings, in public? And do they distract us from what are sometimes more important tasks? What of the radiation from the cell-phones that may be damaging our brains, even giving us brain cancer? Perhaps like every technology, they have their good and bad points, but which wins out? The writer of this piece goes on to ask whether technology makes our lives ‘more manageable, faster, efficient and easy’. Or does it bring oppression to the majority, making the poor poorer and the rich richer? Medical technology saves countless lives, but it is very expensive, and not everyone has access to good medical care - some can’t afford it. Where should our priorities be? We have to die sometime, don’t we? We can now do what was impossible a few years ago, and what was not even thought of twenty years ago. But is the world now more dangerous on account of technology? Is it less happy, as the UNICEF 2000 report suggests? (Article from the Gleaner’s Youth Links, 13 August 2002)

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