Technical report on the characterization of the agro-ecological
context in which Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) are found:
SSSrrriii LLLaaannnkkkaaa A report submitted to the FAnGR Asia
Project - June 2004 B.V.R. Punyawardena Ph.D, M.Phil, B.Sc(Agric.)
Hons. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contentsi List of tablesiii List
of mapsiv List of figuresv Executive summaryvi Introduction1
Location1 Geology1 Climate 2 Major soil types of Sri Lanka4 Flora
and Fauna8 Forest resources 8 Present situation8 Current trends in
the forestry sector11 Water resources 15 Surface water16 Ground
water21 Pastoral resources 22 Land use and land degradation25
Socio-economic conditions29 Livestock industry in Sri Lanka32
Agro-ecology39 Livestock production systems and AERs42 Ruminant
production systems (Siriwardena, 1999) 43 ii Mid & Up country
intensive system43 Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive
system 44 Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system44 Dry zone
intensive system45 Non-ruminant production systems45 Poultry 45
Pigs46 Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of target
sites46 Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites.48 Potential and
limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf)54 Potential and
limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf)55 Siyambalanduwa
target site55 Panama and Pottuvil target sites.59 Potential and
limitations of Regosols and Alluvial soils 66 Thirappane and
Galenbindunuwewa target sites.66 References74 iii LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with equivalent
great soil groups of Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975)7 Table 2Taxic
diversity of plants in Sri Lanka10 Table 3Forest extent by type10
Table 4Natural forest area by districts (ha) 199414 Table 5
Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999)15 Table 6Surface
water resources of Sri Lanka19 Table 7 Present status of small
tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka20 Table 8Extent of land
under pasture and estimated yield of pasture24 Table 9Land use in
Sri Lanka (as shown in the land use map of 1988)27 Table 10Arable
land, their uses and other land use types in Sri Lanka 28 Table
11Selected target sites and their respective administrative units
& AERs46 Table 12Average climatic conditions of the DL5
agro-ecological region of SriLanka 51 Table 13Hydrological
characteristics of major rivers in target sites53 Table 14Tanks
found in the Hambantota DS division53 Table 15Tanks found in the
Lunugamwehera DS division54 Table 16 Average climatic conditions of
the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka Angunakolapellessa58
Table 17 Average climatic conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological
region ofSri Lanka 62 Table 18Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS
division65 Table 19 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b
agro-ecological region ofSri Lanka - Maha-Illuppallama70 Table
20Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division72 Table 21Tanks found
in the Galenbindunuwewa DS division73 iv LIST OF MAPS Map 1Climatic
zones of Sri Lanka3 Map 2Agro-climatic zones of Sri Lanka5 Map
3Generalized soil map of Sri Lanka6 Map 4Protected areas under the
Department of Wildlife Conservation and ForestDepartment 12 Map
5River basin map of Sri Lanka17 Map 6Surface water potential of Sri
Lanka18 Map 7Generalized landuse map of Sri Lanka26 Map 8Land
degradation map of Sri Lanka30 Map 9Vulnerability to food
insecurity in Sri Lanka33 Map 10Spatial distribution of cattle in
Sri Lanka (as on 2001)34 Map 11Spatial distribution of Buffaloes
Sri Lanka (as on 2001)35 Map 12Spatial distribution of Goat in Sri
Lanka (as on 2001)36 Map 13Spatial distribution of Pigs in Sri
Lanka (as on 2001)37 Map 14Spatial distribution of Poultry in Sri
Lanka (as on 2001)38 Map 15Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka40
Map 16 Target sites of the FAnGR Project in Sri Lanka47 v LIST OF
FIGURES Figure 1 Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 -
1990)49 Figure 2Average monthly rainfall at Lunugamwehera (1983 -
1999)50 Figure 3Average monthly rainfall at Siyambalanduwa (1943 -
1980)57 Figure 4 Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988)60
Figure 5 Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil (1983 - 2003)61
Figure 6Average monthly rainfall at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)*
68 Figure 7Average monthly rainfall at Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 -
1963)* 69 vi Executive Summary
AvarietyofanimalsareraisedinSriLankaincludingneatcattle,buffaloes,pigs,poultry,
sheepandgoatsunderdifferentenvironmentsandmanagementsystems.Meanwhile,ithas
beenevidentthatthepopulationoftheindigenouslivestockofSriLankaisgradually
decreasingwhilesomebreeds/specieshavealreadybeenlostorarenearatextinction.Hence,itisimportanttoconserveandutilizethisbroadgeneticbasetoenhancethe
productivityoflivestockofthecountryinasustainablemanner.Spatialdistributionof
livestockspecies,inparticulartheirwildrelatives,hasadirectrelationshipwiththe
environment,inotherwordtheagro-ecologyoftheisland.Therefore,thisreporthas
attemptedtodescribethemainagro-ecologicalcharacteristicsoftheislandintermsofbio-physical
and socio economic environment.
SriLankahasbeendelineatedinto46Agro-EcologicalRegions(AER)thatspreadacross
threemajorclimaticzones,namelyWet,IntermediateandDryzonesofthecountry.These
AERsrepresentanuniformclimate,soilsandterrainconditionsandassucheachAER
exhibitsmoreorlesssimilarcharacteristicsintermsofnaturalvegetationwhilelanduseand
farming systems find their best expression within a zone.
Despitebeingarelativelysmallisland,SriLanka'sforestsarestrikinglydiversedueto
spatialvariationofrainfall,altitudeandsoil.Theseforestspossesaveryhighbio-diversity
alongwithendemicfaunaandflora.Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,SriLankahad
about70%oflandareaundernaturalforests.However,ithasnowbeendwindledtoaround
20percentofthetotallandareaduetovarioussocio-economicreasons.Outoftotalland
areaofthecountry,nearly80%comesunderthesomeformofstatecontrolofwhichabouta
thirdisundertheforestcoverandanotherthirdisunderagriculture.Humansettlements,
homegardens,urbanandindustrialareas,transportationandavarietyofotherusesincluding
undeveloped land account for the balance.
Withincreasingpopulation,theland/manratiooftheislandhasdeclinedfrom2.7ha/headto
0.36ha/headwithinlast100years.Thisdecreasingtrendwillbecontinuedeveninthefuture
aspopulationcontinuestoincrease.Meanwhile,theproblemofscarcityoflandforhuman
vii
usewillbefurtheraggravatedduetolanddegradation.Eventhoughsoilerosionisthemost
importantmanifestationoflanddegradationinSriLanka,lossoflandproductivitythrough
salinization/alkalization,desertification,eutrifiationandindiscriminatewastedisposalcan
not be neglected.
Itisclearthatmostofthenaturalresourcesrelatedtolivestockproductionarecurrently
undersomeformof"stress"duetovariousphysicalandsocio-economicreasons.Thishas
ledtoexposureofanimalsintoharshenvironmentalconditionsandsubsequentlythe
reductionofproductivitythem.Therefore,theneedofconservingFAnGRtoenhancethe
livestockproductionofthecountryisperceivedthaneverbefore.Inthelightofpossible
financialassistancethroughFAnGRAsiaProject,seventargetsitescoveringfour
administrativedistrictsofSriLankawereselectedtoexecuteafullprojectonFAnGR.Inthe
processofselectionoftargetsites,parameterssuchasabundanceofindigenouslivestock
species,agro-ecologicaldiversityandpovertylevelofthepeoplelivingintheareawere
considered.Thisreportcontainscomprehensivedetailsonbio-physicalandagro-ecological
characteristicsoftargetsites,namely,Hambantota,Lunugamwehera,Siyambalanduwa,
Pottuvil, Panama, Thirappane, and Galenbindunuwewa. viii Technical
reporton the characterization of the agro-ecological context in
which FAnGR (Farm Animal Genetic Resources) are found: Sri Lanka
Introduction Location
SriLankaislocatedintheIndianOceanbetweenthelatitudesof50 55' N and
9051' N and the
longitudesof79041'Eand81053'Ecoveringanareaof65,610km2.Itisanelongatedpear-shapedtropicalislandwithamaximumlengthof434kmfromDondraHeadonthesouthto
PointPedroonthenorth,andamaximumwidthof227kmfromColomboonthewestto
Kalmunai on the east.There are also a few small islands scattered
along its coast.
SriLankaliesincloseproximitytothesoutheasterncoastofIndiawithwhichitsharesa
continentalshelf.Anarrowstripofwater(PalkStrait)has,however,separatedtwo
countries
sincetheMioceneepochcausingdisruptionoffaunalmigratoryroutes.This,alongwiththe
subsequentbrieflandlinkageswiththesub-continentduetooscillationinsealevel,hashad
a significant bearing on the flora and fauna of Sri Lanka. Geology
Thegeologyoftheisland,whichhasmanyfeaturesincommonwiththatoftheIndiansub-continent,hasendowedSriLankawithconsiderablemineralresources.About90percentof
thelandareconsistsofPrecambriancrystallinerocks.Onthebasisoflithology,structure
andage,thePrecambrianrockshavebeensub-dividedinto3majorgroups(Cooray,1984),
namely,HighlandSeries,SouthwesternGroupandVijayanComplex.TheHighlandSeriesis
composedofmetasedimentsandcloselyassociatedwithcharnokitegneisses.Itoccupiesa
broadbeltrunningacrossthecenteroftheislandfromsouthwesttonortheast,anditthus
includesthewholeofthecentralhillcountryandpartofthenorthernplain.The
southwesterngroupoccupiesthesouthwesternsectoroftheisland.TheVijayanComplex
occupies the lowlands to the northwest and southeast of the
Highland Series. 2
OtherrocktypesfoundinSriLankaareofmorelimiteddistributionandconsistsofMiocene
limestonesedimentarydepositswhichextendnorthwardfromPuttlamandcovertheJaffna
peninsulaandasasmalloutcropatMinihagalkandainthesoutheast.Twosmalloccurrences
ofGondwanasediments(Jurassicdeposits)arefoundinTabbowaandAndigamawithina
distanceof35kminthenorthwesternprovince.Quaternaryorrecentdepositsthatarefound
inthecoastalareasconsistingofsands,sandstones,clays,gravelsandcoralreefs.Thegem
bearinggravels,alsoofquaternaryoriginarerestrictedspatiallyandfoundmainlyinthe
Sabaragamuwa province.
ClimateThedynamicsoftheatmosphereareextremelyvariableoverSriLankaduetoitslocation
neartheequatorandinfluenceofthemonsoonalcirculationoversouthAsia.Subsequently,
climateofSriLanka,particularlyrainfall,variesstrikinglybothoverdifferentspaceandtime
scales.Moreover,presenceofacentralmountainousregionwithapeakelevationof2,524
mhasamajoreffectontheclimateofvariousregionsandproducesmuchsharperclimatic
contrast between southwestern quadrant and the rest of the island.
RainfalldistributioninSriLankahastraditionallybeengeneralizedintothreeclimaticzones
(Map1)intermsofWetZoneinthesouthwesternregionincludingcentralhillcountry,
andDryZonecoveringpredominantly,northernandeasternpartofthecountry,being
separatedbyanIntermediatezone,skirtingthecentralhillsexceptinthesouthandthe
west.Indifferentiatingaforesaidthreeclimaticzones,landuse,forestry,rainfallandsoils
havebeenwidelyused.TheWetzonereceivesrelativelyhighmeanannualrainfallover
2,500mmwithoutpronounceddryperiods.TheDryzonereceivesameanannualrainfallof
lessthan1,750mmwithadistinctdryseasonfromMaytoSeptember.TheIntermediate
zonereceivesameanannualrainfallbetween1,750to2,500mmwithashortandless
prominent dry season.
BeinglocatedinthelowlatitudesandsurroundedbytheIndianOcean,SriLankashowsvery
typicalmaritime-tropicaltemperatureconditions.Theseconditionsarecharacterizedby
greater daily than annual temperature ranges and moderate average3
4
temperaturesincomparisonwiththemorecontinentaltropics.TemperatureconditionsinSri
Lankaarealsocharacterizedbyasignificanttemperaturedecreaseinthecentralhighlands
accordingtotheverticallapserateoftemperature,approximatelyaround5-6Cforevery
1,000mriseinelevation.However,descendingsouthwestmonsoonwindsoverthecentral
hillstowardsleesidegetwarmeradiabaticallycausingambienttemperaturebeincreased
alongwithdecreasedhumidity.Hence,inthisregion,falloftemperaturewithrisingaltitude
isnotverydistinctcomparedtothesameelevationsoftheothersideofthecentralhills,Wet
zone.
AslowtemperatureisanimportantclimaticfactoraffectingplantgrowthintheWetand
IntermediatezonesofSriLanka,asub-divisionbasedonthealtitudetakesintoaccountthe
temperaturelimitationsinthesetwoclimaticregions.Inthisdelineation,theLow-countryis
demarcatedasthelandbelow300minelevationandtheMid-countrywithelevation
between
300-900mwhiletheUp-countryisthelandabove900melevation.BothWetand
IntermediatezonesspreadacrossallthreecategoriesofelevationwhiletheDryzoneis
confinedtotheLow-countryresultingsevenagro-climaticzonescoveringtheentireisland
(Map2).Thereisaconsiderablevariationoftemperatureacrosstheseagro-climatic
zones.Forexample,averagetemperatureinthecoastalWetzoneis27
0Canditdecreasestoabout 200CintheMidcountryandfurtherdroppingto13-
16 0CinthemontaneareasoftheUp
country.TheentireDryzonewhichconsistsoflowlandplains,exceptforafewisolated
hills,hasameanannualtemperatureof30
0C,althoughmaximumtemperaturemayeven exceed37
0Coccasionally.Ingeneral,theseasonalvariationoftemperaturethroughoutthe
islandisminor,butthereisageneraltendencyforhighertemperaturesduringtheperiodof
MatchtoOctoberwhileDecemberandJanuaryarecoolerwhentemperaturesathigh
altitudes may even drop to around zero at night Major soil types of
Sri Lanka
ThesoilsofSriLankahavebeenclassifiedatgreatgrouplevelforthewholecountry(Map
3)andserieslevelinformationareavailableforsomepartsofthecountry.Moormanand
Panabokke(1961)identified14greatsoilgroupsinthecountry.These14greatsoilgroups
fallunderninesoilordersoutof10soilordersoftheUSDAsoiltaxonomyof1975(Table
1). 5 6 7
Agriculturally,importantandwidelyspreadsoilordersareAlfisol,UltisolandOxisol.Further,thesoilordersEntisol,Inceptisol,VertisolandHistosolalsohavebeenusedfor
agricultureundersuitablehydrologicalconditionsasdeterminedbyrainfall,irrigationand
flooding. Table 1Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with
equivalent great soil groupsof Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975) Soil
orderSub-orderGreat Soil GroupGreat Soil Groups in Sri Lanka
AlfisolUstalfsRhodustalfsReddish Brown Earths HaplustalfsNon-Calcic
Brown soils AqualfsTropoaqualfsLow-Humic Gley soils with low BS
NatraqulfsSolodized Solonetz UltisolUdultsRhodudultsReddish Brown
Latasolic soils Plinthudults Tropudults UstultsTropustultsRed
Yellow Podsolic soils HumultsTropohumults
AquultsTropaquultsLow-Humic Gley soils with high BS
OxisolUstoxEutrustox Haplustox Red Yellow Latosols
VertisolUstertsPellustertsGrumusol
AridisolOrthidsSalorthridsSolonchaks EntisolAquentsTropaquents
FluentsTropofluents UstentsTropustents PsammentsQuartzipsamments
Alluvial soils of variable texture & drainage
InceptisolAueptsTropaqueptsHalf Bog soils
TropeptsUstropeptsImmature Brown Loam soils
HistosolFibristsTropofibrists HemsistsTropohemsists
SapristsTroposaprists Bog soils 8
WhilechemicalandphysicalpropertiesofthesesoilshavebeendiscussedbyAlwisand
Panabokke(1972)adetailedaccountonpotentialandconstraintsofthesesoilsfor
agriculture and other land uses can be found in Somasiri (1982).
Flora and Fauna
TherichanddiversefloraofSriLankaconsistsofanestimatedtotalofnearly4,000species
andvarietiesoffloweringplants,classifiedinto200familiesand1,350genera.Inaddition,
about1,100speciesoflowerplants(liverworts,mosses,fernsandfernallies)inabout250
generaareonrecord(NationalAtlas,1988).Grasses,legumes,orchidsandsedgesarethe
largestSriLankanfamilies.Apartfromspeciesdiversity,SriLankaisblessedwithveryhigh
taxicdiversity(Table2).Taxicdiversity(Taxonomicdiversity)isthediversityabovespecies
level.Speciesthatareverydifferentfromeachothercontributemoretooveralldiversity
thancloselyrelatedspecies(Wijesundara,2004).Meanwhile,about25%oftheflowering
plantsofSriLankaareendemic.Avarietyoffactorssuchasclimate,geologyandaltitude
determinethespeciescompositioninagivenareaandthusthevegetationtypesandtheir
zones.
Despiteitssmallsize,theislandishometo625speciesofterrestrialvertebrates,athousand
varietiesoffishesinitsinlandandterritorialwaters.Amongvertebrates,there84
mammalianspecies,12%ofwhichareconsideredtobeendemic(NationalAtlas,1988).
Moreover,therearewildspeciesofbuffalo,cattle,fishandfowlbutwiththenotable
exception of marine fisheries (NARESA, 1991). Forest
resourcesPresent situation
Climate,themaindeterminantofforestdistribution,doesnotprecludethepresenceofforest
inanypartofSriLankaexceptinafewlocations.Despitebeingarelativelysmallisland,Sri
Lanka'sforestsarestrikinglydiverseduetospatialvariationofrainfall,altitudeandsoil.TheWetzonecontainslowlandrainforests,characterizedbyahighdensityoftalltreeswith
straight,columnarbolesreachingheightsof30-40minthecanopy.Theseforestsbelieved
tobetherichestinthecountryintermsofspeciesdiversityandendemicfaunaandflora,and
foundinthesouthwesternquarteroftheislandrangingfromsealeveltoanaltitudeof1,000
9
mwheretheygivewaytosub-montaneforests.Thelattergradeintomontaneforeststhat
occurataltitudesbetween1,500-2,500mwithalowercanopyanddenserundergrowth.
Theirstemsareoftencoveredwithlichens,bryophytesandotherepiphyticplants.Wetzone
forestsshowaprogressivedeclineincanopyheightandculminateintheunique"Pigmy
forests" that occur at elevation above 2,000 m.
TheforestsintheDryzonecomprisemainlydrymonsoonforestswitharelativelyopen
canopyoftreeslessthan20minheightandthornyscrubforeststhatoccurinthesemi-arid
areascoveringthenorthwesternandsoutheasternregionsoftheisland.Thelowland
IntermediatezonelocatedbetweenDryandWetzones,containsmoistmonsoonforests.
Otherdistinctforesttypesintheislandarefragmentedmangrovevegetationandriverine
forests that occur along the banks of rivers flowing through the
Dry zone (MOFE, 2000).
SriLankahasanaturalforestcoverofaround2,046,599ha(Table3).Ofthis,463,842ha
containopencanopysparseforestswhilethebalancecomprisesclosedcanopyforests.All
categoriesofclosedcanopynaturalforestsarenotequallyabundant.Thedrymonsoon
forestslocatedmainlyinthenorthernandeasternregions(Table3)arethemostwidespread
andcoveranareaofabout1,094,287ha(Table3).Thenextinextentisthemoistmonsoon
forestsoftheIntermediatezone.Incontrast,valuablelowlandrainforestscoveronly
141,549hawhilesub-montaneandmontaneforestsareevenscarce.Mangroveswampsin
SriLankaarealsonotextensiveastheyarefragmentedandoccurinanarrowtidalbelt
extendinglessthan1kmlandwardfromthemeanlowwatertidallevel.Itcoversanextent
of 8,687 ha (Table 3).
PlantationforestsinSriLankaconsistmostlyofeven-agedmonoculturesofTeak,
EucalyptusorPine.Afewmixedplantationsofbroad-leavedtreespeciessuchasJak,and
Mahogany have also been established (NARESA, 1991) 10 Table 2Taxic
diversity of plants in Sri Lanka Sub-class No. of Orders in the
world No. of Orders in Sri Lanka % No. of families in the world No.
of families in Sri Lanka % Magnolidae88100381847.4
Hamamelidae11218.224416.7 Caryophyllidae33100141285.7
Dilleniidae131076.9783443.6 Rosidae181794.41125750.9
Asteridae111090.9473063.8 Alismatidae4410016743.8 Arecidae43755480
Commelinidae7685.716850 Zingiberidae221008562.5
Lilidae22100191052.6 Total836780.737718950.1 Source: Wijesundara,
2004 Table 3Forest extent by type TypeArea (ha) Lowland rain141,549
Moist monsoon243,877 Dry monsoon 1,094,287 Sub montane68,838
Montane3,108 Mangrove8,687 Riverine dry22,411 Sparse open463,842
Total natural forest 2,046,599 Source: Forestry sector master plan,
1995 11 Current trends in the forestry sector
Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,SriLankahadabout70%oflandareaundernatural
forests(Wijesingheetal,1993).By1992,however,theamountofclosedcanopynatural
foresthaddwindledtoaround23.8percentofthelandarea(MOFE,2000).Table4shows
thedistributionofdifferentforesttypesindifferentadministrativedistrictsasat1994and
revealsthat31percentofthelandareaoftheislandiscoveredbynaturalforestofwhich7
percentconsistsofsparseforests.Thepresentextentofnaturalforestsinthecountry,and
theabundanceofthedifferentforesttypesarenotduetonaturalforcesalone,buthave
been greatly influenced by human actions.
Ingeneral,themainreasonsfortherapidlossofforestcoverintheislandduringfastfew
decadesareclearingforirrigation,agriculture,humansettlement,hydro-powergeneration,
timberextractionandforestencroachmentbylocalpeople(MOFE,2000).Asthepopulation
continuedtoincrease,therewasapressureforlandtomeetthedemandfromabovesectors
oftheeconomywhichresulteddeforestationrateofover40,000haperyearbetween1956
and1983andhadacceleratedtoanannualrateof54,000habetween1983and1992
(Wijesingheetal,1993).RecognizingtheurgentneedforconservationofSriLanka'snatural
forests,considerableeffortshavebeentakentoaddresstheissue.Currentlyabout55%
of
thetotalareaundernaturalforestisreservedandadministeredbyeithertheforest
departmentorthedepartmentofwildlifeconservation.Thedesignatedareasunderthese
twodepartmentsconstitute17%and13%ofthetotallandarea,respectively(Map4).The
designatedareasundertheforestdepartmentin1995comprisedForestReserves,Proposed
ForestReservesandNationalHeritageandWildernessAreas(MALF,1995).Protected
areasunderthedepartmentofwildlifeandconservationareconsistingofStrictNatural
Reserves,NationalParks,NatureReserves,JungleCorridorsandSanctuaries(Table5).In
total,SriLanka'sProtectedareanetworkcoversanimpressive14%ofthetotallandarea
(MOFE,1999).Eventhough,itisaveryfavorablesituationcomparedtoothercountriesof
SouthAsia,itisstillconsideredinadequatetoconservecountry'srichbio-diversityand
criticalhydrologicalfeaturesduetopoorrepresentationofWetzoneforestsinit.For
example,theforestdepartmenttroughitsNationalConservationReviewstudyhasfoundthat
20to50%ofspeciesinselectedplantandanimalgroupsoccurintheforestsofjustfour
districts of the Wet zone.12
13
Manyofthesespeciesarerareandlimitedindistributionandatotalof119woodyplant
speciesarerestrictedtosingleforests,while41%oftheserarespeciesareendemic(MALF,
1995).ThisissuehasnowbeenpartlyaddressedbytheinclusionofWetzone'sconservation
foreststhatarespeciesrichandcontainmanyoftheendemicspeciesandimportant
watershed areas, within the Protected Area network (MOFE, 2000).
Since1970theforestdepartmenthasestablished40biospherereserveswithinitsReserve
forestsorProposedreserveforests.Theyvaryfrom10to55,000haand total
of 120,000 ha.
ThisprogrambeganasanactivityofIUCN'sInternationalBiologicalProgrammeandlater
continuedundertheUNESCO'sManandBiosphereProgramme(NARESA,1991).Inthe
naturalforestsoftheDryzone,undertheForestryMasterPlan,deforestationand
exploitationfortimbersupplywillcontinueeverywhereexceptinthe"Protectedareas"
underthedepartmentofwildlifeconservationandthebiospherereservesundertheforest
department.Therearearound600,000hainthesereserves.However,evenwithinthese
areasencroachmentandillicitfellingcontinue.IntheWetzoneregion(Lowcountry,Mid
countryandmontaneregion)theforestisestimatedas278,000ha.IntheLowandMid
countryandintheMahawelicatchment,theareaofforesthasbeendepletedtoabout8%of
thelandarearesultingunfavorableforest/landratio.Hence,accordingtotheForestryMaster
Plan,noforestalienationwouldbepermittedintheWetzone(NARESA,1991).DeforestationbeingthemajorandmostimportantenvironmentalprobleminSriLanka,in
recentyearstherehasbeenapositivechangeinforestpolicyconferringagreaterroleonthe
forestdepartmentforforestconservationasopposedtoitsprimeobjectiveofmanaging
forestsproductionthepast.Theforestpolicy1995andForestrySectorMasterPlan1995
andseveralmanagementplansdevelopedbythedepartmentclearlyreflectthismandate.
Despitetheseinitiatives,forestoffencescontinuetoreportincourtsandotherjudicial
institutes.Meanwhile,theforestdepartmentandthedepartmentofwildlifeconservation
havenowacknowledgedthatremedyingthisproblemneedsgreaterparticipationoflocal
people in forest and wildlife management and conservation (MOFE,
2000). 14 Table 4Natural forest area by districts (ha) - 1994
DistrictMontaneSub-montane Lowland rain Moist monsoon Dry monsoon
Riverine dry MangroveSparseGrand total
Ampara45190692651016029241760166667 Anuradhapura180083116693296776
Badulla93388815771751733532784354271
Batticaloa133022177014211632552818 Colombo1832361868
Galle18903187169920789 Gampaha2731412220429
Hambantota2207391916937105395507779454 Jaffna8222602981380
Kalutara2024070126621576 Kandy9358504142583545598033222
Kegalle36551179149215938 Kilinochchi32374312604238728
Kurunegala182781531476624746 Mannar11138979512611176225207
Matale895314128314133715237920784015
Matara5191668621745166207621977
Monaragala6576863558113627454452569235171
Mulaitivu15376946317987172219 Nuwara
Eliya19433107839772649327342920 Polonnaruwa472666809352322949138831
Puttalam7945281422641710499634
Ratnapura48158163819447553545449166849
Trincomalee41104911826149117629131441 Vaunia10318216503119685
Total31086883914154924387710942872241186874638422046599 %oftotal
land area 0.051.042.143.6816.540.340.137.0130.93 Lowland rain
forest - > 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevationMoist
monsoon forest - 1,800 - 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevation
Dry monsoon forest - < 1,800 mm rainfallSub-montane forest -
> 1,800 mm rainfall, > 1,000 m Elevation, Source:
Administration report - Department of forest conservation15 Table 5
Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999)
CategoryNumberArea (ha)Percentage Forest department Forest
Reserves177518,1997.8 Proposed Forest Reserves217621,1479.4
National Heritage111,1870.2 Sub-total395 1,150,53317.4 Wild life
conservation department Strict Natural Reserves3 31,5730.5 National
Parks13 524,66010.0 Sanctuaries52 256,9023.8 Nature Reserves3
38,7200.6 Jungle Corridors1 10,3640.2 Sub-total72 862,21913.0
Source: Forest and Wild life departments Water
resourcesWaterresourcesofacountrycanbedividedintotwocategories,namely,surfacewater
andgroundwater.Surfacewateroccursinrivers,streams,lakes,marshes,reservoirsand
ponds.RainfallisthemainsourceofwaterforbothsurfaceandgroundwaterinSri
Lankasupplementedbymist,foganddewincertainmontaneareas.Theprincipal
geographicaldeterminantofwaterresourcesoftheislandisthehighlandmassifinthe
south-centralregionlocatedacrossthepassageoftwoopposingmonsoonalwinds.The
moistureladenmonsoonalwindsareinterceptedbythehillsinthecentralregionleading
touniquerainfallpattern.ThemeanannualrainfallofSriLankaisaround2,000mm
whichdistributedoverthesurfaceareaof65,619km2givesanaveragevolumeof
131,230millionm3offreshwaterannually(Arulananthan,1985).Thisvolumeofwater
supportsthevegetationofthecountry,rechargesthegroundwater,fillsthestorageof
16
variousreservoirsandlakesandsuppliesthedailyneedshumanandlivestock.What
doesnotuserunoffsthesurfaceorpercolatesintothesoiltoreachtheseaasriverflow.
Averageannualriverflowis31%oftherainfallandequals40,680millionm3(Bocks,
1959)whilethebalance,90,550millionm3isusedforabovepurposesandevaporationin
to the atmosphere.
Theradialdrainagepatternthatcarriessurfacewaterdownfromthehighwatersheds
includes103distinctnaturalriverbasinsthatcover90%oftheisland(Map5).The
remaining94smallcoastalbasinscontributelittletowaterresourcesofthecountry
(Arumugam,1969).Riverbasinsoriginatingfromthewetterpartsoftheupcountryare
perennial while many of those in the Dry zone are only seasonal.
Surface water
Waterthatremainsfromrainfallafterevapotranspirationandinfiltrationlossesmay
generallybeconsideredasavailablesurfacewater.Amountsaremeasuredintermsof
waterdischargedbytherivers(m3/year)orasunitsofwaterdepthdistributedoverthe
landsurfaceashectare-meters(HM).Annualsurfacerun-offofSriLankaisestimatedas
5HM(Table6).Muchofthiswaternowservestheirrigationandhydro-powerprojects
andonlylessthan3.3HMescapestothesea.About79%oftherun-offwaterfromthe
WetzoneisescapedtotheseawhilecorrespondingvaluefromtheDryzoneremain
around50%(Table6).Despiteitsfavoredlocationinthehumidtropicsandlyingonthe
pathoftwoopposingmonsoons,thedistributionrainfallofSriLankaovertheyearand
overthecountryisnotverymuchconduciveineveryaspectsoftheeconomy.The
greaterpartoftheislandespeciallytheDryzoneandIntermediatezoneisliabletodry
spellslastingseveralmonths.Areasofwatersurplus,however,arenotuncommonalong
thecoastalbeltoffloodplain,villusandmangroveswamps.NARESA(1991)hasshown
thesurfacewaterpotentialofthedifferentdistrictsofthecountry(Map6).Itrevealsthat
about75%ofthecountryhaspotentialoflessthan1mofsurfacewaterperannum.It
alsoshowsthatabout50%oftheareaofcountryhassurfacewaterpotentialofless
than
0.5mperannum.Thisiswellbelowtheevapotranspirationrequirementofthe
vegetation of the area.17 18 19
ElementsofSriLanka'ssurfacewaterbalancearesubjecttosubstantialannualvariability
duetodynamicnatureofrainfallgoverningmechanismsofSriLankasothat
considerationofaveragescanbemisleading.Variationsareabout10%annuallyinthe
Wetzone,15%intheDryzoneandupto20%ontheeastcoast(NARESA,1991).Hence,attemptshavebeenmadetostorethesurfacerun-offforvarioususessince
ancienttimes.Therefore,SriLankahasuniquedistinctioninthehistoryofmankindof
havingdeveloped"Hydrauliccivilization"evenbeforetheChristianera.Thehydraulic
structuresthathavesurvivedtothisday,suchaslongcanalswithimperceptiblegradients,
Bisokotuwas,Ralapanawas,andcascadesofvillagetanksystems,bearanample
testimonytothehighachievementsinsurfacewatermanagementandtechnology
(MaddumaBandara,1998).ItisevidentthatintheDryzonemainlytheattemptshad
beentostorerun-offwaterforuseduringdryperiods.IntheWetzone,diversion
structureshavebeenbuiltacrossperennialriversandstreamflowtoprovidethewaterto
placeswhereitisnotsufficientoravailable.Thereareover15,000smallreservoirs
knownas"smalltanks"foundinSriLanka.Table7showspresentstatuesofthesmall
tanksinthedrierregionoftheisland.Itcanbeseenthatthehighestnumberaswellas
highestdensityofsmalltanksareintheNorthWesternprovince(NWP)andNorth
Centralprovince(NCP).Meanwhile,thehighestproportionofabandonedtanksisinthe
Southernprovince(SP),LowerUva,Easternprovince(EP)followedbytheNorthern
province(NP)andtheNCP.Ingeneral,theaveragetankdensityisonetankper2.6km2
f orNP,NCPandSP.FortheNWPthedensityisaroundonetankper1.2km2.This
conformstoboththenatureoftheoverallrainfallregimeaswellthenatureof
geomorphology of the region.Table 6Surface water resources of Sri
Lanka Wet zoneDry zoneIsland total Mean annual rainfall
(mm)2,4241,4501,937 Mean annual run-off (HM)2.58106 2.551065.13106
Run-off/Rainfall ratio (%)65.135.840.5 Escape to the sea
(HM)2.041061.31063.33106 Escape as a % of total
run-off75.8351.1164.91 Source: Ranatunga, 1985 20 Table 7 Present
status of small tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka Province and
area (km2Number of small tanks OperatingAbandonedTotal
Northern3,709608 8161,424 North Central10,365 2,0951,9224,017 North
Western7,760 4,2002,2736,473 Southern2,849653 7571,410 Lower
Uva2,901* 16 543 553 Eastern (south of Mahaweli)3,885* -1,0171,017
Eastern (north of Mahaweli)* 48 425 473 Total7,6207,75315,373
*Includes only the Dry zone part of the province Source: Panbokke
et al, 2002
Apartfromthesesmalltanks,SriLankahasrelativelylargenumberofmajorreservoirs.Irrigationdepartment(1965)haspublishedtheregisteroftheirrigationprojectsinSri
Lanka.Thisdocumenthaslisted64majorirrigationprojects,162mediumscaleprojects,
3,279minorprojects,1,763anicutprojects,46floodprotection,drainageandsaltwater
exclusionprojectsand25liftirrigationprojects.Thisregisterhasnotbeenupdatedsince
1975eventhoughsomemajorirrigationandhydropowerprojectssuchasMahaweli,
SamanalaWewa,KirindiOyaandKukuleGangaetc.havebeencommissioned
thereafter.
InSriLankaroleofwetlandsinmaintainingthesurfacewaterbalancecannotbeunder
estimated.Wetlandscomprisingofswamps,marshes,fensandbogsarenaturalwater-storagefeaturesonthelandscape.Wetlandsplayacrucialroleinpreventingfloodingat
theotherendofriverswhileprovidingthehabitatforvarietyoffloraandfauna,someof
whichareendemictoSriLanka.Intheheadwatersandwatershed,theystorewater
duringheavyrains,slowingrunoffintostreamsandreducingfloodpeaks.Someofthe
21
trappedwaterreturnsdirectlytotheatmospherethroughevaporationorplant
transpiration,andwhileafewwetlandsrechargegroundwater,theyslowlyreleasethe
watertheyholdtotheiroutletstream.Ingeneral,wetlandstypicallyhavealargeinletand
asmalloutlet.Thereare41wetlandsitesinSriLanka.(Scott,1989).However,the
importanceofwetlandecosystemswasnotunderstoodduringthepost-colonialeraofthe
country.InColomboanditssuburbs,aconsiderableareaofnaturalwetlandshasbeen
losttoconstructionofinfrastructure,thuscreatingseveralenvironmentalproblems,
whichincludefloodingandpoordrainage.However,thevalueofwetlandsandflood
plainshavereceivedincreasingattentionandSriLankaisnowapartytotheinternational
treatyandconventionontheprotectionofwetlandsofinternationalimportance.Several
proposalshavebeenconsideredtomitigatesomeofthehazardsassociatedwiththe
destructionofnaturalwetlands.Agrowingbodyofnationallawsandinstitutionsand
scientificmanagementinformationisbeingsuccessfullyattemptedforthesustainable
development of wetlands in the country. Ground water
Fromancienttimes,groundwaterextractedtroughdugwellshasbeenthemainsourceof
naturallyclean,potablewatersupplythatserveddomesticpurposesandstillremainsthe
principalsourceofdomesticwatersupplyintheruralsector.InSriLanka,rainfallisthe
onlysourceofsupplyoffreshwaterthatseepsthroughthesurfaceforcirculationand
storageasgroundwater.Asnearly90%ofthetotallandareaoftheislandisoccupiedby
metamorphiccrystallinerocks,called"hardrocks"ofwhichbothporespaceand
permeabilityisrelativelylow,groundwaterisnotpresentequallyeverywhereinthe
country.IntheDryzonewheregroundwaterismostvaluableforirrigationaswellas
domesticuse,severaldistinctcategoriesofgroundwatersourceshavebeenidentified.Theyare:shallowKrasticaquifers(Miocenelimestone)inJaffnapeninsula,shallow
unconfinedaquifersonthesandyRegosolformationaroundthecoastofmainlandand
islandssuchasKalpitiya,deepconfinedsedimentarylimestoneformationsof
VanathavilluandMulankavilandgroundwateroccurringintheweatheredandfractured
zonesofthehardmetamorphicrockcomplex,alluvialplainsofmajorrivers/drainage
systemsandmajorirrigationareasoftheDryzone.Useofgroundwaterforfarmingin
SriLankahasbeenconfinedtraditionallytothenorthernandeasternprovinces,whichare
22
deprivedofperennialwaterresources.Systematicexploitationofshallowanddeep
aquifersofthenorthstartedinearly1960s.Since1970s,farmersintheNorth-central
provincealsohavestartedtousegroundwaterofthehardrockaquifersforcultivation
throughshallow,largediameterdug-wells,popularlyknownastheagro-wells.Although,
groundwaterisanexcellentsourceofwater,itsavailability,extractability,rateof
depletionandqualityetc.dependonanumberfactors.Thesefactorsdependonthe
characteristicsofthewaterbearingsubstrata(thegeologicalformationthatholdwater
underground)andexternalfactorssuchasrechargingarea,generalhydrology,rainfall,
infiltration,run-off,soilstorageandevapotranspirationoftherechargingarea.However,
beingenvironmentallyverysensitivesourceofwater,indiscriminateextractionofground
watermayleadtocatastrophicconsequencesandtherefore,regionallybasedextraction
guidelines for safe limits and well-density should be worked out.
Pastoral
resourcesAsinmanycountriesintheregion,inSriLankathecheapestsourceofanimalfeedare
pastureandfodderoutofwhichpastureconstitutesthemajorsourceofnutrientsof
animalsgrazingonnaturalpastures.InSriLanka,withatotallandareaof6.56million
ha,theopennaturalgrasslandsindifferentclimaticzonesmakeupanextentofabout0.4
millionhectares(Sivalingam,1977).Thereareabout20,000hagrasslands,mainlyinthe
governmentfarm,underimprovedgrasseswithatleastdoublethefodderyieldof
indigenousgrasses(NARESA,1991).Theimportantspeciesofgrassandfodderthat
supportthelivestockindustryinSriLankaare,GuineagrassintheMidcountry,Dry
zoneandpartsoftheIntermediatezone;Brachariaspp.andnaturalpasturevarietiesin
thecoconuttriangleandpartsoftheDryzone;andacombinationofGuineagrassand
largenumbernaturalpasturespeciesintherestoftheisland(Siriwardena,1999).The
naturalgrasslandsconsistoffourmaintypes,namely,Damana,Villu,Dry&Wet
Patanas.
DamanatypenaturalgrasslandsareSavannahtypevegetationfoundinthelowlandDry
zoneespeciallyinitseasternregion.However,itisdifferentfromthetypicalSavannah
forestontheeasternslopesofthecentralhighlandbetween300to900maltitudesin
termsofcompositionofthetreespecies.Savannahforestintheeasternslopesisanopen
23
plantcommunityofscatteredtreesamidstaseaofgrasswheremaintreesareoccupied
withTerminaliachebula(Aralu),T.belerica(Bulu),Emblicaofficinalis(Nelli),Careva
arborea(Kahata),Diospyrosmelanoxylon(Kadumberiya)withtwomainspeciesof
grasses,Imperatacylindrica(Iluk)andCymbopogonconfortiflorous(Mana).
Nevertheless,theprincipaltreespeciesintheDamanagrasslandsorSavannahforestin
thelowlandDryzoneoftheeasternregionconstitutesLimoniaacidissima(Divul),
Manikarahexandra(Palu)Acacialeucophloea(Keeriya)amidstImperataandother
grasses(NationalAtlas,1988).Thereareover80,000hasofDamanagrasslandsinthe
Dry zone (Sivalingam, 1977).
VilluisnaturalgrasslandassociatedwithmoistconditionsintheDryzonearound
abandonedirrigationtanks,backswampsofmajorriversandstreams,andwaterholes.BothVilluandDamanaprovideahomeforthewildanimalsandalsopermitthedomestic
ungulatestofendwithintheirmeans.DuringgreaterpartoftheMajorrainyseason
(OctobertoFebruary),Mahaseason,about25,000haofVillugrasslandremaininundated
withMahaweliwaters(Sivalingam,1977).DryPatanagrasslandsoccurmainlyintheUp
countryIntermediatezone,especiallyintheUvabasinandwesternslopesofthe
Knucklesrange.PrincipalgrassesareCymbopogonconfortiflorous(Mana)and
Themedatremula.OccasionaltreesCareaarborea(Kahata)arepresent.WetPatana
grasslandsoccursintheUpcountryWetzoneatelevationabove1,400mwherethereis
nomoisturedeficitperiods.ItischaracterizedbyChrysopogon-Pollinia-Arundinella
grasseswithRhododendron(Maharatmal)trees.Thelargestexpanseofthisgrasslandis
HortonPlains.TheyarealsofoundinMoonPlains,SitaEliya,ElkPlains,Ambewela,
Pattipola,andKandapolaareas(NationalAtlas,1988).BoththeseDryandWetPatanas
intheMontaneregionextentoveranareaofabout65,000ha(Sivalingam,1977).Even
though,theselandonlymarginallysuitableforarablefarming,theyareecologically
importantincontrollingsoilerosionandforthesustenanceofwildlife.Inadditionto
theselarge-scalenaturalgrasslands,animalsarebeingfedwithpasturesavailableunder
someotherformoflanduses.Piyasinghe(1984)categorized10majorformsoflands
with pasture along with their respective annual dry matter
production (Table 8). 24 Table 8Extent of land under pasture and
estimated yield of pasture Extent (ha)Total Dry Matter
production(MT/year) Un-irrigated highlands in the Dry zone325,000
325,000 Villus in the Dry zone50,000 200,000 30% of the land area
under coconut140,000 560,000 5% of the hill country tea estate
land4,500 31,500 Patana lands in Montane regions55,000 55,000
Herbage from paddy lands ) 2 months of grazing between seasons)
120,000 120,000 Road sides etc.5,00010,000 Grazing land in the Wet
zone20,00040,000 Fallow paddy land150,000300,000 Improved pasture
in farms13,000130,000 Total882,500 1,771,500
TheTable8revealsthatpastureproductionpotentialofun-irrigatedhighlandsintheDry
zoneis1MT/yearwhilegrassesinlandundercoconutproduces4MTperyear.In
contrast,improvedpasturesinlarge-scalefarmshavethepotentialofyielding10Mtper
annum.Hence,atpresentitisestimatedthatwith882,500haofpasturelandsinthe
countryproduce1,771,500MTtotalDMofgrassandfodderinayear.However,this
resourcebasecannotsupportthefeedrequirementofthelivestockofthecountry.The
deficitoffodderrequirementinrelationtofodderproductionhasbeenestimatedtobe2.8
millionMT(Siriwardena,1999).Hence,itisclearthatsomeothermeansoffeedsupply
shouldbeworkedoutinordertobridgethedeficit.Inthelightofnoextralandstobring
underpasture,utilizationofcropresidues,agro-industrialby-productsandothernon-conventionalfeedresourceswouldbeanappropriatestrategytoovercomethecontinuing
problemoflivestockfeedscarcityintheisland.Suchstrategieswouldbeofparticular
importancefortheareashavingdistinctdryseasonbetweentworainyseasons.Inthese
25
regions,thepastureproductionduringthedryperiodiswellbelowthepasture
requirement.Therefore,areassuchasIntermediateandDryzoneswheretheannual
rainfallrhythmdepictsadistinctbi-modalpatterndemandeitherpastureconservation
duringwetperiodoruseofalternativefeedresourcesduringthedryperiodorboth.Apart
fromthequantityofpasture,thequalityofavailablepastureduringdryperiodsdecline
rapidlyaspastureandfoddermaturerapidlyduringdryspells.ApartfromtheDryand
Intermediatezones,thisisacommonproblemintheareasofMidandUpcountryduring
MidJanuarytoMidMarchwherelongdryspellsarefrequentresultingbothqualityand
quantity of forage resources to decline sharply. Land use and land
degradation
SriLankahasatotallandareaof6.56m.haoutofwhichnearly80%comesundersome
formofstatecontrol.Ingeneral,nearlyone-thirdofthetotallandareaisunderforest
coverandanotherone-thirdisunderagriculture.Humansettlements,homegardens,
urbanandindustrialareas,transportationandavarietyofotherusesincluding
undevelopedlandaccountforthebalance.Althoughthetotalextentofthelandsetapart
forforestryandwildlifeexceedsthetotalareaofagriculturallands,muchoftheformer
areinecologicallymarginaldryareassuchasYalaandWilpattuNationalParks(National
Atlas, 1988).
ThemostrecentscientificlandusemappingexercisewasundertakenbytheSurvey
DepartmentofSriLankaduring1983-1988periodandidentified7majorcategoriesof
landusesuchasArablelands,Builtupandresidentiallands,Forests,Rangelands,
Wetlands,BarrenlandsandWaterbodies(Table9&Map7).Thearablelandsinclude
croplands(allcultivated)andsparselyusedlands.Thecroplandsarethelandscultivated
continuously.Theselandsincludetea,rubber,coconut,rice,vegetable,export-agriculturalcropsandnon-traditionalplantationcropssuchassugarcaneandcashewetc.
Thesparselyusedcroplandsinclude"Chena"lands(slash&burnagriculture)and
abandonedplantations,whicharecultivatednowandthen.Thecategoryofurbanand
residentiallandsincludesbuiltuplands,associatenonagriculturallands(archeological
reservations) and homesteads. 26 27
Theforestlandsincludesnaturalforestandforestplantations.Therangelandconsistof
scrublandsandgrasslands.Grasslandscompriseofbothnatural(Patana&Villus)and
cultivatedgrasslands.Themarshylandsandmangrovesaregroupedaswetlands.Rocky
landsanderosionalremnantsaregroupedasaregroupedasbarrenlands.Allnatural
water bodies and reservoirs in the inland are included in the
category of water bodies. Table 9Land use in Sri Lanka (as shown in
the land use map of 1988) TypeExtent (ha)% Arable land
Cultivated1,641,100 Sparsely used1,288,500 Total2,929,60044.92
Built up and Residential Built up & associated non-
agriculturallands 29,200 Homestead 781,300 Total 810,50012.42
Forest lands Natural & plantations1,759,80026.98 Range lands
593,5009.09 Wetlands 61,8000.95 Barren lands 77,5001.18 Water
bodies 290,5004.45
ArecentstudyonlandusetypesinSriLankashowsthatrice,thestaplefoodoftheisland
occupiesinabout41.8%ofthetotalarablelandwhiletea,rubber,andcoconutoccupyin
11.0,9.2and25.2percentfromthearableland,respectively(Table10).Eightpercentof
thearablelandisoccupiedwithsubsidiarycropsalongwithanother3.8%undertheother
export crops. 28 Table 10Arable land, their uses and other land use
types in Sri LankaProportion %Area(ha) Agricultural
land25.01,640,250 Paddy41.8685,625 Subsidiary crops8.0 131,220
Coconut25.2413,343 Rubber9.2150,903 Tea11.0180,428 Other export
crops3.862,330 Sugar0.69,842 Tobacco0.46,561 Forest &
woodlands27.11,778,031 Homesteads11.9 780,759 Scrubland 7.7 505,197
Sparsely used croplands19.61,285,956 Others (including inland
water) 8.7 570,807 Total Land area 100.06,561,000 Source: National
Environmental Action Plan (1988 - 2001), Ministry of Forestry &
Environment
Ithasalsobeenestimatedthatnearly80%oflandholdingsarelessthan1.2haandover
40%ofthemarelessthan0.4haofthetotallandarea.Withincreasingpopulation,the
land/manratiooftheislandhasdeclinedfrom2.7ha/headto0.36ha/headwithinlast100
years(Gamage,1997).Thisdecreasingtrendwillbecontinuedeveninthefutureas
populationcontinuestoincrease.Meanwhile,theproblemofscarcityoflandforhuman
usewillbefurtheraggravatedduetolanddegradation,aprocessthatdiminishorimpair
landproductivity.AccordingtotheFAOestimatesof1989,thetotalextentofdegraded
landduetosoilerosioninSriLankaisabout700,000whichisabout10%ofthetotal
arablelandsofthecountry.Deforestationhasbeenthemajorcauseofland
degradation/soilerosioninSriLanka.SriLankahadaforestcoverofnearly80%in
1880.Significantlanddegradationbeganduringthepast150years,particularlyafterthe
adventofcommercialplantationagricultureduringcolonialperiod.In1900,witha
29
populationofonly3.5million,SriLankahadapproximateforestcoverof70percent.By1953,whenpopulationreached8.1million,naturalforestcoverhaddiminishedto
approximately44%andwhenpopulationdoubledbythemid1980s,theforestwascut
by nearly half, to less than 25 per cent (NARESA, 1991).
Thehighdegreeofsoilerosionreducesthelong-termproductivityofthelandsincethe
fertiletop-soiliseroded.Somestudieshaveshownthatcropyieldshavedeclined3to
7.5%after1mmofsoillossduetonaturalerosionand10to25%lossafter8mmofsoil
iseroded(Marsh,1971).Landdegradationduetosoilerosioncouldoccurinallagro-ecologicalregionsoftheisland,althoughitsintensitycouldvaryaccordingtotherainfall
regime/intensity,soiltype,slope,groundcoverandmanagementpractices.Theworst
affectedareaistheMidcountrywhereintensityofrainfallishigh,slopesaremoderateto
highanderodibilityofsoilsisalsorelativelyhigh.Athigherelevation,althoughslopes
aresteep,rainfallintensitiesarerelativelylower.IntheLowcountry,whererainfall
intensitiescouldbehigh,slopesarelesssteepandsoilpossessesaconsiderableresistance
to the erosion.
EventhoughsoilerosionisthemostimportantmanifestationoflanddegradationinSri
Lanka,lossoflandproductivitythroughsalinization/alkalization,dystrification(lowering
ofsoilacidity),eutrifiation(increaseofcertainnutrientsimpairingtheplantgrowth)and
indiscriminate waste disposal can not be neglected (Map 8).
Socio-economic conditions
SriLankahasapopulationover19millionsasat2002witharangeof1.3-1.5percent
annualpopulationgrowth.Populationisprojectedtoreach22.3millionby2021andto
stabilizeatabout25millionby2046.SriLankaisoneoftheworldsmostdensely
populatedcountries.Populationdensitywasestimatedas287personspersquare
kilometerin1994andhasincreasedto295personsin2000.Theestimatedmidyear
population
densityinyear2003was307persquarekilometer.PopulationinSriLankais
unevenlydistributedacrossthecountryandisconcentratedmainlyintheWetzone,
whichincludebothmaritimeprovinceswithhigherlevelofdevelopmentandhillcountry
districts having large scale plantations. 30 31
Inthenineteen-fiftiesandsixties,theSriLankaeconomydependedprimarilyonexport
orientedcommercialplantationsoftea,rubberandcoconut.Nosignificant
manufacturingexistedpriorto1950.By1973,SriLankawasstillessentiallya
plantation-basedeconomy.Overathirdofthefoodrequirementswereimported.
Cultivationofpaddyandotherfoodcropsisveryvulnerabletothevagariesofthe
weather,asmodernmethodsofirrigationandwatercontrolhasnotyetbeenwidely
adopted.Themodernindustrialsector,establishedmainlytowardstheendofthe
nineteen-sixtieswasheavilydependentonimportsandstillproducingwellbelowthefull
capacity.Untilthemid-seventies,thegovernmentcontrolledmosteconomicactivities
andmostindustriesweregovernmentoperatedmonopolies.In1977,withtheadoptionof
openeconomicpoliciesandindustrializationledtoagrowthintheeconomy.An
economicliberalizationprogrammestartedin1989increasedthemarketorientationof
theeconomy,emphasizingexportledgrowthanddevelopmentoftheprivatesector.Despiteseverecivilstrife,theseeconomicreformsresultedinrelativelyhighgrowthrates
of5.6percentonannualaverageduring1990-94.Inyear2003,SriLankarecordeda
broadbased5.9%realeconomicgrowth(CentralBank,2003),acontinuingrecovering
afterhereconomicset-backinyear2001.SectoralcompositionofGDPin2003show
thatservicesectorcomprises55%oftheGDPwhileindustryandagricultureaccountfor
26and19percent,respectively.ThepercapitaGDPofSriLankaatmarketpricesis947
US $ (Central Bank, 2003)
Despiteallthese,povertyhaspersistedinSriLankaoverthedecadesexceptwithaslight
dropin1970s.Theruralandestatesectorshavehighlevelsofpovertycomparedtothe
urbansector.Asaresultofwithdrawalofseveralsubsidyschemesduringrecentpastand
increasinginflationrate,thepovertyhasbecomeanintegralaspectofthesocietyandthe
economyofSriLanka.Apartfromotherconsequences,thepovertywilldeprivepeople,
atalltimes,havephysicalandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safeandnutriousfoodto
meettheirdietaryneedsandfoodpreferencesforactiveandhealthylife,inotherwords
theyarevulnerabletofoodinsecurity.ArecentstudyconductedbytheWorldFood
ProgrammeoftheUNhascategorizedcountry's323DSdivisionsinto3groupsinterms
ofthefoodsecurity,namely,Mostvulnerable,LessvulnerableandLeast/notvulnerable
(Map9).Thismapisacompositeproductof22biophysicalandsocio-economic
32
parametersdevelopedinaGISenvironment.Adetaileddescriptiononparametersand
methodologycanbefoundinSatharasinghe(2003).Thisstudyshowsthatout323DS
divisions,148areeither"Leastvulnerable"or"Notvulnerable"tofoodinsecurity.Most
ofthemarelocatedintheWetzoneoradjoiningIntermediatezone.Thereare82DS
divisions,whichare"Lessvulnerable"tofoodinsecurity,locatedmostlyinthe
Intermediatezone,andadjoiningWetandIntermediatezones.Thereare93DSdivisions
inthecountrythatare"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityofwhichmajorityfoundin
the Dry zone of Sri Lanka, particularly in the North-east province.
Livestock industry in Sri Lanka
Thecurrentpopulationestimatesindicatethattherearearound1.51millioncattle,0.64
millionbuffaloes,0.45milliongoats,0.07millionpigsand10.6millionpoultry(Dept.of
Census&Statistics,2002).Livestockarespreadthroughoutallregionsofthecountry
withconcentrationofcertainfarmingsystemsinparticularareasbecauseofagro-climatic,
market and cultural reasons (Map 10 - 14).
Avarietyofanimalsareraisedinthecountryincludingneatcattle,buffaloes,pigs,
poultry,sheepandgoats.Cattleandbuffaloesareraisedfordairy,draughtandfor
slaughter.Pigsandsheepareraisedexclusivelyforslaughterwhilegoatsareraisedboth
forslaughterandsupplyofmilk.Thedairyandpoultryindustriesofthecountry
represent more prominent and organized sectors of the country's
livestock industry.
Cattleandbuffalokeepingisgenerallydistributedthroughoutallregionsofthecountry.Intheupandmid-country,cattlekeepingisprimarilyformilk.Inthelowcountrywet
zoneandinthecoconutgrowingareabuffaloformanintegralpartofagriculture
providingdraftpower,weedcontrolandmanureaswellasbeingusedformilk
production.Inthedryzonethesespeciesareregardedasasourceofinsurancebythe
small-holdersastheyprovideastoreofwealthandaccesstocashbymeansofanimal
sales,andmilk.InirrigatedareasofMahawelisettlementschemeinDryZone,cattleand
buffaloarekeptmainlytoproducemilkanddraftpower.Intotalnearlyhalfofthecattle
in the country are found in the dry zone (Map 10). 33
Map 9 : Vulnerability to food insecurity of Sri Lanka 34 35 36
37 38 39
GoatsarelargelyfoundintheDryzone(Map12).Thetotalnumberofanimals
slaughteredatregisteredabattoirsisaround97,000animalswithanextractionrateof
18.8%1300MTofmuttonareproduced.Morerecentlytherearingofgoatsformilk
purpose is becoming popular in the urban areas of the country.
PigfarmingisconcentratedintheWesterncoastalpigbelt(Map13)areundertakenas
intensivesystems(10-15fatterners)andextensivesystems(1to2pigskeptbysmall
farmersinapredominantlysubsistencesystem).Approximately26,300pigsare
slaughteredeveryyearproducing5,500MTofpork.Swillandricebranarethemost
common feeds used for pigs.
PoultryproductionisconcentratedinWesternandnorthwesternpartofthecountryasa
commercialventure(Map14).Mostoftheoperationsfoundintheseareasaremedium
largescalehaving1,00010,000birds.Annualpoultrymeatandeggproductioninthe
country stands at 88 million kg and 954 million, respectively.
Agro-ecology
Anagro-ecologicalregionrepresentsaparticularcombinationofthenatural
characteristicsofclimate,soilandrelief(Panabokke,1996).Whenanagro-climaticmap,
whichcanbeconsideredasareaswheretheintegratedeffectofclimateisuniform
throughouttheareaforcropproduction,issuperimposedonsoilandterraintheresulting
mapidentifiesagro-ecologicalregions.Thus,eachagro-ecologicalregionrepresentsan
uniformagro-climate,soilsandterrainconditionsandassuchwouldsupportaparticular
farmingsystemwherecertainrangeofcropsandfarmingpracticesfindtheirbest
expression.
Thedemarcationoftheislandinto46agro-ecologicalsub-regionsisshownintheMap
15
(Punyawardenaetal,2003).Themaindistinguishingcharacteristicsofeachagro-ecologicalregionisdenotedbya4-charactercodeconsistingoflettersandanumber.
Threemajorclimaticzonesareindicatedbythefirstuppercaseletterofthecode(W,I
andD).Theseconduppercaseletterofthecode(L,MandU)denotesthreecategoriesof
elevation.The numerical character in the third place of the code
represents a more 40 41
detailedmoistureregime(rainfallandevaporationcombined)withadegreeofwetnesson
thescaleof1to5where1beingthemostfavorable.Thelowercaseletterinthefourth
placeindicatesasub-regionasdeterminedbyrainfalldistributionandotherphysical
environmental factors where degree of wetness decreases a f.
IntheWetzone,thereare15agro-ecologicalsub-regions.Foursub-regionsfoundinthe
Up-countrywetzoneshowadistinctvariationinthedistributionoftheSouthWest
Monsoon(SWM)rains.BeinginthemosteffectiveareaoftheSWMrains,WM1a,
WL1aandWU1asub-regionsreceivethehighestamountofrainfallinthecountry.Apart
fromtheamountanddistributionofSWMrains,relativeeffectivenessofNorthEast
Monsoon(NEM)rainshasalsoplayedavitalroleindistinguishing6sub-regionsinthe
mid-countrywetzone.ThefourmonthsperiodfromDecembertoMarchisrelatively
"dry"inWM3aagro-ecologicalsub-regionwhiletherearetwodistinctdryperiodsinthe
WM3bduetoreducedeffectivenessofSWMrainsoverthissub-region.IntheLow-countryWetzone,amountanddistributionofSWMaswellasFirstInterMonsoon(FIM)
rainswereimportantinidentifyingthe5agro-ecologicalsub-regions.Meanwhile,the
monthsJuly,AugustandDecemberinWL3agro-ecologicalregiondoesnotreceive
adequateamountofrainfallandhencecannotbeconsideredaswetmonths.Assuch,4
months period extending from December to March is relatively "dry"
in this region.
TheIntermediatezoneconsistsof20agro-ecologicalsub-regionsoutofwhich15sub-regionsareinthecentralhills.Varyingdegreeofeffectivenessofdifferentrainfall
governingmechanismsacrossthecentralhillshascausedvarietyofgrowing
environmentsinthisregion.Thereare7agro-ecologicalsub-regionsintheUpcountry
IntermediatezoneoutofwhichIU1isreportedtoreceivethehighestannualrainfall
amongallsub-regionsoftheentireIntermediatezone.BeingintheKnucklesrange,this
regionreceivesampleamountofrainsfromNEMwhilethecontributionfromSWM
rainsisalsosubstantial.ComplexgeographicalsettingsoftheIU3agro-ecologicalregion
whichencompassesalmostwholeoftheso-called"Uvabasin"haveresulted5agro-ecologicalsub-regionsduetohighspatialvariabilityofintermonsoonalandNEMrainsin
thisregion.Meanwhile,beinglocatedintherainshadowareaoftheSWM,thisregion
42
doesnotreceiveadequaterainsduringJunetoSeptemberresultingindryandwindy
environment.TheMidcountryIntermediatezonehas7agro-ecologicalsub-regions.
Mostofthesesub-regionsalsodonotreceiveadequaterainsfromSWMand,hence,4
monthsperiodfromJunetoSeptemberisrelativelydry.LowcountryIntermediatezone
consistsof5agro-ecologicalsub-regions.OtherthanIL2,allotheragro-ecologicalsub-regionsintheLowcountryIntermediatezoneresembleabi-modalrainfalldistribution.SinceSecondInterMonsoon(SIM)andNEMrainsaretheonlyeffectiverainyseasonsin
theregion,theIL2agro-ecologicalregionexhibitsadistinctlyuni-modalrainfall
distribution along with a long and pronounced dry period from April
to September.
IntheDryzone,thereare11agro-ecologicalsub-regionswithdifferentrainfall
distributionandedaphicfeatures.TheDL3,DL4andDL5agro-ecologicalregionsofthe
Dryzonereceivethelowestannualrainfallofthecountryincombinationwithsomesoil
limitationsthatarefoundintheseregions.Outof11agro-ecologicalsub-regions,only
DL1aandDL1barecharacterizedbytwodiscerniblepeaksintherainfalldistributionand
thus,supportcropsinbothMahaandYalagrowingseasons.Thoseagro-ecologicalsub-regionsfoundintheeasternsectoroftheDryzone,i.e.,DL1c,DL1d,DL1eandDL2a
andDL2b,exhibitadistinctuni-modalrainfallpattern,andsupportonlythecropsin
Mahaseason.Therestoftheagro-ecologicalsub-regionsoftheDryzonealsosupport
onlytheMahacropsinceYalarainsinthosesub-regionsarenotadequatetomeetthe
evapotranspiration requirements. Livestock production systems and
AERs
Comparedtomanycountriesintheregion,SriLankahasnoexceptionthatmajorsources
offeedsforruminantsarepastureandfodder,whichincludestreefodder.Therefore,
spatialpopulationdistributionofruminantsinSriLankahasadirectrelationshipwiththe
environment,inotherwordtheagro-ecologyoftheisland.However,spatialdistribution
ofpoultryandPigswhichdonotdependdirectlyonpasturearelessrelatedtotheagro-ecologywhilesomeotherfactorssuchassocio-economicandreligiousaspectsmayplay
a major role in deciding the spatial distribution of these two
animals. 43
Basedonthefeedingpracticesofmajorlivestock,theruminantproductionsystemsare
consistingof5majorgroups(Siriwardena,1999)whilenon-ruminantshaving2major
production systems. Ruminant production systems (Siriwardena, 1999)
UP countryMid countryWet & intermediateIntermediateDry zone
Intensiveintensivezone& dry zoneintensive System
systemsemi-intensiveextensivesystem System system Zero grazingZero
grazingCombination of free grazingZero grazing With highwith
moderatetethered and/orin crop/stock Levels oflevels offree
grazingintegrated Concentrateconcentratewith limitedsystem
Feedingfeeding feeding of concentrates Mid & Up country
intensive system
Themaincropgrownhereistea.Rainfallisfairlywelldistributedthroughouttheyear
whilethetemperatureisconducivefortemperatebreedsoflivestock.Theestateworkers
keepdairycattlemainlyofimprovedEuropeanbreedsunderstall-fedcondition.They
havenoownlands.Forforagerequirement,theyhavetodependonnaturalgrasses
growninthecanalbunds,wasteanduncultivatedlandsarecutandfedtothecattle
together with concentrate feeds.
Inthevillage-basedsystem,farmerownsapieceoflandandtheirfarmingismainly
crop-livestockintegration.Theyareengagedincommercialorientedintensivevegetable
cultivation.Dairycattlearekeptmainlytogetmanureandthemilkisoftenasecondary
44
income.ThemaingrassesfoundherearePanicummaximum(wildtype)andPanicumrepense.
Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive
systemThissystemexistsmainlyinthecoconutgrowingareaofthelow-country.Crossbreeds
ofJersey,AMZSahiwalarepopularanimalsinthissystem.Theyhavemedium
productionpotentialsofabout4-5litersofmilk/day.Innormalpracticeanimalsaretied
tothecoconutpalmsandrotatethelocationduringthedaytimeorletlooseinlarge
plantationsorinfallowpaddylands.LivefenceserectedwithGlyricidiatypetrees
provideadditionalsourceoffeedstotheanimals.Insomeinstances,leguminouscover
cropslikePuerariaandCentrosemaaregrownunderthecoconutplantations.Theyalso
serveasasourceofanimalfeed.Itisfoundthatconsiderableproportionofcoconutlands
isinter-croppedwithBanana,Pineapple,CoffeeandPepperlikecropstoincreasethe
landuseefficiency.Inpepperintercultivation,usuallyGlyricidiasticksareusedto
supportthepeppervines.TheexcessivegrowthofGlyricidiaisloppedandsuchwould
alsoprovideafairamountofbiomassforlivestockproduction.Coconutmeal,theby
productofcoconutoilextractionprocesswithricebranformsthemostpopular
combinationofconcentratefeedsupplementinthissystem.Atpresent,inter-croppingof
improved grasses under coconut plantations is also catching up
gradually. Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system
Thiszoneistypifiedbyuseofindigenousbreeds.Theygrazeformostoftheyearon
bunds,tankbeds,villusandscrubjungle.Duringgoodcroppingseasons,theanimals
maybemovedsomedistancetoscrubjungle.Thereisalmostnouseofconcentratesand
littleuseofcropresiduesalthoughbuffaloesarefedricestraw.Theherdsizeis
comparativelylargeandvariedfrom30to200headsofcattlemainlyofindigenousand
someIndiancrosses.UseofnaturaltreefoddersuchasAccacialeucophloea
(Katuandara).Azadirachtaindica(Kohomba),Drypetessepiaria(Weera),Grewia
microcos(Keliya,Kohukirilla),Grewiapolygama(Borudamaniya)Grewiatiliaefolia
(Damaniya,damina)iscommonintheseareas.Theseherdsutilizefeedresourceof
wildlife. 45
Inthissystem,animalsarekeptasalivesavingandtheyaresoldatanymomentwhen
thereisaneedofmoney.Slaughterofcattleforhomeconsumptionisrarelypracticed.
However,milkissoldmainlytothelocalmarket.Thebuffaloesareusedfordraught
purposesinthenortherndryzonewhiledairybuffaloesarecommoninthesoutherndry
zone and part of the north-central province for curd production.
Dry zone intensive system
ThedryzoneintensivesystemoperatesinMahawelisettlementareaunderirrigation
facilities.Sincethemajorcropgrowninthisregionispaddy,asubstantialamountof
paddystrawandricebranisavailableforlivestockfeeding.Inaddition,thecropresidues
ofmaizeandlegumesarealsoavailableduringtheharvestingperiodofrespectivecrops.
Someofthesugarcanefactoriesandtheircontractgrowersystemsarealsolocatedinthis
production.Thus,molassesfeedingalongwithroughagesasamultinutrientblockhas
becomeapopularfeedingpracticeinthisarea.But,farmersdoverylimitedfeedingof
sugarcanetopsandbagassestotheiranimals.Treefodderandimprovedforages
growinginopenareas,andbundsarealsobecomingpopular.Theherdsizeinthis
systemisfairlysmallandthekeepingbuffaloesarelesscommon.LocalZebucrosses
areusedforlandpreparationpurposes.Thelandsinthisareaarefullyoccupiedinmost
of the time of the year. Non-ruminant production systems
PoultryThepoultryindustryisconsistofmultitudeofsmallproducersandafewlargeproducers.
TheintensivepoultryproductionsystemsareconcentratedinWesternandNorthWestern
partofthecountryasacommercialventurewhereeasyaccesstomarketfacilitiesand
inputareavailablewithimprovedinfrastructurefacilities.Mostoftheoperationsfoundin
theseregionsaremediumtolargescalehaving1,00010,000birds.Theextensive
production systems are scattered throughout the island as a
backyard system. 46 Pigs
PigfarmingisconcentratedintheWesterncoastalpigbeltasintensivesystems(10-15
fatterners)andextensivesystems.Undertheextensivepigfarming,smallfarmerskeep1
to2pigsasascavengingsystem.Itisunderstoodthatlocalizationofthepigindustryin
SriLankaismainlyduetotheculturalandsocialreasonsthanthatofitsenvironmental
adaptability. Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of
target sites
Ithasbeenevidentthatthepopulationoftheindigenouslivestockisgraduallydecreasing
whilesomebreeds/specieshavealreadybeenlostorarenearatextinction.Hence,itis
importanttoconserveandutilizethisbroadgeneticbasetoenhancetheproductivityof
livestockofthecountryinasustainablemanner.Therefore,inthelightofpossible
financialassistancethroughFAnGRAsiaProject,seventargetsitescoveringfour
administrativedistrictsofSriLankawereselectedtoexecuteafullprojectonFAnGR
(Table11andMap16).Intheprocessofselectionoftargetsites,parameterssuchas
abundanceofindigenouslivestockspecies(Map10-14),agro-ecologicaldiversity(Map
15) and poverty level of the people living in the area (Map 9) were
considered. Table 11Selected target sites and their respective
administrative units & AERs Target site/DS division
Administrative District Province Agro-ecological
regionHambantotaDL5 Lunugamwehera Hambantota SouthernDL5
SiyambalanduwaMonaragalaUvaDL1b PottuvilDL2a Panama Ampara
North-easternDL1b ThirappaneDL1b Galenbindunuwewa Anuradhapura
North-centralDL1b 47 48 Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites.
ThesetwoDSdivisionsarelocatedintheHambantotaadministrativedistrictofthe
SouthernprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalmapofSriLanka
(2003),thesetwositesfallundertheDL5Agro-EcologicalRegion(AER).TheDL5
AER
ofSouthernDryzoneisconsideredasthedriestpartofSriLankawithanannualaverage
rainfallof900mmandannualdependablerainfallofgreaterthanorequalto650mm.Thedistributionofrainfallisnotconduciveanyformofcropgrowthhavingalonger
growthcycle.Considerableamountofrainfall,nearly70%oftheannualtotalreceives
onlyduringmid-Octobertomid-January,theMahaseason(Map15,Figure1&2).The
Yalarainsofabout300mmbetweenmidMarchtomidMayarenotadequatetoraisea
crop.TheperiodbetweenmidMaytoSeptemberisdryandwindywithveryhigh
temperaturesandevaporationrates.Thedaytimemaximumtemperatureinthisregion
couldvaryfrom30to35degreesofCentigradedependingonthetimeoftheyear.The
highesttemperaturesarebeingrecordedduringMaytoSeptember,thedryperiodofthe
year (Table 12).
NaturalvegetationofbothDSdivisionsispredominatelyscrublandwiththornytype
specieswithisolatedtreesandpatchesoftrees.Meanwhile,tankbedsofabandoned
smalltanksfoundinthesetwotargetsitescouldbeconvertedtograzinglandswith
improvedvarieties.Moreover,thereisaconsiderableextentoflandthatissaltaffected,
especiallyinthelowestpositionofthecatenarysequenceinLunugamweheratargetsite.Forsomepartofthesesaltaffectedlands,irrigationwaterisalsoavailable.Insome
cases,drainagewatercomingfromtheuppercatenarypositionscouldalsobeused.
Hence,establishmentsalttolerantpasturespeciescouldbeoneofthebestformofland
useforsuchlands,makingthewayforanimalhusbandrywithappropriatebreedsthatare
adaptable to high temperature conditions prevailing in the area.49
Figure 1Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 - 1990)
020406080100120140160180200Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Nov DecMonthRainfall mm50 Figure 2Average monthly rainfall at
Lunugamwehera (1983 - 1999) 050100150200250Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm51 Table 12Average climatic
conditions of the DL5 agro-ecological region of SriLanka (Location:
Weerawila/1990-1996) JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp.
(0C)313233.434.13334.433.63432.832.631.829 Min temp.
(0C)21.321.621.722.522.522.821.72120.620.820.319.2
Rainfall(mm)77.349.832.892.672.224.628.539.368.4117.1274.9158.5
Evaporation (mm/day)4.44.95.94.65.26.26.87.67.15.34.04.0 Wind
velocity (kmph)7.77.46.24.89.812.112.613.210.58.25.06.6 Bright
sunshine Hours7.17.78.26.77.65.76.27.67.75.45.85.7 RH (%) -
morning797773757572767979618081 RH (%) -
evening716868726766687971737478 52
MalalaOyaandKaraganOyaarethemajorstreamsthatflowthroughtheHambantota
DSdivisionwhileKirindiOyaistheonlystreamthatflowsthroughLunugamweheraDS
division(Table13&Map5).Catchmentsofthesethreestreams,whicharerelatively
small,aremainlyconcentratedintheDryzoneandpossesintermittentflows.However,a
partofthecatchmentoftheKirindiOyaliesintheIntermediatezone.Thereislarge
numberoftanksintheHambantotaDSdivision(Table14)outofwhichBandagiriyatank
istheprominentoneandothersmostlybelongstothecategoryofsmalltanks.
BandagiriyatankisfedbybothMalalaOyaanddivertedwaterofLunugamwehera
reservoir.However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundintheareaareeitherabandonedor
heavilysilted.Thereare14tanksintheLunugamweheraDSdivision(Table15)
includingtheLunugamweheramajorreservoir,builtin1980sandWeerawilaWewaand
PannegamuwaWewa.EventhoughLunugamweherareservoirisoneofthefewrecently
builtmajorirrigationschemesofSriLankawithanirrigableareaof13,000ha,on
averageitdoesnotreceivetheestimateddesigndischargein3outof4years.Thisis
mainlyduetooverestimationbyabout20%ofbasinwateravailabilityduringthe
planningphase(IIMI,1990).Therefore,cropfailureshavebecomefrequentproblemin
thisirrigationschemewithaseriousissueofpovertyandmalnutritionofsettlersandtheir
dependents.Astudyconductedbytheworldfoodprogrammein2003hasflagged
LunugamweheraDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecuritywhile
Hambantota DS division falling under the category of"Less
vulnerable" (Map 9).
Itisunlikelythatmoreinvestmentwillbemadeavailabletorescuethisill-fated
irrigation
projectinthenearfuture.Hence,thereisagreaterpotentialforlivestockfarminginthis
region.However,caremustbegiventochoosesuitablelivestockspeciesfortheregion
as high temperature regime may hinder the potential performance of
animals. 53 Table 13Hydrological characteristics of major rivers in
target sites Basin No. Name of basin Catchment area (km2)
Precipitation volume (Million m3) Discharge volume(Million m3) %
Discharge19Karagan Oya58671522 20Malala Oya3994347417 22Kirindi
Oya1165160647622 34Helawa Ara51822834.5 35Wila Oya48465321533
36Heda Oya60496739441 37Karanda Oya42267619629 38Semane Ara51822531
67Yan Oya1520226930019 90Aruvi Aru3246459256812 Source: National
Atlas, 1988 Table 14Tanks found in the Hambantota DS division
NameName 1Bandagiriya Wewa12Weligatta Wewa 2Kelliywalana
Wewa13Anokkan Wewa 3Weheragoda Wewa14Nabada Wewa 4Palessa
Wewa15Kuda Wewa 5Andara Wewa16Metigatta Wewa 6Kapuwatta
Wewa17Koholangoda Wewa 7Keligama Wewa18Hangaranga Wewa 8Juligama
Wewa19Divul Wewa 9Kalupalla Wewa20Kattana Wewa 10Rambuk
Wewa21Beligas Wewa 11Gat Wewa 54 Table 15Tanks found in the
Lunugamwehera DS division NameName 1Sinikku Wewa7Ijukpelessa Wewa
2Kadawara Wewa8Degaldehera Wewa 3Kukulkatuwa Wewa9Kotakumbuka Wewa
4Lutana Wewa10Pannagamuwa Wewa 5Punchi Appu Jandura Wewa11Weerawila
Wewa 6Unctu Wewa12Lunugamwehera Reservoir 13Kikiliwidda Wewa
Beingasemi-aridregion,thecroporpastureproductioninthesetwositesislargely
determinedbyclimaticandedaphicfeatures.ReddishBrownEarth(RBE)withhigh
amountofgravelisthepredominantsoiltypeofthisregionthatcanbefoundoncrest,
upperandmidslopesofgentlyundulatingtoundulatinghighlands.LowHumicGley
(LHG)soilisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinvalleybottomswithinclusionof
pocketsofSolodizedSolonetzwheresoildrainageisverypoor.Potentialandlimitations
of these two predominant soil types are given below. Potential and
limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf)
ThisisthemostwidespreadsoiltypeintheDryzoneincludingtwotargetsitesunder
review.Itoccupiesincrestandwell-drainedmidandupperslopesofthecatenary
sequence.Thestructureisweaktomoderatesub-angularblocky.Thesoilmoisture
relationshipischaracterizedbylowwaterholdingcapacitywitharapidreleaseofsoil
moistureattensionlowerthanoneatmosphere.Thesoilisextremelyhardwhendry,
friabletofirmwhenmoistandstickywhenwet.Agoodaccountofphysicalpropertiesof
RBEcanbefoundinJoshua(1988).Thissoiltypepossessesgoodchemical
characteristicscomparedtoothersoiltypesofthecountry.Thesoilreactionisslightly
acidic to neutral with 60 to 80% base saturation.55
RBEischaracterizedbyhavingagravellayerinthesub-soilandthereforerootgrowthis
restrictedduetoshallowdepth.Itbecomeseasilyslakeunderheavyrainfallandmake
tillageoperationsaredifficult,thus,canoperateonlyunderlimitedmoisturerange.As
soilmoistureislostatlowtensions,soilmoisturestressisverycommoneveninshortdry
spells.Asthestructureisweak,itishighlyvulnerabletosoilerosionandrequires
adoptionofsoilmoistureconservationmeasures.Thepresenceofcharacteristicsgravel
layerinthesub-soilhindersthedownwardmovementofwaterandhence,an
improvement to drainage during rainy seasons is essential.
Potential and limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf)
NexttotheRBE,LowHumicGleysoils(LHG)arethemostextensivegreatsoilgroupin
SriLankawithnoexceptioninthesetwotargetsites.Thissoilgroupisessentiallya
hydromorphicsoillocatedinthefootslopesofundulatinglandscapeoftheDryzone.
However,duetolowrainfallandhighlysalinegroundwaterinHambantotaand
LunugamweheraDSdivisions,agreaterproportionoftheLHGinthesetwoDSdivisions
aresaltaffected.Thebasesaturationisintherangeof90to100%andfreecarbonates
arepresentatvaryingdepthofthesub-soilandthus,soilreactionismoderatelyalkaline.
Thewaterholdingcapacityofthesoilisfairlygoodbecauseofthepresenceofhigh
amountofclaywithsmectite.Themostsuitablelanduseforthissoilgroupispaddyand
whenthesoilbearshighsaltcontents,thesalttolerantgrassesarethemostappropriate
landuse.Cultivationofuplandcropsornon-waterlovingplantsisadifficulttaskinthis
soilduetopoordrainagecondition.Insomeplaces,drainageimprovementhastobe
donebeforetheestablishmentofanycroporgrasstofacilitateflushingoutofsaltsand
excess water coming from the higher positions of the catena.
Siyambalanduwa target site
TheSiymbalanduwaDSdivisionislocatedintheMonaragalaadministrativedistrictof
theUvaprovinceofSriLankaandbelongstotheWellassaregionoftheancient
kingdom.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalregionmapofSriLanka(2003),thisDS
divisioncomesundertheDL1bAgro-EcologicalRegion(AER).Animportant
characteristicsoftheDL1bAERisthepresenceofwelldefinedtworainyseasons,
56
namely,YalaandMahawithannualaveragerainfallof1,600mmandannualdependable
rainfallofgreaterthanorequalto900mm.TheMahaormajorrainyseasonisfrom
OctobertolateJanuaryandtheYala,minorrainyseasonisfromlateMarchtomidMay.
Hence,monthlyrainfallrecordsdepictabi-modalrainfallpatternwithtwomarkeddry
seasons,oneduringFebruarytomidMarch,whichisshortandmoderate,andtheother
duringmidMaytoSeptemberwhichislongandprotracted(Map15).Nearly70%ofthe
annualtotalrainfalloccursduringtheMahaseasonwhilethebalanceoccursduringthe
Yalaseason.MonthsfromJunetoSeptemberaregenerallyrainless.Evenifitrains,it
willbefarbelowtheevapotranspirationrequirementduetoprevailinghightemperature
andwinds(Table16).However,incontrarytootherpartsoftheDL1bAER,thisarea
receivesconsiderableamountofrainsduringJanuaryandFebruarythroughnortheast
monsoonrains(Figure3).Thisismainlyattributedtoitsproximitytotheeasterncoast
wherenortheastmonsoonalwindsbeginstosheditsmoisture.Therefore,drynessduring
FebruarytomidMarchmaynotbesosevereascomparedtoothertypicalDL1bregions
of the Dry zone.
NaturalvegetationofSiyambalanduwaDSdivisionis"moistdeciduousforest".
However,duetoclearingofforestforshiftingor"Chena"cultivation,whatisleftofthe
forestvegetationisquitesmallandpredominanttypeexistingvegetationissecondary
vegetation of scrub jungles.
HedaOyaistheonlymajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheSiyambalanduwaDSdivision
(Map5).UnliketheothertargetsitesintheHambantotadistrict,theSiyambalnduwaDS
divisionisnotblessedwithlargenumberoftankshavingonlyHedaOyareservoir,Una
ElareservoirandPolgahagamaWewainoperation.Theworldfoodprogrammestudy
(2003)hascategorizedtheSiyambalanduwaDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"
tofoodinsecurity(Map9)anditcouldbeattributedtolackoflargenumberofsurface
water reservoirs in the area. 57 Figure 3Average monthly rainfall
at Siyambalnduwa (1943 - 1980) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm58 Table 16 Average
climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka
(Location: Angunakolapelessa/1992 -2001)
JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp.
(0C)30.931.632.832.732.632.332.332.532.131.630.830.6 Min temp.
(0C)22.022.222.624.325.124.624.724.42423.52322.5
Rainfall(mm)63.967.055.4100.495.264.442.041.3112.8167.3235.0111.4
Evaporation (mm/day)4.14.65.34.54.54.65.05.14.74.03.43.6 Wind
velocity (kmph)6.25.54.84.86.97.98.58.67.45.74.35.3 Bright sunshine
Hours7.18.38.987.57.27.48.17.16.566.1 RH (%) -
morning848481828181797879828585 RH (%) -
evening707169757372706769757868 59
BeingintheDryzone,predominantsoiltypeoftheSiyambalanduwaDSdivisioniswell
andimperfectlydrainedReddishBrownEarth(RBE)ontheconvexuplandsandlower
midslopesofgentlytoundulatinglandscape.LowHumicGley(LHG)soil,thepoorly
drainedmemberofthecatenarysequenceisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinthe
concavevalleysandbottomlands.Potentialandlimitationsofthesetwopredominantsoil
types of the target area have already been discussed in a preceding
section. Panama and Pottuvil target sites.
BoththesetargetsitesarelocatedinthePottuvilDSdivisionoftheAmpara
administrativedistrictofthenortheasternprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalregionmapofSriLanka(2003),PanamafallsundertheDL1bAERwhile
PottuviliscomingundertheDL2aAER.Eventhough,Siymbalanduwatargetsite,which
wasdiscussedintheprecedingsectionandPanamasite,arelocatedinthesameAER,the
DL1b,rainfalldistributionofPanamaisquitedifferentfromthetypicalrainfall
distributionofDL1b.Generally,Panamaresemblesauni-modalrainfalldistribution
(Figure4)whereasbi-modalpatternisthecharacteristicsrainfalldistributionofDL1b
(Figure3).UndersuchsituationPanamashouldhavebeencategorizedunderDL2AER
wherethecharacteristicsrainfalldistributionisuni-modal.However,delineationofDL2
wasprimarilybasedonthepresenceofNonCalcicBrown(NCB)Soilsasthe
predominantsoiltype.SincePanamaischaracterizedbyhavingRBEsoilswithnoNCB
soilsoritsassociations,ithasbeencompelledtocategorizedPanamaundertheDL1b
AER.Panamaareareceivesabout1,500mmannualrainfallwith1,150mmofannual
dependablerainfall.Nearly80%oftheannualrainfallisreceivedduringtheMaha
season.NoneofthemonthsintheYalaseasonreceiverainfallinexcessof
evapotranspiration and hence, a Yala season is not discernible in
the region (Figure 4).
PottuviltargetsiteislocatedintheDL2aAERwherepredominantsoiltypeisNCBand
monthlyrainfalldistributionisuni-modal(Figure5).Hence,itdoesnotpermityear
aroundcultivationunlessirrigationwaterisprovided.Theannualdependablerainfallof
thisregionequalsorexceeds1,300mm.TheMahaseasonatbothtargetsitesisrelatively
longercomparedtootherpartsoftheDryzone,startingfromOctobertoFebruary
receiving nearly 80% of the annual rainfall (Figure 4 & Figure
5).60 Figure 4Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988)
050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
DecMonthRainfall mm61 Figure 5 Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil
(1983 - 2003) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm62 Table 17 Average climatic
conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka
(Location: Aralaganwila/1992 -2001)
JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp.
(0C)29.731.534.131.835.634.534.53535.333.531.229.6 Min temp.
(0C)21.220.721.223.323.924.124.223.522.922.822.722
Rainfall(mm)245.4141.214.5111.464.919.835.031.888.7184.6387.9358.0
Evaporation (mm/day)3.34.05.14.95.66.77.07.06.24.83.53.0 Wind
velocity (kmph)3.23333.76.36.95.94.73.82.73 Bright sunshine
Hours6.27.5988.67.27.68.47.66.55.55.1 RH (%) -
morning929186827769687070808992 RH (%) -
evening777058656056545455667780 64
AtbothPanamaandPottuvil,theperiodbetweenmidMaytoSeptemberisdryand
windywithveryhightemperaturesandevaporationrates.Thedaytimemaximum
temperatureinthisregioncouldvaryfrom30to37degreesofCentigradedependingon
thetimeoftheyear.ThehighesttemperaturesarebeingrecordedduringMayto
September, the dry period of the year (Table 17).
Naturalvegetationofboththesetargetsitesispredominately"Dryevergreenforests".
HelawaAraandWilaOyaarethemajorstreamsthatflowthroughPanamaareawhile
HedaOya,KarandaOyaandSemaneArafindtheirwaytotheeasterncoastthrough
Pottuvilarea(Map5).Catchmentsofthesethreestreams,whicharerelativelysmall,are
mainlyconcentratedintheDryzoneandpossesintermittentflows.Thereisalarge
numberofsmalltanksinthePottuvilDSdivisionwithsomelagoons(Table18).The
worldfoodprogrammestudyof2003hasflaggedPottuvilDSdivisionasanareaof
"Lessvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityandisamong4ofsuchDSdivisionsintheAmpara
district out of total of 19 DS divisions (Map 9).
BeingintheDL1bAER,thepredominantsoiltypesinthePanamaareaarewelland
imperfectlydrainedReddishBrownEarth(RBE)ontheconvexuplandsandlowermid
slopesofgentlytoundulatinglandscapeofinland.LowHumicGley(LHG)soil,the
poorlydrainedmemberofthecatenarysequenceisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypein
theconcavevalleysandbottomlands.Potentialandlimitationsofthesetwopredominant
soiltypesofthetargetareahavealreadybeendiscussedinaprecedingsection.In
addition,sandyRegosolsarefoundalongorneartothecoastlineusuallyaselongated
strips.Generally,Regosolsshownostructuraldevelopmentandbothsurfaceandsub-surfacesoilsaresinglegrain.Soilreactionisneutralwithabasesaturationof75to90%.
65 Table 18Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS division NameName
Pottuvil areaPanama area 1Kirikovi Kulam1Helawa Kalpuwa 2Serolai
Kulam2Kunikala Kalpuwa 3Tamara Kulam3Solambe Kalpuwa 4Pallanchi
Wettiya Kulam4Weddana Kalpuwa 5Manthodai Kulam5Pannakala Wewa
6Siriyawa Kulam6Helawa Wewa 7Rota Kulam7Panama Wewa 8Semani
Kulam8Viagalla Wewa 9Arugam Kalapu9Wedagama Wewa 10Paladi
Kalapu10Miyangoda Wewa 11Nalitta Wewa 12Watawana Wewa 13Naulla Wewa
14Uipassa Wewa 15Ullawera Villu 16Eratil Tank 17Rugam Well Kulam
Although,thesandyRegosolshavearapidinfiltration,theinfiltratedwaterisstoredin
theunderlyingstaticGyben-Herzberglensoffreshwater,whichpermitsstablehuman
settlementandagriculturalproductiononthislandscapeevenintheverydryenvironment
(Panabokke,1996).Apartfromthesesoils,Alluvialsoilscouldbefoundineithersideof
banksofriverandstreamswithavariabletextureanddrainage.Soilreactionofthe
AlluvialsoilsoftheDryzoneisslightlyacidtoslightlyalkalinewithabasesaturationof
60to90%.AsreportedbyAlwisandEriyagama(1969),"thebestDryzonevegetation
occuronthesesoils.Paradoxically,someoftheworstvegetationalsoexistsonAlluvial
66
soilswhereahighwatertableorveryclayeytextureimpedesaeration.Ingeneral,tall
trees with other mesophytic species of the Dry zone are found on
these soils". Potential and limitations of Regosols and Alluvial
soilsThemostsignificantfeatureofRegosolistheoccurrenceofGyben-Herzberglensof
freshwaterforcultivation.However,overexploitationoflensoffreshwatercouldlead
tocontaminationofgroundwaterbybrackishwaterfromthesea.Tillageoperationsin
thesesoilsareveryeasy.Asthesoilishighlypermeable,microirrigationisthemost
suitabletypeofirrigationforthesesoils.Italsohelpstoreducetheaccumulationof
addednutrientsinthegroundwater.Alluvialsoilspossesgoodphysicalcharactersand
highlyproductive.Asthesesoiloccurneartoriversandstreams,surfaceandground
wateravailabilityisrelativelyhighercomparedtoothersoilsofthearea.Dependingon
the location, flooding and poor drainage may become a problem in
Alluvial soils. Thirappane and Galenbindunuwewa target sites.
ThesetwoDSdivisionsarelocatedintheAnuradhapuraadministrativedistrictofthe
North-centralprovinceofSriLanka.Accordingtotheagro-ecologicalmapofSriLanka
(2003),thesetwotargetsitesfallundertheDL1bAgro-EcologicalRegion(AER).The
mainfeaturesoftheDL1bAERhavebeenadequatelydescribedinaprecedingsection,
thereforeneedsnofurtherelaboration.However,itmustbenotedthat
GalenbindunuwewabeingclosertotheDL1emayexperienceuni-modalrainfallpattern
withanextendedMahaseasonandpoorYalarains(Figure7).Forthespecialneedofthis
report,however,thegeneralclimaticconditionoftheDL1bAERofNorth-central
provincehasshownintheTable19.Astherewasnorainmeasuringstationsfrom
respectivetargetsites,rainfallclimatologyofthetwositeshasshownusingdatafrom
nearby stations (Figure 6 & 7).
NaturalvegetationofbothDSdivisionsis"moistdeciduousforest".However,dueto
clearingofforestforshiftingor"Chena"cultivation,whatisleftoftheforestvegetation
isquitesmallandpredominanttypeexistingvegetationissecondaryvegetationofscrub
67
jungles.Meanwhile,tanksbedsofabandonedsmalltanksfoundinthesetwotargetsites
could be converted to grazing lands with improved varieties.
AruviAruisthemajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheThirappaneDSdivision,whichhas
fairlylargecatchmentacrosstheDryzone(Map5).Therearealargenumberofsmall
tanksintheThirappaneDSdivisionalongwithsomebigtankssuchasNachchaduwa
Wewainacascadesystem(Table19).However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundinthe
areaareeitherabandonedorheavilysilted.Astudyconductedbytheworldfood
programmein2003hasflaggedThirappaneDSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"
tofoodinsecurityamidstlargenumbersmalltanksavailableinthearea.Itsuggeststhat
eventhoughthenumberishigher,thesetanksoperatewellbelowtheircapacitydueto
siltation and disturbance in the respective minor catchment of the
cascadei.
YanOyaisthemajorstreamthatflowsthroughtheGalenbindunuwewaDSdivision,
whichhasarelativelysmallcatchmentcomparedtoAruviAru(Table13&Map5).As
inthecaseofThirappaneDSdivision,GalenbindunuwewaDSdivisionhasalsobeen
blessedwithlargenumberofsmalltanksalongwithHuruluWewainacascadesystem(Table21).However,mostofthesmalltanksfoundintheareaareeitherabandonedor
heavilysilted.Theworldfoodprogrammestudyin2003hasidentifiedtheThirappane
DSdivisionasanareaof"Mostvulnerable"tofoodinsecurityamidstlargenumbersmall
tanksfoundinthearea.Short-sightedeffortstodevelopeachtankinisolationhasmade
tremendousdamagetothesetankscascadesresultingreducedinflowconditionsalong
with increased siltation. i Cascade or chain of tanks is series of
small reservoirs that are constructed at successive locations down
one single common water course. 68 Figure 6Average monthly rainfall
at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)* 050100150200250Jan Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mm*Nearest raingauge
station to Thirappane69 Figure 7Average monthly rainfall at
Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 - 1963) 050100150200250300350Jan Feb Mar
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall mmNearest rain
gauge station to Galenbindunuwewa70 Table 19 Average climatic
conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka
(Location: Maha-Illuppalama/1992 -2001)
JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Max temp.
(0C)29.43233.833.933.132.132.432.733.131.530.229.2 Min temp.
(0C)20.920.821.723.72524.824.624.423.823.222.621.7
Rainfall(mm)101.6129.629.9175.577.826.221.038.682.2248.0304.8185.5
Evaporation (mm/day)2.93.84.84.64.74.85.35.55.03.62.62.5 Wind
velocity (kmph)4.04.24.44.99.612.412.412.110.46.53.53.6 Bright
sunshine Hours6.98.69.58.68.97.97.68.28.16.75.65.6 RH (%) -
morning978682828080797878838789 RH (%) -
evening716151656766626164747970 72
BeingintheDryzone,thecroporpastureproductioninthesetwositesislargely
determinedbyclimaticandedaphicfeatures.ReddishBrownEarth(RBE)withhigh
amountofgravelisthepredominantsoiltypeofthisregionthatcanbefoundoncrest,
upperandmidslopesofgentlyundulatingtoundulatinghighlands.LowHumicGley
(LHG)soilisthemostcommonlyfoundsoiltypeinvalleybottoms.Potentialand
limitationsofthesetwopredominantsoiltypeshavealreadybeendiscussedina
preceding section and therefore, will not elaborate here. Table
20Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division NameName 1Nachchaduwa
Wewa17Meegassegama Wewa 2Thirappane Wewa18Kon Wewa 3Sembukulama
Wewa19Alistana Wewa 4Wellamudawa Wewa20Kudagama Wewa 5Hammilla
Kulama Wewa21Wagaya Kulama Wewa 6Hinnawatta Wewa22Bulankulama Wewa
7Pahala Mawata Wewa23Vendarankulama Wewa 8Wettan Kulama
Wewa24Ittikattiya Wewa 9Selesti Maduwa Wewa25Periya Kulama Wewa
10Tammennagala Wewa26Puduk Kulama Wewa 11Ulan Kulama
Wewa27Uttimaduwa Wewa 12Aiyatiyagama Wewa28Muriyakadawala Wewa
13Amanakattuwa Wewa29Karuwalagas Wewa 14Siwalagala Wewa30Galkulama
Wewa 15Torapitiya Wewa31Eru Wewa 16Mahakanumulla Wewa32Periya
Maduwa Wewa 73 Table 21Tanks found in the Galenbindunuwewa DS
division NameName 1Hurulu Wewa17Aswayabendi Wewa 2Ichchan Kulama
Wewa18Pahala Kantegama Wewa 3Kele Kumbuk Wewa19Taranagollewa Wewa
4Kanni Maduwa Wewa20Maha Keligama Wewa 5Gatalawa Wewa21Kuda
Himbutugollewa Wewa 6Divul Wewa22Maha Himbutugollewa Wewa 7Pahala
Nittawa Wewa23Bora Wewa 8Palugalla Wewa24Siyambala Wewa 9Jayanthi
Wewa25Rotagollagama Wewa 10Rambewa Wewa26Kolongas Wewa
11Karawalagas Wewa27Muwapitiya Wewa 12Ulpotagama Wewa28Uddiyan
Kulama Wewa 13Elapatgama Wewa29Tammenawa Wewa 14Thimbirigas
Wewa30Manakkettiya Wewa 15Ranorawa Wewa31Galwetiya Wewa
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