Sport tourism consumer experiences: a comprehensive model

Journal of Sport Tourism 9(2), 2004, 127-140 D Routledge

Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences: A

Comprehensive Model

Patrick Bouchet, Anne-Marie Lebrun ^ Sarah AuvergneFaculte des Sciences du Sport, Universite de Bourgogne, Dijon, France

ABSTRACT The interest in physical activity and vacations has created a growth in the tourism industryand has greatly modified strategies within the industry. Sport tourism is expanding and many forms ofconsumption exist within this area. The object of this study is to propose a new framework for analysingsport tourism consumption. This framework illustrates that consumer choices depend upon vacationdestinations and sport services offered in relation to the experiences that vacationers are seeking. Theoriginality of this analysis is that it integrates spatial and social dimensions stemming from environmentalpsychology, ethnology and sociology.

KEYWORDS: Marketing, sport tourism, consumption experiences, postmodernism

Introduction

Tourism has becotne a major economic activity due to the combined effects oftransformation of offers and postmodern requests. The changes which have evolvedare such that consumption is more qualitative, more demanding and more varied. Asa result of these changes, sport tourism has become a profitable market due to thepotential for world-wide destinations and to the diversification of sport services. Asa financial generator, this sector is expanding and its actors (local and national) arebeginning to exploit this area, particularly because of its contribution to regionaldevelopment. The sport tourism product can be defined as the association of a touriststay at a certain destination, complemented or determined by at least one type ofsport or physical activity. Five characteristic elements of this are: (a) that actualphysical involvement is essential; (b) the duration of the visit must be equal to orgreater than two days and one night in order to differentiate it from a recreationalstay; (c) the stay may or may not be organized by the client; (d) housing may be ata set location or itinerant; and (e) the sport tourism product is comprised of a groupof services which are often intangible.

Correspondence Address: Sarah Auvergne, Faculte des Sciences du Sport, Universite deBourgogne, Campus Universitaire, BP 27877-21078 Dijon Cedex, France. Email: [email protected]

Journal of Sport Tourism ISSN 1461 6688 print/ISSN 1470-1340 online/04/020127-14 © 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltdhttp://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

DOI: 10.1080/14775080410001732578

128 P. Bouchet et al.

With decentralization laws, communities provide real economic and symbolicprofit of sport tourism, which can play a role in increasing the value and availabilityof space, in structuring the area and in protecting and preserving the environment.Today, however, there appear to be unsuitable or inadequate offers compared withthe extremely diversified demands, including both destinations and products offered.These changes in requests have made numerous tourist sectors obsolete which, upuntil now, had satisfactorily explained and understood the behaviour of vacationers(socio-demographic criteria, social groups and trends). This challenges marketingspecialists to determine new sport tourism offers, inserting new spatial and socialdimensions of postmodern consumption.

On the basis of 'constructiviste' and 'interactionniste' perspectives borrowed fromthe social sciences, 'sport tourism' — the object of consumption — will be analysed asa type of social action in which people consume in various ways (Holt 1995), seekingpleasurable experiences (individual and/or group) which create subjective emotionalreactions for the consumer (Holbrook & Hirschman 1982). The research is limited tothe study of intrinsic or 'autotelique' dimensions (Holt 1995), where vacationersexperience sport tourism in interaction with space and with others. Most theoriesindicate that the construction of the self emerges from significant emotional experi-ences that determine the way in which an individual responds in a particular socialcontext (modern or postmodern, for example). Referring to emotional experience insport tourism suggests that the 'physical and social context' is not only an externalsource that may modify behaviour, but it also functions in the construction ofinformation and in determining behaviour.

The object of the article is first to present the behavioural and motivationalchanges related to sport tourism and then to propose a new framework for analysingthe sport tourism consumer experience. This framework will be used to study a widerange of consumer experiences. The originality of this procedure lies in the integtra-tive of spatial and social dimensions in analysing consumer motivation with referenceto environmental psychology, ethnology and sociology.

The Sport Tourism Consumer: A 'Postmodern' Change?

Expectations with regard to vacations are greater today because they correspond tothe desire to live intensely, attributing greater meaning to free time. The evolution oftourist behaviour encourages both change and the emergence of new values (Du-mazedier 1988). This is noted in the growing desire for autonomy and liberty, instantand optimal pleasure, preference for what is informal and immediate and disinterestfor highly structured projects (Raynouard 1989). Holiday makers are looking forexcitement and new experiences that will provide good and/or new feelings, stimulat-ing their senses.

Heterogeneous Tourist Motivation and Behaviour

The need for a 'break' is one of the principal factors motivating tourists (Iso-Ahola1982). This is indicated by the search for tranquility, escape, adventure and otherfundamental expectations, such as charm, comfort, security and health (Besancenot1990). Mermet (1996) notes that when French people are on vacation they like torelax and participate in cultural or sporting activities if they choose to. They arelooking for independence and conviviality, comfort and adventure, security andvariety simultaneously. They are demanding and interested clients who expect to

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 129

be treated uniquely. According to Amirou (1999), the tourist's imagination,more or less structured, is what guides and organizes his/her behaviour. Frenchpeople want to have more privileged tourist opportunities, as expressedin their common desires to be different, to escape the crowd, to get away frombeaten paths, to have unusual experiences, to develop their individuality byrefusing to conform and so on. Many recent studies suggest that there is a strongresurgence of 'maternal' needs, of being 'held', as reflected in the desire for reassur-ance, comfort, protection and security. This is accompanied by the reappearance ofthemes regarding authenticity, simplicity and of one's home, which is alwaysfantasized and associated with a small community. If 'tradition' and 'innovation' arethe basis for the diversity of tourist motivation, two other tendencies are alsoemerging.

On the one hand, the traveller is an observant person who visits infrequentlytravelled regions in order to appreciate the culture, the beauty of nature and itssurroundings and to provide a change from daily routines. Three L's summarize thesemotivations: Lore Landscape, and Leisure. This form of tourism, therefore,represents a consumption during which the individual's experience is privileged,extraordinary and, therefore, sacred compared to daily life in which work androutine signify ignorance (Belk 1987; Jafari 1988; Belk et al. 1989; Graillot 1996;Laplante 1996).

On the other hand, the traveller is a dynamic tourist who is physically activeand who takes full advantage of a paradisiacal and contrasted environment.According to Mermet (1996), vacations are a means of evacuating accumulatedstress, but relaxation and a change of mind state do not systematically imply beingpassive. On the contrary, it is from discovering and participating in differentattractive and enriching activities that vacationers derive their enjoyment and stabil-ity. Tourist stays are, therefore, more and more diversified with the desire to get inshape and become more cultured. According to Holt (1995), they may be consumedfor various reasons: 'classification' in order to become part of a group or todifferentiate oneself from a group; 'integration' in order to belong to a community orto emphasize one's individuality; the search for an experience; or simply for rec-reation.

In fact, the tourist would like to satisfy a variety of needs associating thepast, present and future which are, paradoxically, 'm oneself but not'for oneself. According to Dienot and Theiller (1999), the tourist expects tosatisfy poorly defined needs, even though the offers of sport tourism associatedwith these desires are, by definition, imperfect and generally maladapted.These diffuse wishes of multiple forms are connected by the desire: to escapeand change scenery; to evacuate stress due to the daily pressure of living inthe fast lane; for physical fitness and well-being due to a sedentary lifestyle at theworkplace; to be in style or even avant-grade; to occupy time (free, leisure, vacation)due to work reduction and an annual work schedule; for self-fulfillment; for initiationof new activities because of advanced technology which allows one to learn morequickly. For 'neo-marketing' specialists, the new vacationers are more demanding(quality, cost) 'consum' actors', requesting more diversified benefits, with individual-ized offers. This postmodern evolution has greatly modified and complicated thebehaviour of tourist consumers for those who have to respond to their needs(functional) and desires (nonmaterial and emotional) which are not necessarilycoherent.

130 P. Bouchet et al.

New Experiments in Sport Tourism Consumption

In view of the heterogeneity of consumer behaviours and motivations, the choices andtypes of tourist consumption appear to be guided by new relationships with oneself,with others and with space (Dienot & Theiller 1999; Amirou 2000).

Physical experiences of 'self-actualization' A fundamental characteristic of sporttourism is that the individual must actively participate, beyond just relaxing or justwanting to have something to do, and must interact with others or with nature.Indeed, the common denominator is that it is, for the most part, an outdoor,individual activity, involving a risk to some extent, with the connotation 'adventure'or 'getting in shape' more or less emphasized. The pursuit of a new physicalexperience is based upon 'self-actualization' through the (re)discovery of one'sintellectual and physical aptitudes. It is characterized by the search for novelty, for'unknown' nonconformist places where risk is experienced and for the importance ofthe discovery instilling a feeling of self-worth. It can be broken down into twosubdimensions: the desire for independent choices and the desire for self-actualiza-tion.

Independence The requirement for autonomy in sport tourism combines the needsfor self-norming, diversification and alternation. Participants do as they please. Theychoose their own type of activity (individual or structured), social relationship andaesthetic model. In addition, there is a choice with respect to the project, itsfrequency, intensity, place and time. The need for diversification is reflected in thedesire that tourists have to participate in a variety of sporting activities (paragliding,canyoning, etc.), or to combine several sports as part of one activity or as part oftheir entire stay (duathlons and other adventure challenges). Finally, the need toalternate is manifested by the frequent changes in sport tourism activities from oneyear to another, where some activities end and others begin, a sign of contemporaryversatility.

/ Self-actualization The desire for self-actualization is based on two main compo-nents: health and challenge. For the most part, sport tourism allows for maximumpersonal management of one's 'health capital' which increases feelings of well-being,self-control, resistance to fatigue and stress, energy and vitality, self-harmony andrelief from tension. In addition, one's imagination can be expressed while looking forsomething out of the ordinary (Dienot & Theiller 1999). Sport tourism encouragesone to surpass one's own physical and psychological resources. The recent focus onphysical appearance, the striving for physical beauty and the wish to use free timeand vacations wisely (Barel & Butel 1988) justify the investment in a 'corporalcapital'. But the drive for effort, exertion and performance (Le Breton 1990; Ehren-berg 1991; Courtine 1993) has progressively been replaced by the drive for 'excite-ment' and 'emotion'. For Maurice (1987), sensations can be defined as a range ofphysical, sensual and imaginary experiences, which become part of one's movementand of one's contact with nature. What predominates is the will to attain short-termgoals, preferring quality to function, amusement and immediate enjoyment to aes-thetics. However, since pleasure is only transient, five major consequences occur:diversified activities; versatile preferences and heterogeneous demands; limited dur-ation; high abandon rate; low proficiency level (Dienot &C Theiller 1999).

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 131

'Ecological' experiences If ecological development is prevalent today, it is becausetourist regions and living areas are being modified because of demands that sportingactivities take place in their natural environment. The majority of tourists will onlyparticipate in 'nature tourism' if contact with nature is part of their discovery.Natural areas (sea, lakes, deserts, mountains) or picturesque sites (caverns, waterfalls,glaciers) have currently become the major attractions of sport tourism (Duhamei &Sacareau, 1998), where individuals can relax, admire or cross over them. Individualsbecome 'daily adventurers' in the midst of nature while they participate in sportingactivities for a weekend, a few days or for longer periods (Dienot & Theiller 1999).This tourism and sport 'vagabonding' creates a new community sentiment, providingtourists with more meaning than they find in their daily lives even if it is onlyephemeral. The extent to which they feel they belong to a particular area is relativeto the intensity of the experience.

All sport tourism activities take place in a 'dynamic' (interactive) area. Formoderately difficult or 'soft' activities (hiking, diving, for example), nature is mainlyfor show, admiration, sensory experiences and emotions. For more difficult or 'hard'activities, the place becomes a partner for games, adventure, in the struggle where anopponent may appear hostile, overbearing, mythical and so on. The goal is, there-fore, to master this space using the latest and safest equipment and technology but,in order to participate, strength, energy or physical ability are necessary. There is aconstant search for a harmonious relationship between human and technologicalresources and natural obstacles, a task requiring a great deal of personal investment,knowledge and affection for the area. In this 'ecological' experience, sport tourism isonly worthwhile in direct relation to the location, without being part of a group oran organization and without reference to others or to external norms.

Social 'affiliation' experiences Fmotional experiences also accompany the physicalexperiences that are sought through environmental contact. But sport tourist be-haviours fiuctuate between the solitude of a jogger on a beach to a group of mountainclimbers or surfers in the midst of a marathon crowd. This diversity of socialbelonging seems to be related to 'affiliation', perhaps even emotional affection, moreor less shared among participants. A metamorphosis of social relationships based onthe sharing of emotions and experiences reinforces their similarities (Maffesoli 1988).Redefining sport tourism values helps the person individually as well as the entiregroup (Badot &C Cova 1995). Individualizing does not mean a lack of social relation-ships, but rather that there are strong feelings of belonging characterized by multipletransient and unstable social clusters. The great majority of participants in largesporting events (running, cycling races) engage in their sport together, rather thanagainst or next to someone, with the intention of helping each other and of sharingan intense and unique moment. Sport tourism is the opportunity to form relation-ships (friendly, affectionate, warm, welcoming, cordial) with the other vacationers ornative residents during the activity, throughout or beyond the stay. Sport tourismconsumption is, therefore, no longer founded only on the logic of distinction anddifferentiation, characteristic of societies where class conflict reigns, but rather it isbased on a postmodern logic of community identification, including affection andemotion.

In addition, when individuals wish to enter into a group, it seems small and,therefore, minimizes the restrictions and structure imposed on it from the outside.According to Badot and Cova (1995), this phase permits connections to be brokenamong individuals from the same group (social, family, ethnic) and it prohibits all

132 P. Bouchet et al.

types of contractual groups. Joining these informal groups leads to other forms ofsociability based more on good times and fun rather than on status or professionaland family roles (excluding work seminars, social tourism or physical educationclasses). Through the social, temporal and spatial flexibility of these organizations,tourists can utilize different values than those employed on a daily basis. These typesof sport tourism communities are volatile and transient, requiring facilities thatprovide the participants with the opportunity to meet and interact with others.

Proposal of a Framework for Analysing Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences

In general, four different theories are used to study the consumption behaviour of thesport tourist. The first, behavioural theory, concentrates on the tourist groupactivities and interactions (Craburn 1989; Smith 1989). Secondly, the theory ofcognitive psychology emphasizes tourist values, attitudes, needs, risk-taking behav-iour and motivation (Cohen 1979; Snepenger 1987; Citelson & Kerstetter 1990;Nickerson & Ellis 1991; Locker & Perdue 1992; Roel & Fesenmaier 1992). A thirdtheory combines the psychological variables and behavioural roles of the traveller(Cohen 1972; Pearce 1982; Yiannakis & Cibson, 1992; Lee & Crompton 1992; Mo etal. 1994). The fourth theory is based on an experiential model (Holbrook &Hirschman 1982; Holbrook 1986, 1999) in studying tourist behaviours and emotions(Brown 1992; Craillot 1996).

The originality of the analytical proposal here is the consideration of differenttheories in studying tourist behaviour with an emphasis in consumer experiences thatprovide a better understanding of their motivation. It appears that the vacationer isseeking emotions and feelings characterized by symbolic, hedonistic and aestheticfactors. Three types of action form the basis for sport tourist emotions: action whichis characterized by risk-taking in a hostile environment; performance which consistsof challenging oneself; and confronting others competitively or recreationally (Jeu1984). It would, however, be an exaggeration to distinguish those who prefercompetition and challenge from those who prefer the emotional experience andephemeral adventure. Besides, sport tourism consumption differentiates itself withrespect to the intensity of the experience and the rate at which individuals engage inan activity, become a part of it and detach themselves from it, temporarily orpermanently. The pleasure principle is essential in consumer experience satisfaction,'hedonism having become the main axis and epicenter of postmodern culture'(Lipovetsky 1983).

This analytical framework of the sport consumer experience is based on threedimensions: new relationships with oneself (variables concerning self-worth), withthe area (spatial variables) and with others (interpersonal variables).

Variables Related to Self-worth

The first dimension, self-worth, is comprised of four categories of variables stemmingfrom different research theories regarding tourist behaviour.

Implication for sport tourism Although the term 'implication' has been used todesignate very different phenomena (Krugman 1966; Wright 1973; Petty & Cacioppo1981), Strazzieri (1994)) considers the following definition to be generally acceptable.'Implication is an unobservable state of motivation, excitement or interest, created by

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 133

an object or a specific situation. It influences behavior, certain types of product-seek-ing, information processing and decision-making' (Rothschild 1984). As a psycholog-ical state, it is affected by the nature of the product (or service) and by the contextof the purchase or the consumption of the product (or service) (Engel et al. 1990). Itappears that 'implication' regarding destination and sport in general (Bouchet, et al.2001) is an important variable for sport tourism consumption.

Perceived risk Bauer (1960) introduced the concept of perceived risk in the marketingliterature. Voile (1995) considers 'risk as the possibility of sustaining a loss at the timeof purchase or consumption of a product, goods or services'. In accordance withStrazzieri (1994), their analysis prefers to separate implication from perceived risk.Therefore, Mallet's (2001) definition is followed: 'risk is a two-dimensional (import-ance and probability of loss) and multi-faceted (social, physical, financial, psycholog-ical, temporal) construct'. Ballofet and Rigaux-Bricmont (1998) demonstrated theexistence of significant differences in the selection of tourist destinations with respectto the following aspects of risk: physical, financial and psychological. This variableis also of interest when considering physical activities, since the degree of riskperceived by 'consumers' is very different depending upon the activity (Zuckerman1983). The concept of perceived risk is, therefore, related to both tourist destinationsand sport services offered.

Seeking an optimal stimulation level (OSL) Certain researchers have attempted tomake the concept of OSL more operational in studying the tendency to seekexcitement (Mehrabian & Russell 1974) in one's daily life (Craillot 1996), throughchange (Carlington & Shimota 1964; Penney & Reinhr 1966), by the desire fornovelty (Pearson 1970), in preference similarity (Pearson & Maddi 1966) and throughsensory experiences (Zuckerman 1964, 1979, 1983). Attempting to reach an OSL ischaracteristic of individual's in terms of their general response to environmentalstimuli. It has been defined by certain authors as 'the point of ideal excitement towhich every individual aspires and tries to maintain or reestablish through hisbehavior' (Berlyne 1960; Fiske & Maddi 1961; Hunt 1963; Driver & Streufert 1965).Thus, the search for an OSL regarding both the physical activity and the destination(new environment) appears to be pertinent in studying sport tourism consumption.

Seeking variety and novelty Searching for variety is tied to the need for an OSL thatis unique for every individual (Driver & Streufert 1965; Raju & Venkatesan 1980;McAlister & Pessemier 1982) and which is within his/her comfort zone (Hebb 1955;Leuba 1955; Berlyne 1960). Variety is not only obtained through the environment, italso occurs by incorporating a dynamic component into one's routine (Filser 1994).Menon and Kahn (1995) consider that the need for stimulation can be satisfied eitherby varying the brand within a product category, or by varying the category of theproduct or the situation. Within the framework of sport tourism, looking for varietyin choosing either a physical activity or a tourist destination, or both will satisfy theneed for consumer stimulation. Searching for variation is a means of obtainingstimulation not only through buying or by alternating one's choices among objectssuch as stores or product brands, but also in tourist destinations and/or physicalactivities, simply because one would like to try something different. A destinationchange would decrease one's search for variety in physical and sporting activities and,inversely, a physical and sporting activity change would lessen the search for variety

134 P. Bouchet et al.

Tahle 1 Types of space in sport tourism

Open space Closed space

Physical space (modern) Tourist destination Basic tourism service viewedobservational as functional space

Living space (postmodern) Tourist destination Sport tourism serviceinteractive viewed as experiential space

in tourist destinations. Within the tourism framework, novelty seeking is an interest-ing variable (Lee & Crompton 1992) because the perception of the new destinationis a function of the perceived novelty of the object (previous experience), of theenvironment (cultural atmosphere) and other people (residents or visitors). Indeed,the marketing literature describes the search for novelty as the result of an individ-ual's efforts to re-establish harmony between his/her OSL and his/her experiences ata lower intensity level (Wahlers & Etzel 1985). The search for novelty, therefore, alsoappears to be an important element in determining the behaviour of the sport tourist.

Spatial Variables

The second dimension, which is more innovative, refers to the idea of space becauseof the ritualistic, sacred or spiritual dimension (for example, the Himalayas, Hawaii)of certain sites, destinations or tourist attractions that occurs in sport tourism. Awayfrom ordinary life, these locations are considered to be strong, emblematic places,special or paradisiacal, resembling objects on exhibit for tourists in order to facilitateindividual or group experiences (Bessiere 2000). For environmental psychologists(Fischer 1997), the notion of space can be broken down in two ways. The first waydifferentiates functional physical space (locations in which we grow up that havedifferent functions) from personally experienced space (motor, tactile, visual, affec-tive and social experiences producing meaningful cultural values through spatialrelations). The second way distinguishes open and public space considered to benatural space (related directly to the tourist destination) and closed and private space,perceived as artificial space created by people, reserved for certain groups (related tosport participation). In any case, individuals can alternate between open and closedspaces during their stay or even during the same day. In order to comprehend thenotion of space within the framework of sport tourism, they need to be separated, asenvironmental psychologists do (Table 1).

Functional space considered as modern space Modern space is an area whereindividuals can observe and consume in a passive manner. The tourist destination isthis type of space. From this perspective, individuals only explore exceptionaldestinations away from their ordinary lifestyles (Remy 2000). Tourist services areperceived as functional space and isolated areas, according to Remy (1994), whichmeans that the service structure provides special privileges. In general, this com-munity may not be regarded as a tourist area (Auge 1997) if it is too conventional anddoes not allow social relationships to develop. However, it may be seen as a truecommunity if social bonding can occur.

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 135

Personal living space considered as postmodern space Postmodern space is areawhere individuals can interact, feel a sense of belonging and share new experiences.It is not geographical space but is rather made up of individual experiences(Fischer 1981) which become personal living space. The tourist tries to makeit feel like his/her own place, to settle in and create a community (Moles & Rohmer1998). The feeling of belonging constitutes an essential element of one's relationshipwith space as it informs us of the social attitudes of individuals and groupsexisting in this space (Fischer 1997). The sense of belonging is important in thedevelopment of one's living space (Bonnin 2000) because individuals can familiarizethemselves with the space, enabling them to create their own personal space (Fischer1981). The tourist considered as an autonomous, co-producer of space (Aubert-Gamet 1996) is free to experiment with different available elements. There postmod-ern individual's therefore, design their own experience, as Aubert-Camet and Cova(1996) remark. If these elements are transposed to sport tourism, one could imaginethat vacationers feel like they own the tourist destination because of their activeparticipation in various sporting activities (personal rock climbing or surfing spots),or because of their unexpected personal discoveries (along hiking trails, duringexcursions).

Interpersonal variables

The third dimension involves developing new relationships with others. As tourismis a break from one's daily routine and the vacationer no longer physically lives in thesame space or in the same geographical location, the social roles also change (Poulain2000). Faced with unstable family relationships and with the complexity of daily life,tourism is a search, although ephemeral, for social relationships where one no longerfeels lonely and isolated. The need for sociability, more humanistic relations andfriendlier societies are factors motivating tourists. Sport tourism, therefore, has asocialization function as well (Bessiere 2000).

This phenomenon is not new. Certain authors have already studied the interactionof tourist groups (Craburn 1989; Smith 1989) or of local populations (Mo et al.,1994). It is this postmodern phenomenon that is encouraging individuals to seekgroup experiences where strong emotional and affective relationships can be formed.In addition, postmodern tourists may create micro-groups for which 'the consump-tion system is no longer perceived as primary in creating interpersonal relationshipsbut is rather secondary' (Cova & Roncaglio 1999). From this perspective of socialrelationships within communities, the concept of prolonging one's stay no longermakes sense. One notes, therefore, the emergence of new ways to meet that aremainly opportunities for sharing (Aubert-Camet &C Cov, 1996). This essentiallyconcerns the tourism and recreational sectors in the sense that there is a rupture infamily and professional life. Social relationships help interpersonal exchange in twoways: from oneself toward others and vice versa. The service here is no longerconsumed for itself, but as a contributing factor encouraging communication andsocial relationships (Aubert-Camet & Cova 1996; Fvrard & Aurier 1996; Aurier etal., 2000). 'But the environment could be considered as a personal or group creationderiving its meaning from actual experiences' (Aubert-Camet &C Cova 1996). This iswith the understanding that other tourists or native residents are actively involved inthe area. It is important to keep in mind that the environment also intervenes as amediator in social phenomena.

136 P. Bouchet et al.

Tahle 2 Types of social groups in sport tourism

'Closed' social relationship 'Open' social relationship

'Contiguous' socialinteraction (modern)'Shared' social interaction(postmodern)

Social intimacy

Trihe

Crowd

Community

In sport tourism, one must examine social interactions in relation to the type ofspace involved. Aubert-Camet and Cova (1996) remark that a dichotomy existswhereby modern space is 'nowhere', thus, provoking the loss of social relationshipsversus postmodern space where social relationships are created. In order to studysocial interactions in these two types of space, the page will review the work ofBourgeon and Puhl (2000) that considers two facets of social relationships: 'closed''open' and the terms 'shared' and 'contiguous' will be used to distinguish postmodernand modern spaces of social interaction (Table 2).

Interactions in modern space Aubert-Camet and Cova (1996) define modern space asanonymous space in which the individual is alone in a crowd. These spaces of'nowhere', according to Auge (1994) are unlike one's residence since individuals donot feel that this space belongs to them. In this type of space, solitary socialrelationships are contiguous (individual experiences occur at the same time, but nextto each other, an individual is alone next to others, or an individual is in the middleof a crowd). A closed social interaction is a 'personal' interaction with no truesharing among different group members, but rather individuals engage in theiractivity separately and parallel to one another. Open social relationships occur inlarge groups where social contact is superficial.

Interactions in postmodern space In postmodern space, individuals experience a senseof belonging. In tourism, this space is an extension of one's residence. Such spaceallows individuals to share social relationships and emotional experiences togetherwhether the interaction is closed or open. 'Shared and open' social interaction isrelated to the notion of a tribe according to Maffesoli (1988) and it is believed tounite three groups.

1. The primary group includes family and close friends and is a relatively stablegroup. One or several members of this primary group may accompany the tourist.

2. The secondary group represents friendly professional and non-professional rela-tionships. This is a fairly stable group, but less stable than the first group. Thevacationer may be accompanied by one or several members of this secondarygroup, but this occurs less frequently than for the primary group.

3. The third group is more volatile and ephemeral. It is comprised of native residentsof the tourist destination and the people within the sport service structure(employees or tourists) who live together at a given time sharing a commonexperience. This group may be divided into micro-groups and, depending uponthe circumstances, it may last for the duration of the sporting activity and thenend once the activity has finished. Tourists may share experiences with othermembers as they engage in different activities.

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 137

V4RIABLES EXPLAININGSPORT TOURJSM CONSUMPTION

Variables related to self-worth

ImplicationPerceived riskVariety / noveltyOSL

Spatial variables

Open space / closed spaceFunctional space / living space

Interpersonal variables

Social relationships : open / closedSocial relationships ; shared /contiguous

RESULT OFSPORT TOURISMCONSUMPTION

Consumptionexperiences- Physical

activity- Destination

NEWBEHAVIOURS

OBSERVED

Sport touristbehaviours

characterized bynew relationships

- with oneself-with, space

- with others

..J

Figure 1. Sport tourism consumer experiences: a comprehensive model (OSL, optimal,stimulation level)

The spatial and interpersonal variables related to self-worth allow proposition of acomprehensive model of experiences in sport tourism consumption which integratenew relationships with oneself, with others and with space (Figure 1).

Conclusions

Up until the end of the 1990s, marketing in the tourist industry mainly focused, noton the consumer, but on the 'visitor' or the destination, with strategies being relatedto the products or services offered. With the evolution of sport tourism, however,offers have become totally inappropriate due to the greater heterogeneity of touristmotivation and behaviour. The object of this study is, therefore, to re-analyse sporttourism consumption by describing the destinations and services offered in relationto the experiences that vacationers are looking for. As a result, this should allow thetourist industry to redefine their strategies or the clientele they are targeting.

It is the contention of this paper that this is an innovative approach for studyingthe consumption experience because it integrates new relationships with oneself, withspace and with others. It is also enriched with ideas stemming from environmentalpsychology, ethnology and sociology. As this analytical framework is only the firstproposal, it needs to be supplemented and refined by further scientific investigation.An initial phase of qualitative research should confirm the pertinence of the variablesrelated to self-worth and also make the new categories of spatial and interpersonalvariables more operational. An empirical phase will then need to be conducted inorder to validate this model. Should the results of future studies prove to beconclusive, this analytical framework of investigating consumer experiences could begeneralized to other marketing areas.

138 P. Bouchet et al.

References

Amirou, R. (1999) lmaginaire du tourisme culturel (Paris: PUF).Amirou, R. (2000) lmaginaire du tourisme culturel, in: Le tourisme local: une culture de

I'exotisme (L'harmattan, tourismes et societes), pp. 61—70.Aubert-Gamet, V. (1996) Le design d'environnement commercial dans les services: appropria-

tion et detournement du client. These pour le doctorat de science de gestion, Aix-Mar-seille 3.

Aubert-Gamet, V. &C Gova, B. (1996) Le design des espaces de services a l'epreuve de lapostmodernite, Gestion 2000, 2, pp. 131—152.

Auge, M. (1994) Non-lieux. Introduction a une anthropologie de la sur-modernite (Paris:Seuil).

Auge, M. (1997) L'impossible voyage. Le tourisme et ses images (Ed Rivages, Petite biblio-theque poche n°21).

Aurier, P., Evrard, Y. &c N'Goala, G. (2000) Valeur de consommation et valeur globale,Congres international de I'Association Frangaise de Marketing, pp. 151-162.

Badot, O. & Gova, B. (1995) Gommunaute et consommation: prospective pour un 'marketingtribal'. Revue Frangaise de Marketing, pp. 5-17.

Ballofet, P. & Rigaux-Bricmont, B. (1998) L'importance du risque perfu dans le choix desvoyages touristiques, Gestion 2000, 6, novembre-decembre, pp. 37-51.

Barel, Y. &c Butel M. (1988) Les medecines paralleles, quelques lignes de force (Paris: Ladocumentation Eranjaise).

Bauer, R.A. (1960) Gonsumer behavior as risk taking, in: R.S. Hancock (Ed.) DynamicMarketing for a Changing World, pp. 389-398. (American Marketing Association).

Belk, R. W. (1987) The role of the Odyssey in consumer behavior and in consumer research.Advances in Consumer Research, 14, pp. 357-361.

Belk, R. W., Sherry, J. E. & Waliendorf, M. (1989) A naturalistic inquiry into buyer and sellerbehavior at a swap meet. Journal of Consumer Research, 14, pp. 449-470.

Berlyne, D.E. (1960) Conflict, Arousal and Curiosity (New York: McGraw-Hill).Besancenot, P. (1990) Climat et Tourisme (Paris: Masson Editeur).Bessiere, J. (2000) Valeurs rurales et imaginaire touristiques, in: Le tourisme local: Q25 une

culture de I'exotisme, (L'harmattan, tourismes et societes), pp. 71—92.Bonnin, G. (2000) L'experience de magasinage: conceptualisation et exploration des roles du

comportement physique et de I'amenagement de I'espace, These pour le doctorat descience de gestion, Dijon.

Bouchet, P., Lebrun, A.M. & Meurgey, B. (2001) L'influence du concept d'implication dans laconsommation de pratiques sportives. Paper presented on the 2°"' journee de recherche enmarketing du sport, Dijon.

Bourgeon, D. &C Puhl, M. (2000) Le comportement de frequentation de l'evenement culturel:de l'experience individuelle a la recherche de lien social, in: XV eme journee nationalesdes IAE,Q27 Biarritz, pp. 1-18.

Brown, G. (1992) Tourism and symbolic consumption, in: P. Johnson &c B. Thomas (Eds)Choice and Demand in Tourism, pp. 57—71.

Gohen, E. (1972) Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research, 39, pp. 164—182.

Gohen E. (1979) A phenomenology of tourist experiences. Sociology, 13, pp. 179-202.Gourtine, J.J. (1993) Les stakhanovistes du narcissisme. Communications, 56, pp. 225-251.Gova, B. & Roncaglio, M. (1999) Rreperer et soutenir des tribus de consommateurs. Decisions

marketing, 19, pp. 7-15.Dienot, J. Sc Theiller, D. (1999) Les nouveaux loisirs sportifs en montagne. Les aventuriers du

quotidien (Bordeaux: Maison des Sciences de l'Homme d'Aquitaine).Driver, M. J. & Streufert, S. (1965) The general incongruity adaptation level (GIAL) hypoth-

esis: an analysis and integration of cognitive approaches to motivation. Paper 114,Institute for Research in the Behavorial, Economic and Management Sciences, HermanG., Krannert Graduate School of Industrial Administration, Perdue University, WestLafayette, IN.

Duhamei, P. & Sacareau, I. (1998) Le tourisme dans le monde (Paris: Armand Golin).Dumazedier, J. (1988) Vers une civilisation du loisir? (Paris: Seuil).Ehrenberg, A. (1991) Le culte de la performance (Pluriel, Hachette Litteratures).Engel, J. E., Blackwell, R. D. & Miniard, P. W. (1990) Consumer Behavior, 6th edn, (Ghicago,

IL: Dryden Press), pp. 11, 332.

Model of Sport Tourism Consumer Experiences 139

Evrard, Y. &c Aurier, P. (1996) Identification and validation of the components of person-ob-ject relationship. Journal of Business Research, 37(2) pp. 127—134.

Eilser, M. (1994) Comportement du consommateur (Paris: Precis Dalloz).Eischer, G.N. (1981) La psychosociologie de I'espace (Paris: PUE, coll Que sais je? n°1925).Fischer, G.N. (1997) Psychologie de I'environnement social (Dunod).Eiske, D.W. & Maddi, S.R. (1961) Functions of Varied Experience (Homewood, IL: Dorsey

Press), pp. 11-56.Garlington, W.K & Shimota, H.E. (1964) The change seeker index: a measure of the need for

variable stimulus input. Psychology Report, 14, pp. 919-924.Gitelson, R.J. & Kerstetter, D.L. (1990) The relationship between sociodemographic variables,

benefits sought and subsequent vacation behavior: a case study. Journal of TravelResearch, 28(3), pp. 24-29.

Graburn, N.H.H. (1989) Tourism: The sacred journey, in: V. Smith (Ed.) Hosts and Guests:The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd edn, pp. 21-36 (Philadelphia, PA: University ofPennsylvania Press).

Graillot, L. (1996) Segmentation, choix de cibles et positionnement des produitstouristiques: une approche methodologique; these pour le doctorat, de science de gestion,Dijon.

Hebb, D.O. (1955) Drives and the conceptual nervous system. Psychological Review, 62,pp. 142,-15^.

Hirschman, E.G. ic Holbrook, M.B. (1982) Hedonic consumption: emerging concepts, meth-ods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), pp. 92—101.

Holbrook, M.B. (1986) Emotion in the consumption experience: toward a new modelof the human consumer, in: R.A. Peterson, W.D. Hoyer & W.R. Wilson (Eds) The Roleof Affect Behavior: Emerging Theories and Applications, pp. 17—52 (Lexington, MA: D.G.Health).

Holbrook, M.B. (1999) Consumer Value. A Framework for Analysis and Research (London:Routledge).

Holbrook, M.B. & Hirschman, E.G. (1982) The experiential aspects of consumption: con-sumer fantasies, feelings and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, pp. 132—140.

Holt, D.B. (1995) How consumers consume: a typology of consumption practices. Journal ofConsumer Research, 22, pp. 1-16.

Hunt, J.M. (1963) Motivation inherent in information processing and action, in: O.J. Harvey(Ed.) Motivation and Social Interaction: Cognitive Determinant, pp. 35—94 (New York:Ronald Press).

Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1982) Toward a social psychological theory of tourism motivation: a rejoin-der. Annals of Tourism Research, 9, pp. 256-261.

Jafari, J. (1988) Le systeme du touriste: modeles socio-culturels en vue d'applications theo-riques et pratiques, Loisirs et societes, 11(1), Quebec.

Jeu, B. (1984), Le sport, I'emotion, I'espace, 2nd edn (Paris: Vigot).Krugman, H. (1966) The measurement of advertising involvement. Public Opinion Quaterly,

30, pp. 583-596.Laplante, M. (1996) L'experience touristique contemporaine, fondements sociaux et culturels

(Quebec: PUQ).Le Breton (1990) Anthropologie du corps et modernite (Paris: PUE).Lee, T.H. &C Grompton, J. (1992) Measuring novelty seeking in tourism. Annals of Tourism

Research, 19, pp. 732-751.Leuba, G. (1955) Toward some integration of learning theories: the concepts of optimal

stimulation. Psychological Report, pp. 27-33.Lipovetsky (1983) L'ere du vide. Essai sur I'individualisme contemporrain (Paris: Gallimaro).Locker, L.E S>C Perdue, R.R (1992) A benefit based segmentation of a nonresident summer

travel market. Journal of Travel Research, 31(1), pp. 30-35.Maffesoli, M. (1988), Le temps des tribus: le declin de I'individualisme dans les societes de

masse (Meridiens klincksiek, Le livre de Poche)Mallet, S. (2001) Pour une clarification de la mesure du risque per9u. Paper presented at the

•jyemc Qongres international de l'association Erangaise de Marketing.Maurice, A. (1987) Le surfeur et le militant. Valeurs et sensibilites politiques des jeunes, en

France et en Allemagne, des annees 60 aux annees 90, (Paris: Autrement).McAlister, L. Sc Pessemier, E. (1982) Variety-seeking behavior: an interdiciplinary review.

Journal of Consumer Research, 9(12), pp. 311—322.

140 P. Bouchet et al.

Mehrabian, A. & Russell J. A. (1973), A measure of arousal seeking tendency. Environmentand Behavior, 5, pp. 315-333.

Menon, Satya & Kahn, Barbara E. (1995) The impact of context on variety seeking in productchoices. Journal of Consumer Research, 22, pp. 285-295.

Mermet, G. (1996) Tendances, le nouveau consommateur (Paris: Larousse).Mo, G.M., Havitz, M.E. & Howard, D. (1994) Segmenting travel markets with the inter-

national tourism role (ITR) scale. Journal of Travel Research, summer.Moles, A. & Rohmer, E. (1998) Psychologie sociale de I'espace (Harmattan villes et en-

treprises)Nickerson, N.P. & Ellis, G.D. (1991) Traveler types and activation theory: a comparison of

two models. Journal of Travel Research, 29(3), pp. 26—31.Pearce, P.I. (1982), The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour (Oxford: Pergamon Press).Pearson, P.H. (1970) Relationships Between global and specified measures of novelty seeking.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43(2), pp. 199—204.Pearson, P. H. &c Maddi, S. R. (1966) The similes preference inventory: development of a

structural measure of the tendancy toward variety. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 30,pp. 301-308.

Penney, R. K. & Reinhr, R. G. (1966) Development of a stimulus-variation seeking scale foradults. Psychological Reports, 18, pp. 631-638.

Petty, R. & Gacioppo, J.T. (1981) Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and ContemporaryApproaches (Dubuqye, IA: William G. Brown).

Poulain, J.P. (2000) Les patrimoines gastronomiques et Ieurs valorisations touristiques, in: Letourisme local: une culture de I'exotisme (L'harmattan, tourismes et societes), pp. 157-184.

Raju, P.S. (1980), Optimum stimulation level: its relationship to personality, demographics,and exploratory behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 7, pp. 272—282.

Raju P. S. S>i. Venkatesan, M. (1980) Exploratory behavior in the consumer context: a state ofthe art review. Advances in Consumer Research, 7, pp. 258-263.

Raynouard, Y. (1989) Le mouvement perpetuel. Revue Espace, 100, pp. 32-45.Remy, E. (2000), Le lien social dans les echanges marchands de service: concept de services de

lien et habillage social These de doctorat en Science de Gestion, Universite de Rouen.Remy, J. (1994) L'implication paradoxale dans l'experience touristique, Recherches soci-

ologiques, 2, pp. 61-78.Roel & Eesenmaier (1992), Tourism land use conflict in the United States, Annals of Tourism

Research, 14, pp. 471-485.Rothschild (1984), Perspectives on involvement: current problems and future directions.

Advances in Consumer Research, 11, pp. 216-217.Smith, G.V. (1989) The European conference market, in: Tourism and Travel Analyst, 4,

pp. 60-76 (London: Economist Intelligence Unit).Snepenger, D.J. (1987) Segmenting the vacation market by novelty-seeking role. Journal of

Travel Research, 26, pp. 8—14.Strazzieri A. (1994) Mesurer l'implication durable vis a vis d'un produit independamment du

risque pergu, Recherches et Applications Marketing, 9(1), pp. 73-91.Voile, P. (1995) Le concept de resque per^u en psychologie du consommateur: antecedents et

statuts theoriques. Recherche et applications en marketing, X, pp. 39-56.Wahlers, R. G. &c Etzel, M. J. (1985) A consumer response to incongruity between optimal

stimulation and lifestyle satisfaction. Advances in Consumer Research, 12, pp. 97—101.Wright P. (1973) Gognitive processes mediating acceptance of advertising. Journal of Market-

ing Research, 10, pp. 53-62.Yiannakis, A. & Gibson, H. (1992) Roles tourists play. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(2),

pp. 287-303.Zuckerman, M. (1964) Development of a sensation seeking scale. Journal of Consulting

Psychology, 28(6), pp. 477-482.Zuckerman, M. (1979), Sensation Seeking: Beyond the Optimal Level of Arousal (Hillsdale,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).Zuckerman, M. (1983), Sensation seeking and sport. Personality and Individual Differences,

4(3), pp. 285-293.