Sport in Society: Issues & Controversies Sports and Children: Are Organized Programs Worth the Effort?

Sport in Society:Sport in Society:Issues & ControversiesIssues & Controversies

Sports and Children:Sports and Children:

Are Organized Programs Are Organized Programs Worth the Effort?Worth the Effort?

Origins of Origins of Organized Organized Youth SportsYouth Sports

• Organized youth sports emerged in the 20Organized youth sports emerged in the 20thth CenturyCentury

• The first programs focused on “masculinizing” The first programs focused on “masculinizing” boysboys

• Organized youth sports grew rapidly in many Organized youth sports grew rapidly in many industrialized countries after World War II industrialized countries after World War II

• Programs in the U.S. emphasized competition Programs in the U.S. emphasized competition as preparation for future occupational as preparation for future occupational successsuccess

• Girls’ interests generally were ignoredGirls’ interests generally were ignored

Social ChangesSocial Changes Related to the Related to the Growth of Growth of Organized Youth Organized Youth

SportsSports

• Increase in working families Increase in working families

• New definitions of “good parent”New definitions of “good parent”

• Growing belief that informal activities Growing belief that informal activities lead to trouble for kids lead to trouble for kids

• Growing belief that the world is Growing belief that the world is dangerous for childrendangerous for children

• Increased visibility of high-Increased visibility of high-performance and professional sports in performance and professional sports in societysociety

Major Trends in Major Trends in Youth SportsYouth Sports Today Today

• Organized programs have become Organized programs have become increasingly increasingly privatizedprivatized

• Organized programs increasingly Organized programs increasingly emphasize the emphasize the “performance ethic”“performance ethic”

• An increase in An increase in “elite training”“elite training” facilitiesfacilities

• Increased participation in Increased participation in “alternative sports”“alternative sports”

Youth Sports:Youth Sports:Types of SponsorsTypes of Sponsors

1.1. Public, tax-supported community Public, tax-supported community

recreation programsrecreation programs

2.2. Public non-profit community Public non-profit community

organizationsorganizations

3.3. Private nonprofit sport organizationsPrivate nonprofit sport organizations

4.4. Private commercial clubsPrivate commercial clubs

PrivatizedPrivatized Youth Sport ProgramsYouth Sport Programs

• Growth is associated with the Growth is associated with the decline in publicly funded programsdecline in publicly funded programs

• Most common in middle- and upper-Most common in middle- and upper-middle income areasmiddle income areas– May reproduce economic and ethnic May reproduce economic and ethnic

inequalities in societyinequalities in society

• May not be committed to gender May not be committed to gender equityequity– Private programs are not accountable in Private programs are not accountable in

the same way as public programsthe same way as public programs

The “Performance The “Performance Ethic”Ethic”

• Refers to emphasizing measured Refers to emphasizing measured outcomes as indicators of the quality outcomes as indicators of the quality of sport experiencesof sport experiences

• Fun = becoming betterFun = becoming better

• Emphasized in private programsEmphasized in private programs

• Related to parental notions of Related to parental notions of investinginvesting in their children’s future in their children’s future

Elite Sport Training Elite Sport Training ProgramsPrograms

• Most common in private, commercial Most common in private, commercial programsprograms

• Emphasize the potential for children to Emphasize the potential for children to gain material rewards through sportsgain material rewards through sports

• Children often “work” long hours and Children often “work” long hours and become like “laborers,” but programs become like “laborers,” but programs are not governed by child labor lawsare not governed by child labor laws

• Raise ethical issues about adult-child Raise ethical issues about adult-child relationshipsrelationships

New Interests in New Interests in Alternative SportsAlternative Sports

• A response to highly structured, adult-A response to highly structured, adult-controlled organized programscontrolled organized programs

• Revolve around desires to be Revolve around desires to be expressive and spontaneousexpressive and spontaneous

• May have high injury rates and May have high injury rates and patterns of exclusion related to gender patterns of exclusion related to gender and social classand social class

• Are being appropriated by large Are being appropriated by large corporations for advertising purposescorporations for advertising purposes

Different Different ExperiencesExperiences

Formal Sports Formal Sports Emphasize:Emphasize:

• Formal rulesFormal rules

• Set positionsSet positions

• Systematic Systematic guidance by guidance by adultsadults

• Status and Status and outcomesoutcomes

Informal Sports Informal Sports Emphasize:Emphasize:

• ActionAction• Personal Personal

involvementinvolvement• Challenging Challenging

experiencesexperiences• Reaffirming Reaffirming

friendshipsfriendships

Different OutcomesDifferent Outcomes

Formal Sports Formal Sports Emphasize:Emphasize:

• Relationships with Relationships with authority figuresauthority figures

• Learning rules and Learning rules and strategiesstrategies

• Rule-governed Rule-governed teamwork & teamwork & achievementachievement

Informal Sports Informal Sports Emphasize:Emphasize:

• Interpersonal & Interpersonal & decision-making skillsdecision-making skills

• CooperationCooperation

• ImprovisationImprovisation

• Problem solvingProblem solving

When Are Children Ready to When Are Children Ready to Play Play Organized, Competitive Organized, Competitive

SportsSports??

• Prior to age 12, children don’t have the Prior to age 12, children don’t have the ability to fully understand competitive team ability to fully understand competitive team sportssports– They play “beehive soccer”They play “beehive soccer”

• Children must lean how to cooperate before Children must lean how to cooperate before they can learn how to competethey can learn how to compete

• Team sports require the use of a “third party Team sports require the use of a “third party perspective”perspective”– Role Taking AbilityRole Taking Ability– Game Stage Developmental levelGame Stage Developmental level

What Are the Dynamics of What Are the Dynamics of Family Relationships in Family Relationships in Youth Youth

SportsSports??

• Sports have the potential to bring Sports have the potential to bring families togetherfamilies together

• Being together does not always mean Being together does not always mean that close communication occursthat close communication occurs

• Children may feel pressure from parentsChildren may feel pressure from parents• Parent labor in youth sports often Parent labor in youth sports often

reproduces gendered logic ideas reproduces gendered logic ideas – work work – familyfamily

How Do Social Factors How Do Social Factors Influence Influence Youth SportYouth Sport

Experiences?Experiences?• Participation opportunities vary by social classParticipation opportunities vary by social class• Encouragement often varies by gender and Encouragement often varies by gender and

ability/disabilityability/disability• Self perceptions and the social consequences Self perceptions and the social consequences

of participation vary by:of participation vary by:– social classsocial class– sexsex– race/ethnicityrace/ethnicity– ability/disabilityability/disability– sexualitysexuality

Recommendations for Recommendations for Changing Changing Informal & Informal &

Alternative SportsAlternative Sports• Make play spaces more safe and Make play spaces more safe and

accessible to as many children as accessible to as many children as possiblepossible– Be sensitive to class and sex Be sensitive to class and sex

• Provide indirect guidance without Provide indirect guidance without being controllingbeing controlling

• Treat sport as a worthwhile site for Treat sport as a worthwhile site for facing challengesfacing challenges– developing competencedeveloping competence

Recommendations for Recommendations for Changing Changing Organized SportsOrganized Sports

1.1. Increase actionIncrease action

2.2. Increase personal involvementIncrease personal involvement

3.3. Facilitate close scores and Facilitate close scores and realistic challengesrealistic challenges

4.4. Facilitate friendship formation Facilitate friendship formation and maintenanceand maintenance

Recommendations for Recommendations for Changing Changing High-performance High-performance

ProgramsPrograms

1.1. Establish policies, procedures, and Establish policies, procedures, and rules to account for:rules to account for:

– the rights of children participantsthe rights of children participants– the interests of children participantsthe interests of children participants

2.2. Create less controlling environmentsCreate less controlling environments– to promote growthto promote growth– to promote developmentto promote development– to promote empowermentto promote empowerment

Prospects for ChangeProspects for Change

• Often subverted when priority is given Often subverted when priority is given to efficiency and organization to efficiency and organization – over age-based developmental concernsover age-based developmental concerns

• May be subverted by national May be subverted by national organizations concerned with organizations concerned with standardizing programsstandardizing programs

• May be subverted by adult May be subverted by adult administrators with vested interests in administrators with vested interests in the status quothe status quo

Coaching Education Coaching Education ProgramsPrograms

• Are useful when they provide coaches Are useful when they provide coaches with information onwith information on– Dealing with children safely and responsiblyDealing with children safely and responsibly– Organizing practices and teaching skillsOrganizing practices and teaching skills

• Are problematic when they foster a Are problematic when they foster a “techno-science” approach to “techno-science” approach to controlling childrencontrolling children– Creating “sports efficiency experts” should Creating “sports efficiency experts” should

not be the goalnot be the goal

Deviance in Deviance in Sports:Sports:

Is It Out of Is It Out of Control?Control?

Problems Faced When Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in SportsStudying Deviance in Sports

• Forms & causes of deviance are Forms & causes of deviance are diversediverse

• No single theory can explain allNo single theory can explain all• Sports behavior may be deviant in Sports behavior may be deviant in

other settings (All Star Wrestling)other settings (All Star Wrestling)• Sports often involves unquestioned Sports often involves unquestioned

acceptance of norms acceptance of norms – rarely the rejection of normsrarely the rejection of norms

• Training & performance have Training & performance have become medicalizedbecome medicalized

Using Using Functionalist TheoryFunctionalist Theory to Define Devianceto Define Deviance1.1. Deviance involves a rejecting of Deviance involves a rejecting of

accepted goals accepted goals 2.2. Or rejecting the Or rejecting the means of achievingmeans of achieving

goals in societygoals in society3.3. Conformity is equated with moralityConformity is equated with morality4.4. Deviance is caused by faulty Deviance is caused by faulty

socialization socialization By inconsistencies in the social systemBy inconsistencies in the social system

5.5. Deviance is controlled by getting tough Deviance is controlled by getting tough By enforcing more rules more strictlyBy enforcing more rules more strictly

Using Using Conflict TheoryConflict Theory to Define Devianceto Define Deviance

1.1. Deviance involves behavior that Deviance involves behavior that interferes with the interests of those interferes with the interests of those with economic powerwith economic power

2.2. The behavior of those who lack power is The behavior of those who lack power is more likely to be labeled as deviantmore likely to be labeled as deviant

3.3. Those who deviate often are victims of Those who deviate often are victims of exploitation in a system characterized exploitation in a system characterized by inequalitiesby inequalities

4.4. The problem of deviance will be minimal The problem of deviance will be minimal when power is equally distributed in when power is equally distributed in societysociety

Using Using Interactionist & Interactionist & Critical TheoriesCritical Theories to Define to Define Deviance Deviance

1.1. Most deviance in sports is not due to the Most deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes moral bankruptcy of athletes

2.2. Much deviance in sports involves Much deviance in sports involves over over conformityconformity to established norms in sports to established norms in sports

3.3. Sport deviance must be understood in Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the normative context of sport terms of the normative context of sport cultures and the emphasis on “the sport cultures and the emphasis on “the sport ethic”ethic”

•Deviant Deviant Over- Over- ConformConformityity

•Deviant Deviant Under- Under- ConformConformityity

•Normally Normally Accepted Accepted Range of Range of Behavior Behavior •DevianceDeviance

based on based on ignoringignoring or or rejectingrejecting normsnorms

•DevianceDeviance based on based on unquestioneunquestioned d acceptanceacceptance of normsof norms

The Sport EthicThe Sport Ethic

A A cluster of normscluster of norms that that represent the accepted criteria represent the accepted criteria for defining what it means for defining what it means to be to be an an athlete.athlete.

Four Norms of the Four Norms of the Sport Sport EthicEthic1.1.An athlete makes sacrifices An athlete makes sacrifices

for “the game”for “the game”

2.2.An athlete strives for An athlete strives for distinctiondistinction

3.3.An athlete accepts risks and An athlete accepts risks and plays through painplays through pain

4.4.An athlete accepts no limits An athlete accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilitiesin the pursuit of possibilities

Why Do Athletes Engage Why Do Athletes Engage in Deviant Over- in Deviant Over- Conformity?Conformity? Two reasons for over-conformity:Two reasons for over-conformity:

1.1.Sports are so exhilarating and Sports are so exhilarating and thrilling that athletes want to play, thrilling that athletes want to play, and they will do almost anything and they will do almost anything to continue to do soto continue to do so

2.2.Being selected by coaches and Being selected by coaches and managers is more likely when managers is more likely when athletes over conform to the sport athletes over conform to the sport ethicethic

Athletes Most Likely to Athletes Most Likely to Over- Conform to the Over- Conform to the Sport EthicSport Ethic

• Those who have low self-esteem Those who have low self-esteem Eager to be accepted by their peers Eager to be accepted by their peers Willing to sacrifices what they think Willing to sacrifices what they think

others want them toothers want them to

• Those who see achievements in Those who see achievements in sport as their only way to get aheadsport as their only way to get ahead make a namemake a name become important in the worldbecome important in the world

Deviant Over-Conformity Deviant Over-Conformity and Group Dynamicsand Group DynamicsFollowing the Norms of the Sport Following the Norms of the Sport

EthicEthic

Special Bonds Among AthletesSpecial Bonds Among Athletes

Hubris (arrogance)Hubris (arrogance)

Social Processes in Elite Social Processes in Elite Power & Performance Power & Performance SportsSports• Bond athletes in ways that normalize Bond athletes in ways that normalize

over conformity to the sport ethicover conformity to the sport ethic

• Separate athletes from the rest to Separate athletes from the rest to inspire awe and admiration among inspire awe and admiration among community memberscommunity members

• Lead athletes to develop Lead athletes to develop HUBRISHUBRIS (a (a sense of arrogance, separateness, and sense of arrogance, separateness, and superiority)superiority)

Hypotheses About Deviance Hypotheses About Deviance Among AthletesAmong Athletes

Deviance becomes more likely Deviance becomes more likely whenwhen

1.1.Social bonds normalize risk takingSocial bonds normalize risk taking

2.2.Athletes are separated from the Athletes are separated from the rest of the communityrest of the community

3.3.Athletes develop extreme degrees Athletes develop extreme degrees of hubrisof hubris

4.4.When people in the community see When people in the community see athletes as being specialathletes as being special

Controlling Deviant Over-Controlling Deviant Over-Conformity in SportsConformity in Sports

Four ways to control deviant over-conformity:

1.1. Learn to identifyLearn to identify the forms and dynamics of the forms and dynamics of over-conformity among athletesover-conformity among athletes

2.2. Raise critical questionsRaise critical questions about the meaning, about the meaning, organization, and purpose of sportsorganization, and purpose of sports

3.3. Create normsCreate norms in sports that discourage in sports that discourage over- conformity to the sport ethicover- conformity to the sport ethic

4.4. Help athletes to learnHelp athletes to learn to strike a balance to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules between accepting and questioning rules and norms in their sportsand norms in their sports

Research on Deviance Research on Deviance Among AthletesAmong Athletes

On the Field DevianceOn the Field Deviance• Cheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are Cheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are

less common today than in the pastless common today than in the past

• This historical finding contradicts popular This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions.perceptions.

• Many people think deviance is more common Many people think deviance is more common today today More rules than ever beforeMore rules than ever beforeExpectations for conformity are greater. Expectations for conformity are greater.

Research on Deviance Research on Deviance Among AthletesAmong Athletes

Off the Field DevianceOff the Field Deviance

• Athletes do not have higher delinquency Athletes do not have higher delinquency rates rates

• Data on academic cheating is inconclusiveData on academic cheating is inconclusive

• Athletes have higher rates of alcohol use Athletes have higher rates of alcohol use

• Felony rates among adult athletes do not Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of controlseem to be out of control

• BUT they do constitute a problem (see Ch. BUT they do constitute a problem (see Ch. 7)7)

Is Sport Participation Is Sport Participation a Cure for Deviant a Cure for Deviant Behavior?Behavior?

Research suggests that organized sport Research suggests that organized sport might might

reduce deviance if:reduce deviance if:

1.1. A philosophy of nonviolenceA philosophy of nonviolence

2.2. Respect for self and othersRespect for self and others

3.3. The importance of fitness and control The importance of fitness and control over selfover self

4.4. Confidence in physical skillsConfidence in physical skills

5.5. A sense of responsibilityA sense of responsibility

DON’T FORGETDON’T FORGET

Athletes are not the only ones in sports Athletes are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behavior. Think who engage in deviant behavior. Think of other examples involving:of other examples involving:

CoachesCoachesParentsParentsSpectatorsSpectatorsAdministratorsAdministratorsTeam ownersTeam ownersAgentsAgents

Using Performance Using Performance Enhancing Substances in Enhancing Substances in SportsSports• The use of performance enhancing The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high substances occurs regularly in high performance sportsperformance sports

• Many cases of usage constitute a form Many cases of usage constitute a form of deviant over conformityof deviant over conformity

• Such substances Such substances will be usedwill be used as long as long as athletes believe they will enhance as athletes believe they will enhance performanceperformance

Defining andDefining and BanningBanning PerformancePerformance Enhancing SubstancesEnhancing Substances

• Defining what constitutes a “performance enhancing Defining what constitutes a “performance enhancing substance” is difficultsubstance” is difficult

• Defining what is natural or artificial is difficultDefining what is natural or artificial is difficult

• Defining what is fair when it comes to the use of Defining what is fair when it comes to the use of science, medicine, & technology in sports is difficultscience, medicine, & technology in sports is difficult

• Determining what is dangerous to health is difficultDetermining what is dangerous to health is difficult

• Studying and testing for substances is constrained by Studying and testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factorsethical and legal factors

Eight Reasons Why Substance Use Eight Reasons Why Substance Use

So Prevalent Today?So Prevalent Today? 1.1. The high stakes in sports have fueled The high stakes in sports have fueled

research and development of research and development of substancessubstances

2.2. Fascination with the use of Fascination with the use of technology to push human limitstechnology to push human limits

3.3. The rationalization of the bodyThe rationalization of the body

4.4. Heavy emphasis on self-medicationHeavy emphasis on self-medication

5.5. Changing sexual relationsChanging sexual relations

Why Is Substance Use Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today?So Prevalent Today?

6.6. The organization of power and The organization of power and performance sports (performance sports (must win to must win to continue to playcontinue to play))

7.7. Coaches, sponsors, administrators, Coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans clearly encourage most and fans clearly encourage most forms of deviant over-conformityforms of deviant over-conformity

8.8. The social structure of elite sports The social structure of elite sports ((control over bodycontrol over body and and conformityconformity to to demands of coaches)demands of coaches)

Arguments Against Arguments Against Testing Testing

• Testing will never be able to identify all Testing will never be able to identify all substances athletes use to enhance substances athletes use to enhance performanceperformance

• Athletes and substance manufacturers Athletes and substance manufacturers can stay one step ahead of the testerscan stay one step ahead of the testers

• Mandatory testing, testing without Mandatory testing, testing without cause, and using blood and tissue cause, and using blood and tissue violates ideas about rights to privacy in violates ideas about rights to privacy in many culturesmany cultures

Arguments for TestingArguments for Testing

• To be meaningful, sport performances To be meaningful, sport performances

must involve natural abilitiesmust involve natural abilities

• Drug use destroys the basis for Drug use destroys the basis for competition by subverting fairness competition by subverting fairness

• Drug use threatens the health and Drug use threatens the health and well-being of athleteswell-being of athletes

• Drug use is immoral and must be Drug use is immoral and must be stopped stopped

Controlling Substance Controlling Substance Use: Use: Where to Start (I)Where to Start (I)• Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sportssports

• Establish rules indicating that risks to Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in health are undesirable and unnecessary in sportssports

• Establish rules stating that injured athletes Establish rules stating that injured athletes must be independently certified as “well” must be independently certified as “well” before they may playbefore they may play

• Educate young athletes to define courage Educate young athletes to define courage and discipline in ways that promote healthand discipline in ways that promote health

Controlling Substance Controlling Substance Use: Use: Where to Start (II)Where to Start (II)• Establish a code of ethics for sport scientistsEstablish a code of ethics for sport scientists

• Make drug education part of deviance and Make drug education part of deviance and health educationhealth education

Create norms regulating use of technologyCreate norms regulating use of technologyCritically examine values and norms in Critically examine values and norms in

sportssportsRedefine meaning of achievementRedefine meaning of achievementTeach athletes to think criticallyTeach athletes to think criticallyProvide accurate and current information Provide accurate and current information

to parents, coaches, and athletesto parents, coaches, and athletes

Violence in Sports:Violence in Sports:

How Does It Affect How Does It Affect Our Lives?Our Lives?

Definition of Definition of ViolenceViolence

The use of excessive force The use of excessive force that causes or has the that causes or has the

potential to cause harm or potential to cause harm or destructiondestruction

• Violence is not always illegal or disapprovedViolence is not always illegal or disapproved– It may be praised and lauded as necessaryIt may be praised and lauded as necessary

• When violence involves widespread When violence involves widespread rejection of norms, it may signal anarchyrejection of norms, it may signal anarchy

• When violence involves extreme over-When violence involves extreme over-conformity to norms, it may signal fascismconformity to norms, it may signal fascism

Definition of Definition of AggressionAggression Verbal or physical behavior grounded Verbal or physical behavior grounded

in an intent to dominate, control, or in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another persondo harm to another person

• Aggression is not the same as Aggression is not the same as assertiveness, competitiveness, or assertiveness, competitiveness, or trying hardtrying hard

• IntimidationIntimidation refers to words, refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression violence or aggression

ViolenceViolence in Sports in Sports HistoryHistory• Figurational research shows that Figurational research shows that

violenceviolence was more severe in the past was more severe in the past– On the field & off the fieldOn the field & off the field

• Rates of sports Rates of sports violenceviolence have not have not automatically increased over timeautomatically increased over time

• ViolenceViolence in sports remains a crucial in sports remains a crucial social issue todaysocial issue today– SportsSports violence violence can serve to can serve to

reproduce an ideology of male reproduce an ideology of male privilegeprivilege

Types of Types of On-the-field On-the-field ViolenceViolence1.1. Brutal body contactBrutal body contact

• Hits, Tackles, Blocks, or any forceful body Hits, Tackles, Blocks, or any forceful body contactcontact

2.2. Borderline violenceBorderline violence• Brush Back Pitch, Elbow, the Bump in running, Brush Back Pitch, Elbow, the Bump in running,

Fight in hockey, or any force with the intent to Fight in hockey, or any force with the intent to cause bodily harmcause bodily harm

3.3. Quasi-criminal violenceQuasi-criminal violence

• Cheap Shot, Late Hits, or any use of force that Cheap Shot, Late Hits, or any use of force that

violates the rulesviolates the rules

4.4. Criminal violenceCriminal violence

• Physical Assault that usually brings criminal Physical Assault that usually brings criminal

chargescharges

ViolenceViolence As Deviant Over As Deviant Over Conformity to the Sport Ethic Conformity to the Sport Ethic (I)(I)• Coaches may expect players to use Coaches may expect players to use

violenceviolence

• ViolenceViolence often attracts media attention often attracts media attention

• Players may not like Players may not like violenceviolence, even , even though most accept it as part of the though most accept it as part of the gamegame

• Quasi and criminal Quasi and criminal violenceviolence are routinely are routinely rejected by athletes and spectatorsrejected by athletes and spectators

ViolenceViolence As Deviant Over- As Deviant Over- Conformity to the Sport Ethic Conformity to the Sport Ethic (II)(II)

• ViolenceViolence may be related to insecurities may be related to insecurities in high performance sportsin high performance sports

• Expressions of Expressions of violenceviolence are related to are related to gender, but not limited to mengender, but not limited to men

• Physicality creates drama and Physicality creates drama and excitement, strong emotions, and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds among all athletes, male special bonds among all athletes, male and female and female

Commercialization and Commercialization and ViolenceViolence• Some athletes are paid to do Some athletes are paid to do violenceviolence

• Commercialization and money expand Commercialization and money expand the visibility of the visibility of violenceviolence in sports, and in sports, and violent discourse in and about sportsviolent discourse in and about sports

• ViolenceViolence is not caused by TV and is not caused by TV and money – it existed long before TV money – it existed long before TV coverage and big salariescoverage and big salaries

ViolenceViolence and and MasculinityMasculinity• ViolenceViolence is grounded in general is grounded in general

cultural normscultural norms

• ViolenceViolence in sports is not limited in sports is not limited to mento men

• Playing power and performance Playing power and performance sports often are ways to sports often are ways to prove prove masculinitymasculinity

ViolenceViolence, Masculinity, , Masculinity, Social Class, & RaceSocial Class, & Race

• Among men from low-income Among men from low-income backgrounds, backgrounds, violenceviolence may be a tool to may be a tool to bring respectbring respect

• Black men may use Black men may use violenceviolence to exploit to exploit white stereotypeswhite stereotypes

ViolenceViolence Is Is Institutionalized Institutionalized in Some Sportsin Some Sports

• In non-contact sports, In non-contact sports, violence violence is is usually limited to using violent images usually limited to using violent images in talkin talk

• In contact men’s sports, players learn In contact men’s sports, players learn to use to use violence violence as a strategyas a strategy– Enforcers & goons are paid to do violenceEnforcers & goons are paid to do violence

• In women’s contact sports, In women’s contact sports, violenceviolence may be used as a strategy, but not to may be used as a strategy, but not to prove femininityprove femininity

Pain and Injury As the Pain and Injury As the Price of Price of ViolenceViolence

• A popular paradox in today’s sports: A popular paradox in today’s sports: People accept People accept violenceviolence while being while being concerned about injuries caused by concerned about injuries caused by violenceviolence

• Disabling injuries caused by Disabling injuries caused by violenceviolence in some sports are serious problemsin some sports are serious problems

• Dominant ideas about masculinity are Dominant ideas about masculinity are related to high injury rates in men’s related to high injury rates in men’s sportssports

Controlling Controlling On-the-field On-the-field ViolenceViolence

• Brutal body contact is the most Brutal body contact is the most difficult form of difficult form of violenceviolence to control to control– Most injuries occur on “legal hits”Most injuries occur on “legal hits”

The most effective strategies might The most effective strategies might involve:involve:– Suspensions for playersSuspensions for players

– Fines for team ownersFines for team owners

Off-the-fieldOff-the-field ViolenceViolence

• Carryover data are inconclusiveCarryover data are inconclusive• Assault and sexual assault rates Assault and sexual assault rates

among male, heterosexual athletes among male, heterosexual athletes are a serious problemare a serious problem– These behaviors are a serious problem These behaviors are a serious problem

in society as a wholein society as a whole– Debates about whether rates are higher Debates about whether rates are higher

among athletes distract attention from among athletes distract attention from the problem of violence in culturethe problem of violence in culture

Hypotheses About Male Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Athletes’ ViolenceViolence Against Against WomenWomen

Violence is related toViolence is related to

1.1. Support from fellow athletes for using Support from fellow athletes for using physical force as a strategyphysical force as a strategy

2.2. Perceived cultural support for Perceived cultural support for domination as a basis for status & domination as a basis for status & identity among menidentity among men

3.3. Deviant over-conformity to the norms Deviant over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethicof the sport ethic

Violence is related toViolence is related to 4.4. Support for the belief that women Support for the belief that women

constitute “groupies” in sport worldsconstitute “groupies” in sport worlds5.5. Collective HUBRIS and the notion that Collective HUBRIS and the notion that

outsiders do not deserve respectoutsiders do not deserve respect6.6. Institutional support for elite athletes Institutional support for elite athletes

regardless of behavior regardless of behavior 7.7. Institutional failures to hold athletes Institutional failures to hold athletes

accountable for devianceaccountable for deviance

Hypotheses About Male Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Athletes’ ViolenceViolence Against Against WomenWomen

Learning to Control Learning to Control ViolenceViolence in Sports in Sports

Control may be learned ifControl may be learned if • The social world formed around a The social world formed around a

sport promotes a mindset & norms sport promotes a mindset & norms emphasizing:emphasizing:

•Non-violenceNon-violence•Self-controlSelf-control•Respect for self and othersRespect for self and others•Physical fitnessPhysical fitness•PatiencePatience

ViolenceViolence Is Most Likely Is Most Likely When:When:

Sports are organized in ways Sports are organized in ways thatthat

• Produce Produce HUBRISHUBRIS

• Separate athletes from the Separate athletes from the

communitycommunity

• Encourage athletes to think that Encourage athletes to think that

others do not deserve their respectothers do not deserve their respect

ViolenceViolence in Sports in Sports & Gender Ideology& Gender Ideology

• Doing Doing violence violence in sports reproduces the in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women”belief that “men are superior to women”

• Power & performance sports, when they Power & performance sports, when they encourage encourage violenceviolence, emphasize , emphasize difference between men and womendifference between men and women

• Sports Sports violenceviolence reproduces an ideology reproduces an ideology of male entitlementof male entitlement

ViolenceViolence Among Among SpectatorsSpectators

• No data on how watching sports may No data on how watching sports may influence influence violenceviolence in everyday in everyday relationshipsrelationships

• Spectators at non-contact sports have low Spectators at non-contact sports have low rates of rates of violenceviolence

• Spectators at contact sports have rates of Spectators at contact sports have rates of violenceviolence that constitute a problem in that constitute a problem in need of analysis and controlneed of analysis and control– Rates today are lower than rates in the pastRates today are lower than rates in the past

Celebratory Celebratory ViolenceViolence

This form of This form of violenceviolence has has not been studied not been studied systematically by scholars systematically by scholars in the sociology of sport in the sociology of sport

General Factors Related General Factors Related to to ViolenceViolence at Sport at Sport EventsEvents1.1. Action in the sport event itselfAction in the sport event itself

2.2. Crowd dynamics & the situation in Crowd dynamics & the situation in

which spectators watch the eventwhich spectators watch the event

3.3. Historical, social economic, & Historical, social economic, &

political context in which the event political context in which the event

is planned and playedis planned and played

Crowd Dynamics Crowd Dynamics & Situational Factors& Situational Factors

Crowd sizeCrowd sizeComposition of Composition of

crowdcrowdMeaning and Meaning and

importance of eventimportance of eventHistory of History of

relationship relationship between teamsbetween teams

Crowd control Crowd control strategies at eventstrategies at event

Alcohol consumption Alcohol consumption by spectatorsby spectators

Location of eventLocation of eventMotivations for Motivations for

attending the eventattending the eventImportance of teams Importance of teams

as sources of as sources of identity for identity for spectatorsspectators

Controlling Crowd Controlling Crowd ViolenceViolence

Be aware of the following factors:Be aware of the following factors:

1.1. Perceived violence on the field is Perceived violence on the field is

positively related to crowd violencepositively related to crowd violence

2.2. Crowd dynamics and conditionsCrowd dynamics and conditions

3.3. Historical, social, & political issues Historical, social, & political issues

underlying spectator orientationsunderlying spectator orientations