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The GCSE SPAG Reference Guide is a resource for teachers who wish to refresh and consolidate their knowledge of spelling, punctuation and grammar.
The importance of SPAG
Ofqual states that all GCSE English Language specifications (taught from September 2015) should enable students to:
write effectively and coherently using Standard English accurately
use grammar correctly, punctuate and spell accurately
acquire and apply a wide vocabulary, alongside a knowledge and understanding of
grammatical terminology.
Ofqual also states that all exam boards need to judge students’ writing skills against the following Assessment Objectives (AOs):
AO5
Communicate clearly, effectively and imaginatively, selecting and adapting tone, style and register for different forms, purposes and audiences
Organize information and ideas, using structural and grammatical features to support coherence and cohesion of texts
AO6
Candidates must use a range of vocabulary and sentence structures for clarity, purpose and effect, with accurate spelling and punctuation. (This requirement must constitute 20% of the marks for each specification as a whole.)
In GCSE English Literature, Ofqual states that all specifications should enable students to:
write accurately, effectively and analytically about their reading, using Standard English
acquire and use a wide vocabulary, including the grammatical terminology and other literary and linguistic terms they need to criticize and analyse what they read.
These requirements are embodied in the following English Literature Assessment Objective:
AO4
Use a range of vocabulary and sentence structures for clarity, purpose and effect, with accurate spelling and punctuation. (This requirement constitutes 5% of the marks for each specification as a whole.)
So, spelling, punctuation and grammar are key skills that students will be assessed on in their English Language and English Literature GCSEs. However, explicit knowledge and understanding of grammar, punctuation and spelling is not an end in itself, or simply to pass exams; it is the gateway to:
understanding and appreciating good writing
writing effectively, with clarity and precision so that ideas and knowledge can be communicated with ease.
It is a life skill that is relevant far beyond GCSE requirements.
Some fortunate students find that they have an intuitive grasp of English language skills, and they do not need explicit SPAG teaching. However, the majority of students will find explicit teaching helpful to secure their understanding of how writers craft their work, and also to improve their own writing (and spoken) skills.
How to embed SPAG effectively in teaching
Research has shown that drawing students’ attention to SPAG concepts within the context of studying real texts is far more effective than trying to teach them as separate, stand-alone skills. However, there will be times during teaching when it becomes obvious that some students would benefit from closer analysis of certain SPAG features, in order to consolidate their knowledge and understanding.
In the GCSE English Language and English Literature Student Books, which this Reference Guide accompanies, there are SPAG symbols to draw attention to particular opportunities to focus on aspects of grammar, spelling or punctuation. However, during teaching, many other opportunities will arise, often as a result of students’ own work and this Reference Guide is designed to give teachers sufficient background and reference material to be confident in their teaching of all aspects of grammar, punctuation and spelling.
Many teachers may not have benefited from formal grammar tuition themselves unless they have studied other languages, or their own knowledge may simply be based on terminology that is now superseded by current terms specified in the National Curriculum. This Reference Guide is based on the National Curriculum documents specified by Ofqual (e.g. The Glossary of Grammatical Terms that supports the National Curriculum Programmes of Study for English) and should bridge the gap between what is now taught and tested in primary schools, and common approaches to current teaching of grammar in secondary schools. Where different terminology is used, both have been included.
This Reference Guide consists of a list of grammar and punctuation concepts. Each entry has an explanation for teachers with examples. For some of the more complex concepts there is also:
information on common errors and how to avoid them
advice giving tips on usage.
The entries are listed alphabetically. Cross-references are hyperlinked for easy navigation.
The final section of this Reference Guide focuses on spelling. This does not drag through sets of spelling ‘rules’, but instead looks at areas of spelling that commonly cause confusion and advises on how to bring clarity. It covers:
apostrophes and plurals
homophones
similar sounding nouns and verbs
silent letters and hidden syllables
-ough words
breaking the rules: i before e, except after c
most commonly misspelt words
top tips for improving spelling.
The teaching of grammar, punctuation and spelling should always be done in context. However, some students may benefit from additional support provided by the SPAG interactive activities that can be found on Kerboodle.
Note: Certain words, for example ‘organize’ and ‘criticize’, have been spelt with ‘ize’ throughout this guide. It is equally acceptable to spell these words and others with ‘ise’.
In an active sentence, the subject does the action, often to an object. The verb is said to be in the ‘active voice’.
For example:
The referee blew the whistle.
In a passive sentence, the subject is having something done to it. The verb is said to be in the ‘passive voice’.
For example:
The whistle was blown by the referee.
Advice
The active voice is used most commonly in writing, but the passive voice is used when the writer wants to:
withhold or conceal information at first
build suspense
emphasize what happened, rather than who did it
sound more formal.
Common errors and how to avoid them
Excessive use of the passive voice can make a text sound very stilted and awkward. Encourage students to use mainly the active voice, unless they want to create specific effects, as described in the ‘Advice’ section.
An adjective gives information about a noun or a pronoun. It can be positioned immediately before the noun, or after some verbs, such as look, be, seem, get. (See Subject and object or complement.)
For example:
A muddy football
The man is tall.
Advice
Some adjectives describe what something is like, e.g. a blue pen; others give an opinion about something, e.g. a fantastic idea.
Common errors and how to avoid them
Adjectives are sometimes referred to as ‘describing words’, but this is misleading because some verbs and adverbs can also be said to be describing things.
When adjectives are used to compare and contrast, we can add suffixes to the root word. We add -er when comparing two things and -est when we are comparing more than two things.
For example:
I am quick. I am quicker. I am quickest.
Some adjectives make their comparative and superlative forms by using the words more and most, rather than adding suffixes.
For example:
That costume is more ridiculous than the last one.
That is the most ridiculous suggestion.
Some other adjectives which take more or most for their comparative and superlative forms are:
An adverb describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (It never adds information to a noun.) Adverbs can answer questions such as how, when, where?
Adverbs are sometimes referred to as belonging to different categories such as:
adverbs of manner (how)
adverbs of time (when)
adverbs of place (where).
For example:
He performed the trick cleverly and I was really impressed.
I saw him yesterday.
We took our books outside.
They often quarrel.
adverb telling us when something happened
adverb telling us how often something happens
adverb describing the verb ‘performed’, answering the question,
How did he perform the trick?
adverb describing the adjective ‘impressed’, answering the
An adverbial is a word or a group of words that give more information about a verb. Adverbials include adverbs, as well as some types of phrases or clause.
For example:
We left the cinema at 2.30 p.m.
She arrived on Wednesday.
Fronted adverbials
Most adverbials appear at the end of a sentence, but some appear at the beginning. These are called fronted adverbials.
For example:
At last, the cat came home.
During the holidays, we often went to the park.
A comma, indicating a slight pause or separation from the rest of the sentence, follows most fronted adverbials.
Used correctly and appropriately, fronted adverbials can really improve the style of a student’s writing.
Some adverbials act as cohesive devices, which help to link parts of text together. These may also be known as connectives.
Some of the most common adverbials used as cohesive devices are:
As a result,
On the other hand,
In contrast,
adverbial, giving more information about when ‘we left’
adverbial, giving more information about when ‘she arrived’
If a plural word does not end in s, then the possessive form still adds ’s.
For example:
The children’s bags
The men’s teeth
The women’s sports
Some possessive forms of personal names sometimes omit the final s, particularly classical or longer names.
For example:
Venus’ eyes
Nicholas’ uniform
Common errors and how to avoid them
Avoid the common error of using an apostrophe to make plurals (sometimes known as the greengrocer’s apostrophe), e.g. lettuce’s instead of lettuces.
To check whether you need an apostrophe, ask yourself if you need to show possession (it belongs to something or someone) or if you need to show omission (there are letters missing, e.g. does not contracts to doesn’t). If you don’t need to show either, you don’t need an apostrophe.
Possessive determiners, e.g. its, hers, yours, ours, theirs are often mistakenly given apostrophes, but they are not necessary.
Another common error is to add apostrophes to plural nouns when used with possessive pronouns, but this is not necessary.
For example:
His clothes were torn.
plural noun needs no apostrophe because the possessive determiner ‘his’ shows who the clothes belong to
An auxiliary verb is a small ‘helping’ verb which goes in front of a main verb, e.g. will, can, may, must.
Primary auxiliary verbs refer to events in the past or present, and are forms of the verbs to be, do and have.
For example:
I have hidden the contraband.
We are planning our escape.
They did enjoy the part.
Primary auxiliary verbs can also help to make questions.
For example:
Did you go to the cinema?
What are you cooking?
Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that help to show the future tense, and can also show possibility, desire or obligation.
The ten modal verbs are: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must, ought
For example:
We ought to go home now.
I may be an astronaut.
You must take your brother with you.
She will join us later.
Common errors and how to avoid them
The terms ‘auxiliary’ and ‘modal’ verbs are sometimes confused. Auxiliary verb is a general term referring to all types of verbs that ‘help’ the main verb. A modal verb is a type of auxiliary verb, which is important for showing degrees of possibility or obligation.
Capital letters are used at the beginning of all sentences and proper nouns, such as the individual names of people, places and titles.
For example:
Aneena
Benjamin
Scotland
London
The Hobbit
They are also used for days of the week and months of the year.
For example:
Wednesday
June
Common errors and how to avoid them
Capital letters are not needed at the beginning of seasons, e.g. spring, winter.
Remember that the personal pronoun I, is always a capital letter, never i.
Acronyms
An acronym is a name or word made from the initial letters of other words. It usually starts with a capital letter, and often continues with capital letters (although not always).
For example:
EU = European Union
OPEC = Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
A clause is a special type of phrase (group of words) that contains a subject and a verb. It can make up a whole sentence or be part of a sentence. (See sentence forms for more information about how clauses make up sentences.)
There are two types of clauses – main and subordinate (or dependent).
Main clause – this clause carries the main information and can be a complete sentence on its own.
Subordinate (or dependent) clause – this clause gives background detail and depends on the main clause for it to make sense. It cannot stand alone as a sentence.
For example:
The actor left the stage, carrying his sword before him.
Relative clause
A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause. It starts with the words who, which, that, whom or whose and gives more information.
For example:
I like the trainers that you wore yesterday.
Advice
Note that sometimes the relative pronoun (e.g. who, that or which) is omitted from a relative clause, particularly in speech.
Cohesive devices are words that link different parts of a text together. They are the ‘glue’ that gives a text cohesion. They can link words within a clause or phrase; link clauses, sentences and whole paragraphs together.
Cohesive devices can include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions and adverbs.
For example:
Skyla picked up an entry form for the competition.
She was determined to win it.
There will be a training session before we play the match on Saturday.
Advice
Note that the terms ‘discourse markers’ and ‘reference chains’ are sometimes used to describe cohesive devices.
pronouns link back to Skyla and the competition in previous sentence
conjunction links the two clauses, showing the time relationship between them
A colon is a punctuation mark (:) used to separate parts of a sentence when the second part explains, balances or completes the first clause. The second part can be a phrase or a clause.
For example:
He was delighted to win the prize: a new car.
I have something to tell you: I’ve won tickets to the festival!
A colon is also used to introduce a list of items.
For example:
You will need: butter, eggs, milk and flour…
Common errors and how to avoid them
Sometimes people put dashes after colons but this is unnecessary.
Do not use a capital letter after a colon, unless it is a proper noun.
Colons are sometimes confused with semicolons, but their uses are different:
A colon is like a ‘gateway’ that introduces examples or more detail about what’s gone before.
A semicolon separates two main clauses that are of equal weight, but are still linked in some way. The two main clauses that a semi-colon divides could be separate sentences. (See the semicolons entry for more detail about other uses of a semicolon.)
A comma indicates a pause between parts of a sentence or separates items in a list.
For example:
Football is my favourite sport, but I also like tennis.
Commas can signal the start and end of an embedded clause.
For example:
Lucy, who is my best friend, lives next door to me.
You also use commas in lists.
For example:
We’ve got two dogs, three cats, four goldfish and one parrot.
Advice
Commas are often used after fronted adverbials, e.g. In 1066, the English lost…
They can also be used to introduce direct speech, e.g. The boy spoke up, “Why isn’t there any food?”
Generally, there is no comma before ‘and’ in a list of items unless it is necessary to avoid ambiguity.
For example:
My favourite meals are pizza, steak, fish and chips, and kebabs.
Traditionally, Oxford University Press used a comma before the final ‘and’ or ‘or’ in a list of items, so it was called the ‘Oxford comma’ or ‘serial comma’. This style is becoming less common now, and students tend to be advised against using it in their own writing.
If a sentence has too many clauses and commas it can be confusing. It is better to revise it, dividing it up into more sentences, so that it reads fluently and is easy to understand.
Comma splicing is also a common error. This occurs when a comma is used between two independent clauses. If each clause makes sense by itself, then it is incorrect to use a comma to separate them.
For example:
Hannah is good at baking, she likes to make cakes.
If there are two independent clauses, then they can be joined with a semicolon or separated into
two separate sentences with a full stop.
For example:
Hannah is good at baking; she likes to make cakes.
Hannah is good at baking. She likes to make cakes.
The term ‘connective’ is a general, informal term that is sometimes used in schools to describe words that connect ideas expressed in different clauses. However, most ‘connectives’ can be more accurately categorized as either prepositions, conjunctions or adverbs.
A dash is a punctuation mark (–) that can show a pause in a sentence, or link two clauses or sentences together.
For example:
The waves were huge – I was terrified.
A pair of dashes can show parenthesis.
For example:
She – poor girl – walked into the trap.
Common errors and how to avoid them
Some people use too many dashes, particularly in informal writing such as text messages and emails to friends. In more formal writing, try to use a variety of punctuation, including commas, full stops, colons and semicolons.
A determiner is a word that goes in front of a noun and any of its adjectives, and helps to give it some definition. Determiners can include numbers or pronouns such as five, some, this, whose.
Articles are a type of determiner. A and an are known as indefinite articles; the is the definite article.
For example:
Three foxes crept down the street.
The children like sweets.
Possessive determiners
Possessive determiners are positioned in front of a noun and any of its adjectives. They tell you who or what something belongs to.
For example:
It was my idea to have a party.
I think her hair is purple now.
Our house is in the middle of the street.
Other possessive determiners are: your, his, its, their.
Common errors
Possessive determiners are sometimes confused with possessive pronouns, but possessive pronouns always stand instead of a noun, rather than in front of a noun.
This number is a determiner that tells us how many foxes there were
This is a determiner – known as a definite article – that shows it refers to certain children, not just any.
An exclamation is one of the four sentence types. (The others are statements, commands and questions.)
An exclamation always ends with an exclamation mark (!). This shows that the sentence is expressing strong feeling or drama, such as surprise, anger or pain.
For example:
Look out!
Please help me!
Hey, that hurt!
Wow, you got here quickly!
Common errors and how to avoid them
An exclamation mark is always at the end of a sentence. No full stop is required after it. Try not to use too many exclamation marks. They are most effective if used sparingly, and never use more than one in the same place.
A full stop (.) comes at the end of a sentence. It shows that the sentence is finished and complete.
Advice
A full stop is always followed by a capital letter at the start of the next sentence.
A full stop can also be used in an abbreviation, to show that some letters are missing at the end.
For example:
p.m. = post meridiem (after noon)
etc. = et cetera (and other things)
Prof. = Professor
Common errors and how to avoid them
Sometimes writers use too many commas and other punctuation marks within long sentences. Dividing some text into shorter sentences can add clarity and variety.
Inverted commas (also known as speech marks) are used to show the actual words spoken in direct speech.
In indirect (reported) speech, inverted commas are unnecessary.
For example:
Lucy said that it is our school trip tomorrow.
For example:
“We’ve got our school trip tomorrow,” said Lucy.
Advice
Inverted commas can be single or double. Whichever style is chosen, it should be consistent throughout the piece of writing.
Common errors and how to avoid them
Remember that if you open (start) inverted commas, you also need to close (finish) them. Always check through your writing that the inverted commas are in pairs, to show the beginning and end of speech.
Punctuation relating to what’s said, should always go inside the inverted commas, including question marks, exclamation marks and ellipses.
If the direct speech is part of a sentence, add a comma before the final inverted commas and continue to explain who spoke, e.g. said Lucy. Note that the full stop comes after the name of the speaker, and said is all in lower case.
inverted commas show the start and finish of the words that Lucy said
There are three narrative viewpoints: first person, second person and third person.
1 First person narrative – the narrator/speaker retells his or her first-hand account of events, or the story, often using the pronouns I (first person singular), or we (first person plural).
For example:
I wandered back to the house alone.
We could hear the band from a distance.
The music came to us, slowly and quietly.
2 Second person narrative – the narrator speaks directly to the reader, involving them very closely with what is happening (in fiction) or being said, using the pronoun you.
For example:
You follow the tracks through the snow until you find a glove caught on a tree branch.
You won’t believe my story, but you must listen anyway.
If you look carefully, you will see glints of gold in the stones.
3 Third person narrative – the narrator/speaker stands outside the events or story and tends to be more objective and omniscient (all-knowing), often using the pronouns he, she, it, they.
For example:
The crowd surged forwards, unaware of the hazards.
If students query the naming of first and third person, you might want to introduce the table of pronouns, showing first, second and third person, in both singular and plural forms.
Person Singular Plural
First I we
Second you you
Third he/she/it they
Some texts contain a mix of narrative voices. For instance, a speech or advert may contain a mix of first and second person, so the audience/reader feels directly involved.
For example:
I believe that together you can work this out.
An advice text might combine third and second person voice.
For example:
The new sports centre is being renovated, but you can look at the plans to see how much it will be improved.
Common errors and how to avoid them
When students are writing a story, it is important that the narrative voice is consistent. For example, if they start with a first person narrator, they should continue with that, unless they are using different narrative viewpoints for a specific structural effect.
Remind students to check that their ‘narrative voice’ doesn’t change partway through their work, unintentionally.
An abstract noun refers to ideas or qualities that cannot be seen or touched.
For example:
help
fun
danger
friendship
happiness
A modifying noun (also known as a ‘noun adjunct’) is used before another noun to give more information.
For example:
The football team
A mountain bike
This chicken soup
Advice
Nouns can also be classified as countable (e.g. button, girl) or non-countable (e.g. stuff,
weather)
Common errors and how to avoid them
Students do not always recognize collective or abstract nouns, as they usually find it easier to envisage nouns as physical objects. A useful test for a noun is to check that it makes sense when ‘the’ is put in front of it.
For example:
The fun lasted…
The danger passed…
The friendship endured…
Specific teaching of collective nouns can be helpful. Point out that these collective nouns are treated as singular, even though they refer to lots of people or animals.
For example:
The team of football players arrived at the airport.
A noun phrase is two or more words that act as a noun. The main noun is known as the ‘head word’, and there are often adjectives in the noun phrase.
For example:
The bright red bus stopped suddenly.
A noun phrase does not have to be made up of just adjectives and nouns.
For example:
The man in the moon
Advice
You can identify a noun phrase by taking it out and replacing it with a pronoun. If the sentence still works, then you have identified the noun phrase.
For example:
(The bright red bus) stopped suddenly.
(It) stopped suddenly.
All these words are part of the noun phrase and ‘bus’ is the head word
All these words are part of the noun phrase and ‘man’ is the head word
A paragraph is a section of writing, made up of more than one sentence, but all the sentences are linked to the same idea. A new paragraph shows a new idea, or time, or place, or speaker in a text.
A new paragraph is usually indented. Alternatively, paragraphs can be separated by line spaces.
Paragraphs help to group information or details together, to make it easier for the reader to understand the flow of the text.
Advice
Sometimes, the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader what the paragraph is about. Subsequent sentences in that paragraph give more details about the topic. This type of introductory sentence is called a topic sentence.
Note that not all paragraphs begin with a topic sentence.
Parenthesis is something extra put inside a sentence, marked between brackets, dashes or commas. It is a word or group of words that gives extra information or an extra comment about something in the main sentence.
For example:
He really wanted the new bike – the shiny green one – before the race.
No one told the teacher (not even the other staff) that she was wearing odd shoes.
The opening of the play was delayed, luckily, so I had time to pin my costume together again.
Common errors and how to avoid them
The sentence should never depend on the parenthesis. If you take out the parenthesis, the sentence should still make sense.
The word ‘parentheses’ refers to the pair of round brackets () sometimes used to mark the beginning and end of the parenthesis.
A phrase is a group of words in which there is one word that all the other words help to modify (expand or give more detail about).
A noun phrase is two or more words that act as a noun, e.g. a huge monster.
An adjectival phrase is a group of words that act as an adjective, e.g. brightly coloured.
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that act as an adverb, e.g. thirty seconds later.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that start with a preposition, e.g. with curly hair or under the bridge. (Note that prepositional phrases can be adjectival or adverbial in meaning.)
A ‘verb phrase’ is called a clause and always consists of one or more verbs. If there is more than one verb in a verb phrase, one will be a main verb and the others will be auxiliary verbs, e.g.
ought to go.
Common errors and how to avoid them
Phrases and clauses are often confused. However, if the main modified word is a verb, then it is a clause or sentence.
A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun. It avoids repeating the same noun.
For example:
The Prime Minister stood up. She looked furious.
Possessive pronouns tell us who owns something.
For example:
The ticket is yours.
I thought the idea was mine.
Other possessive pronouns include his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
Common errors
Note that possessive pronouns are often confused with possessive determiners. Remember that possessive pronouns stand alone in place of nouns. Possessive determiners come before a noun.
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which give more information about the subject.
For example:
The actor, who fell off the stage, made the audience laugh.
The concert, which was televised, was the last she ever gave.
Other relative pronouns include whose, that, whom.
Advice
Note that the words who and which can also be used as interrogative pronouns, replacing the noun in a question.
Demonstrative pronouns show how near or far people or things are. They include this, that, those, these.
For example:
Those are too shabby to wear.
Give that to the doorman and he will let you in.
Advice
Note that the words this, that, those, these, can be used either as demonstrative pronouns, or demonstrative determiners. If they come before a noun, they are determiners. If they stand alone, in place of nouns, they are pronouns.
Common errors and how to avoid them
There is often confusion about whether to use the pronoun I or me. I is the correct usage for the subject of a sentence, even if there is more than one subject.
For example,
Ricky and I went to the stadium.
If in doubt, test whether the sentence still sounds correct if you remove the other subject (person). For example, I went to the stadium sounds correct, but Me went to the stadium sounds incorrect!
A semicolon is a punctuation mark that is used for two main purposes:
to separate two main clauses in a sentence that are closely linked in meaning
to separate items in a list, where the items are longer clauses, rather than just single words.
Separating main clauses in a sentence
When two separate sentences are very closely linked in meaning, they can be joined together in one sentence, using a semicolon. This emphasizes the link between them.
For example:
Dad bought tickets to the pantomime. We’re so excited.
These two sentences can be made into one sentence, using a semicolon, which emphasizes the link between the two clauses:
Dad bought tickets to the pantomime; we’re so excited.
Separating items in a list
Semicolons can also separate items in a list when the items consist of clauses (with a verb).
For example:
For the day trip you will need to make sure: you have brought a waterproof coat; you are wearing sturdy shoes or boots; you have remembered a torch with spare batteries and you have provided yourself with a packed lunch and a drink.
As with normal lists of items separated by commas, the last two clauses are joined not by another semicolon but by ‘and’.
Advice
A semicolon is never followed by a word beginning with a capital letter, unless it is a proper noun or the pronoun ‘I’.
Semicolons are sometimes confused with colons, but their uses are different.
A colon is like a ‘gateway’ that introduces a list, or examples of or more detail about what’s gone before.
A semicolon separates two main clauses that are of equal weight, but are still linked in some way. The two main clauses that a semicolon divides could be separate sentences.
A semicolon also separates a list of clauses with the last two joined by ‘and’. You would not use a colon within a list; you would just use it to introduce it.
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense on its own. Most sentences:
contain a main verb
begin with a capital letter
end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.
Sentences can be statements, questions, commands or exclamations.
Sentences can be made up of just one single main clause, or two or more coordinating clauses, or a main clause and a subordinate clause.
Sentences with a single main clause contain a subject and a verb.
For example:
The cat chased a mouse.
Sentences with coordinating clauses are made of two or more main clauses joined together using coordinating conjunctions such as and, or or but. These clauses are of equal importance and both could be separate sentences.
For example:
The cat chased a mouse and all the birds watched.
Sentences with main and subordinating clauses that contain at least one main clause and at least one subordinate clause are linked by subordinating conjunctions, such as until, although, after, before, since, because.
One way of identifying subordinate clauses is to ask yourself whether they make sense on their own. If they do, then they are main clauses rather than subordinate clauses.
For example:
You must stay in your seat is a main clause which makes sense on its own, but until the bell rings is a subordinate clause that does not make sense on its own.
Sentences are sometimes classified as simple, compound or complex. The first type is a single-clause sentence; the second type is made up of coordinating clauses; the third type is made up of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Standard English can be spoken with any accent and covers most registers from formal to casual. It is used as a major world language, with only minor variations. Standard English is used in most books, newspapers and formal documents. Students should be encouraged to write in Standard English, unless they are including dialogue which needs an informal or colloquial style, or involves a particular regional dialect.
Non-Standard English may be different in different parts of the country. It is mostly used in speech in informal situations. The spelling, punctuation and grammar may be different from Standard English.
For example:
He didn’t do nothing. (This double negative is not Standard English.)
Me mum (Standard English would be ‘My mum’)
It were great. (Standard English would be ‘It was great’)
The subject is who or what does the action of the verb.
The object is who or what is acted upon by a verb.
For example:
Millie invited Vineeta to the party.
The dog grabbed the bone.
Advice
There can be more than one person or thing as the subject of a sentence, as long as they are both doing the action of the verb.
For example:
Peter and John are going for a walk.
Common errors and how to avoid them
When you are talking about yourself as the subject of a sentence, always use I not me.
For example:
My father and I love sailing is correct (My father and me is incorrect).
If in doubt, make the subject (person) singular to see if the sentence still makes sense.
For example:
I love sailing is correct (Me love sailing doesn’t make sense).
In some sentences, the verb does not have an object, but takes a complement instead. Verbs such as to be, seem, feel, become (and their inflections) take a complement that is usually an adjective, adjectival phrase, noun or noun phrase.
For example:
Glasgow is a vibrant city. (Noun phrase acts as a complement)
A verb shows an action, a happening, a process or a state. It is sometimes described as a ‘doing’ or ‘being’ word, but it is most accurately identified by its ability to have a tense, such as the past and present. Every sentence must have a verb.
Finite and non-finite verbs
Every sentence has at least one verb which shows the tense. These are called finite verbs.
For example:
Felix swam across the lake.
Non-finite verbs, such as participles and infinitives, cannot stand on their own: they are linked to a main verb in the sentence.
For example:
Hearing the footsteps behind him, Josh decided to run.
Tenses
The present tense describes something that is happening now. It often (but not always) ends in -s.
For example:
Mum fixes the shelf.
Ben plays on his computer.
Poppy is team captain.
The past tense describes something that happened earlier. It often (but not always) ends in -ed.
For example:
The girls raced to the finish line.
The boys cheered their football team.
The teacher clapped and smiled.
verb showing the past tense
present participle: non-finite verb as part of a subordinate clause
To show the future tense, we use two verbs, a main verb and an auxiliary verb.
For example:
I will go to the fair tomorrow.
The train might leave in ten minutes.
The present progressive (continuous) tense describes an action in progress now. It uses the -ing form of the verb, plus the present tense of the verb to be.
For example:
I am waiting for my friend.
They are going to the circus.
modal verb, which is a type of auxiliary verb
main verb
modal verb, which is a type of auxiliary verb
main verb
the first person singular, present tense of the verb to be
-ing has been added to the main verb
the third person plural, present tense of the verb to be
The past progressive (continuous) tense describes an action that was ongoing in the past or was still happening when something else happened. It uses the -ing form of the verb, plus the past tense of the verb to be.
For example:
I was watching the game.
You were running towards me when you dropped the ball.
The present perfect tense describes a completed action or event in the past but it is still meaningful or relevant now. It uses the present tense of the verb ‘to have’ with the past participle.
For example:
She has ended the relationship.
The present perfect progressive tense describes something that started happening in the past and is still happening now. It uses the simple present tense of the verb ‘to have’, plus ‘been’, plus the present participle of the main verb.
For example:
They have been hanging around the park for days.
third person singular, present tense of the verb to have
past participle of the main verb to end
third person plural of the verb to have
present participle of the main verb
the first person singular, past tense of the verb to be
-ing has been added to the main verb
the second person singular, past tense of the verb to be
The past perfect tense (also known sometimes as the ‘pluperfect tense’) describes something that happened before something else in the past. It uses the simple past form of the verb ‘to have’, plus the past participle of the main verb.
For example:
She had tricked them for years.
The past perfect progressive tense describes something that started happening in the past and was still happening later. It uses the simple past of the verb ‘to have’, plus ‘been’, plus the present participle of the main verb.
For example:
They had been plotting the coup for months.
Advice
If you feel it is helpful, explain to students that verbs often have different forms, depending on who is the subject and whether they are singular or plural.
The table below shows the different forms for the present tense of the irregular verb to be.
Singular Plural
First person I am We are
Second person You are You are
Third person He/she/it is They are
The table below shows the different forms for the past tense of the irregular verb to be.
The English language is one of the richest, most diverse languages in the world. It consists of words drawn from a wide range of places and cultures over thousands of years, and the language is still evolving and being added to today.
The fact that words in the English language are drawn from so many sources means that spelling rules are often tricky to apply. English words are not always spelt in the way that they sound. Many have unusual letter combinations; others sound the same but are spelt differently.
There are many resources that focus on spelling rules, particularly for primary level students, but this section of the GCSE SPAG Reference Guide will focus on a few key areas of spelling which are known to cause confusion for secondary students – and for many adults! These areas are:
Apostrophes and plurals (see p x)
Homophones (see p x)
Similar sounding nouns and verbs (see p x)
Silent letters and hidden syllables (see p x)
-ough words (see p x)
Breaking the rules: i before e, except after c (see p x)
Most commonly misspelt words (see p x)
Top tips for improving spelling (see p x).
Apostrophes and plurals
Apostrophes can show possession; they indicate that something belongs to someone or something.
For example:
The singer’s microphone (the microphone that belongs to the singer)
This example is straightforward because there is only one singer, so ’s is added to the word singer.
Confusion sometimes arises when there is joint ownership, particularly when it ends with ‘s’.
For example:
The singers’ microphone (the microphone that belongs to all the singers – there could be
two or more singers sharing the same microphone)
Notice that the apostrophe comes after the plural s.
Note: Certain words, for example ‘organize’ and ‘criticize’, have been spelt with ‘ize’ throughout this guide. It is equally acceptable to spell these words and others with ‘ise’.
If the noun is plural, but doesn’t end in an s, the apostrophe and s is added at the end.
For example:
The women’s rights (the rights belonging to all women)
The children’s trainers (the trainers belonging to all the children)
Common error
Never use an apostrophe just to show a plural. This is a common mistake.
For example:
Apple’s for sale
Apples for sale
Homophones
Homophones are words that sound the same, but have different spellings and meanings. Encourage students to check that they are using the correct one in the context of their own writing.
Here are some of the most commonly confused homophones:
accept/except four/for/fore profit/prophet
aisle/isle guest/guessed right/write
aloud/allowed heard/herd see/sea
alter/altar here/hear steal/steel
assent/ascent led/lead their/there/they’re
bare/bear morning/mourning through/threw
cereal/serial new/knew vain/vein/vane
descent/dissent no/know wear/where
dessert/desert one/won weather/whether
draft/draught passed/past whole/hole
You may find it helpful to remind students of the difference between the words below.
stationery/stationary
stationery is a noun referring to envelopes, paper and other items used in printed writing.
stationary is an adjective meaning not moving, like a car that is parked.
Connectives
principle/principal
principle is a noun meaning a general rule, truth or belief
principal 1 a noun mean the head of a college or school
2 an adjective meaning the chief or most important
compliment/complement
compliment 1 a noun meaning something said or done that shows approval of someone
2 a verb meaning to pay someone a compliment
complement 1 a verb meaning to go well together with something else; make a thing complete
2 a noun meaning the quantity needed to fill or complete something
3 (grammatical sense) a noun meaning the word or words used after verbs such as‘be’ or ‘become’ to complete the sense.
affect/effect
affect 1 a verb meaning to have an effect upon someone or something, e.g. The news affected my decision to leave.
2 a verb meaning to pretend, e.g. to affect a limp
effect 1 a noun meaning a change as a result of something else, e.g. Deep breaths have a calming effect.
2 a verb meaning to cause to happen or bring about, e.g. Please effect the
changes without delay.
Similar sounding nouns and verbs
The spelling of some nouns and verbs, which sound very similar or the same, can cause confusion. Generally, most of these nouns end with –ce, and most of these verbs end with –se. (Note that this differs in American English.)
There are many words in the English language that have silent letters. This means that their spelling cannot be predicted from the pronunciation of the word. Historically, some of these letters were sounded aloud, e.g. the k in knight, but this is no longer the case.
Students may benefit from being made aware of when these silent letters are likely to occur. See the grid below for some examples.
Silent letters Examples
h at the start of words honorary hour heir honour honest
silent k before n knife knee knock know knuckle
silent w before r write wrestle wrench wrist wrong
silent b following numb tomb crumb bomb
silent g before n gnaw gnarled gnash gnat gnome
silent l following a, o and ou half salmon yolk could should
silent h follows w, c or r whirl whine chord chemist rhubarb
silent p before s or n psychology pseudonym psychopath pneumatic pneumonia
Some words have ‘hidden’ syllables, which means that we don’t pronounce them, but they are nevertheless present in the spelling. Some of the most commonly misspelt words (because of hidden syllables) are:
There are many words spelt with the letters -ough, but their spellings can be confusing because this group of letters can make many different sounds. The grid below shows some examples.
/or/ sound as
in ‘ought’
/o/ sound as
in ‘dough’
/uf/ sound as
in ‘tough’
/ow/ sound
as in ‘bough
/of/ sound as
in ‘trough’
/ura/ sound
as in
‘thorough’
/oo/ sound
as in
‘through’
bought although enough plough cough borough throughout
brought though rough slough*
fought slough*
nought
sought
thought
wrought
*Slough (rhymes with ‘cuff’) is a verb that means to shed, e.g. A beared dragon sloughs the skin from its tail.
Slough (rhymes with ‘cow’) is a noun that means a swamp or marshy area, e.g. They struggled to drag the body across the slough.
Breaking the rules: ‘i before e, except after c’
Unfortunately, many of the spelling ‘rules’ that young children are taught often have so many exceptions to them that they cause further confusion.
One such rule is ‘i’ before ‘e’, except after ‘c’. In fact this rule usually applies just to words where the vowel sound is /ee/ as in deceive, conceive, receive, perceive and ceiling.
In addition, other words that contain the vowel sound /ee/, but don’t contain a ‘c’, are also spelt ei. For example, protein, caffeine, seize, neither and either.
Words that contain the vowel sound /ay/ as in ‘beige’, tend to be spelt ei, even though there is no ‘c’ in sight. For example, freight, vein, weigh, neighbour, feint, sleigh, weight, inveigle.
So, it is important that students understand that ‘spelling rules’ are rarely without exceptions.
In the grid below are listed over 150 words that are commonly misspelt in the English language. These have been drawn from the Oxford English Corpus (compiled by Oxford Dictionaries) and also from the 2014 National Curriculum for English, Appendix 1: Spelling.
Some words have specific letters underlined to show that this is where spelling errors often occur.
accommodate conscience further opportunity sincere (ly)
accompany conscious glamorous parallel soldier
according controversy government parliament stomach
With the increasing emphasis on spelling in the National Curriculum, in both primary and secondary education, students should be well aware of their own level of spelling accuracy.
Strategies for improving spelling are best tailored to suit individual students’ learning styles, but the following tips may be useful.
1 Read as much as possible, preferably texts that use Standard English and are written in substantial paragraphs, rather than just short text ‘feeds’.
2 Write as much as possible, using a spellchecker or dictionary to check your spellings.
3 Note down words that you regularly misspell and learn them.
4 Use mnemonics to remind yourself how to spell tricky words, e.g. because: big elephants can always understand small elephants
5 Play spelling games, such as quizzes, scrabble and crosswords.
6 Explore word origins which may help to explain some tricky spellings. For example:
the sound /k/ spelt ‘ch’ (Greek origin) e.g. chorus, chemist, character
the sound /sh/ spelt ‘ch’ (French origin) e.g. brochure, chalet
the sound /s/ spelt ‘sc’ (Latin origin) e.g. scene, discipline, science.
7 Increase your awareness of word families, so that knowing how to spell one word will help you to spell another word in the same family, e.g. danger, dangerous, dangerously.
8 Get into the habit of proofreading both your own and other people’s work.