Art and Design Review, 2021, 9, 131-147 https://www.scirp.org/journal/adr ISSN Online: 2332-2004 ISSN Print: 2332-1997 DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Apr. 19, 2021 131 Art and Design Review Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990 Leyla Onen Department of Painting and Printing Arts Department, Gorele Fine Arts Faculty, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey Abstract After the October revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was established by un- iting five countries under one roof. After the Soviet Union was established, with the proposal of the totalitarian regime, the understanding of Social real- ism was accepted as the dominant view in all areas. In this study, the works produced by the artists of the Soviet Union in the style of Social realism were examined and the works produced in different years were examined. At the same time, the works produced in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Social Realism, Hard realism, New realism that emerged in Soviet art were also included in the study. This study was created by qualitative research me- thod. In the study, works in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Hard realism, Neorealism and works that are used as propaganda tools and pro- duced with the tendency to rule the society are examined. Examining the works produced in various styles in the Soviet Union revealed the importance of the research. In the study, it is aimed to examine the artist and their works between the years 1917-1990 with the method of artistic criticism. Keywords Soviet Art, Social Realism, Suprematism, Hard Realism, Constructivism 1. Introduction The march initiated by working-class women in Russia in 1917 demanding a reduction in the work-hour burden affected the whole country. Lenin and Trotsky seized power, using the situation to their advantage. Vladimir Ilich Lenin was born on April 22, 1870 in the Ulyanov’s province of Russia in an educated and enlightened family. Influenced by the execution of his brother by the tsarist government, he put forward the theory of Leninism through his Marxist ideas against the regime. In Leon Trotsky, Markst, like Le- nin, put forward the ideas of Trotskyism and was appointed to the People’s Commissariat for War (Köktürk, 2017: p. 61). The General Secretary of the How to cite this paper: Onen, L. (2021). Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990. Art and Design Review, 9, 131-147. https://doi.org/10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Received: February 8, 2021 Accepted: April 16, 2021 Published: April 19, 2021 Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Open Access
Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990
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Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990ISSN Online: 2332-2004 ISSN Print: 2332-1997
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Apr. 19, 2021 131 Art and Design Review
Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990
Leyla Onen
Department of Painting and Printing Arts Department, Gorele Fine Arts Faculty, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey
Abstract
After the October revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was established by un- iting five countries under one roof. After the Soviet Union was established, with the proposal of the totalitarian regime, the understanding of Social real- ism was accepted as the dominant view in all areas. In this study, the works produced by the artists of the Soviet Union in the style of Social realism were examined and the works produced in different years were examined. At the same time, the works produced in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Social Realism, Hard realism, New realism that emerged in Soviet art were also included in the study. This study was created by qualitative research me- thod. In the study, works in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Hard realism, Neorealism and works that are used as propaganda tools and pro- duced with the tendency to rule the society are examined. Examining the works produced in various styles in the Soviet Union revealed the importance of the research. In the study, it is aimed to examine the artist and their works between the years 1917-1990 with the method of artistic criticism.
Keywords
1. Introduction
The march initiated by working-class women in Russia in 1917 demanding a reduction in the work-hour burden affected the whole country. Lenin and Trotsky seized power, using the situation to their advantage.
Vladimir Ilich Lenin was born on April 22, 1870 in the Ulyanov’s province of Russia in an educated and enlightened family. Influenced by the execution of his brother by the tsarist government, he put forward the theory of Leninism through his Marxist ideas against the regime. In Leon Trotsky, Markst, like Le- nin, put forward the ideas of Trotskyism and was appointed to the People’s Commissariat for War (Köktürk, 2017: p. 61). The General Secretary of the
How to cite this paper: Onen, L. (2021). Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990. Art and Design Review, 9, 131-147. https://doi.org/10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Received: February 8, 2021 Accepted: April 16, 2021 Published: April 19, 2021 Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 132 Art and Design Review
Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Josef Stalin and the Chinese revolutio- nary Mao Zedon opposed the theories. In 1922, Trotsky lost the power struggle against Stalin. At the Second Congress of the Democratic Labor Party in 1903, the Bolshevik (majority) and Menshevik (minority) groups emerged as the sup- porters of Lenin and the supporters of Martov. Supporters of Lenin constituted the majority. The revolution that took place with the victory of the Bolsheviks in 1917 went down in history as the October revolution (Hudaynazarov, 2003: pp. 7-9). After the October revolution, an attack was launched against any danger from neighboring states. After the attack launched on the pretext of danger, na- tions of various ethnic and cultural values united under the umbrella of the Un- ion of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (Efendi, 2007: p. 248).
2. Method
This study was created by qualitative research method. In the study, the works produced in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Social Realism, Hard realism, Neorealism that emerged in the Soviet period are included and analyzed. At the same time, works in which Socialism, the dominant view, took place as a propaganda tool were also discussed. Including various styles together with Social realism in the research reveals the importance. The aim of the study is to examine the artist and their works in the Soviet Union.
3. The Emergence of Social Realism
The October revolution that took place in 1917 showed its influence in many fields, including art. The Communist Party published a declaration containing views on literature and politics on June 18, 1925. Views supporting the bour- geoisie are also included in the declaration, which contains information on the lifestyle of the countries of the Soviet Socialist Republics. Following the declara- tion, the Socialist ideology was supported in both art and social life fields. Opposing special rights to the elite, the working class issued a declaration defending equal rights in all spheres of artistic, cultural and social life (Cebrailolu, 2005: p. 60).
In May 1932, the Social Realism understanding emerged in the Soviet Union Party Congress in order to approve the view of the government and instill it into the society. This term, which was first used by the Russian writer Maxim Gorky (1868-1936), was included in the novel “Mother”, which he put forward in 1906-07. Social Realism supports the general mindset of this novel (Tazade, 2006: p. 9).
Soviet writer Ivan Mikhaylovich Gronsky wrote an article on Social Realism in a newspaper and introduced it to the world. In 1934, the Central Committee of- ficially declared the Socialist Realism understanding as the artistic practice of the USSR. Based on the idea of “art is for society” with Social Realism, an artistic policy that aims to produce artistic works and develop. In the Second Writers’ Congress in 1934, it was decided that the understanding of Social Realism should be the dominant view in all fields (Hacyev & Dadazade, 1969: p. 21).
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 133 Art and Design Review
The understanding of Social Realism was based on the Marxist philosophical understanding, its aesthetic and literary origin on Russian literature, and its po- litical Bolshevik movement. Social Realism originated on the aesthetic theory of the Russian philosopher, writer and critic Nikolay Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), which relates to his view of art. According to Tazade (2006), in his doctoral dissertation titled “The aesthetic approach of art to the real”, Chernyshevsky was defending the view that life and nature itself are beautiful and the understanding of fine sense of the Marxist ideology.
As a result of the decisions taken in this period, it has become necessary and force majeure to produce works on the understanding of Social Realism. With the management policies of the Soviet Union, works with propaganda character emerged. The artists tried to reveal the positive feeling of enthusiasm in the so- ciety with the works they produced in the style of Social Realism. Based on this understanding, many steps have been taken to ensure that “Art is for society” is the dominant view in all segments of society. The idea of dealing with the daily life and difficulties of society constitutes the basis of Social Realism. However, Soviet painters produced works that could be perceived by all segments of socie- ty in line with the repressive policies of the government (Aliyev, 2007: p. 9).
According to imek (2007), works that include the understanding of Social Realism treat the oppressed as an art object and contribute to the education le- vels of the working class and peasants. It took place to put forward class strug- gles in the “responsibility” of art. Social Realism introduced by the Soviet Union supported the development of the state by penetrating all segments of society. Artists Social Realism has begun to produce works that glorify workers, toiling heroes who serve. With the new regulations made in the field of art after Stalin’s domination, the production of works that do not include the understanding of Social Realism was prohibited, and it was asked to produce works that praised the regime. After 1932, works such as novels, poems, films, paintings and sculp- tures began to be produced in order to instill the Soviet spirit in the society. Emotions such as happiness and positivity were tried to be reflected in the pic- tures by using vibrant and pastel colors. Steps have been taken aimed at the de- velopment of Social Realism. One of the main aims of socialist reality is to achieve integrity in the changes that occur in society’s ideas and thoughts (Efendiyeva, 2010: p. 340).
With the application of the idea of Social Realism in art, art has been taken over by the power and started to be used as a propaganda tool. In order for the concept of socialism to be accepted and adopted by the society, an education system supporting the concept was created. Socialism has become the only movement in the Soviet Union by penetrating all fields, including art education, and its education has been made force majeure (Uygur, 2005: p. 6).
According to Lenin, it is necessary to produce works suitable for the purpose of the people through art. Lenin argued that art belongs to the people and must serve the working class. Art development should be provided by revealing the
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 134 Art and Design Review
feelings and thoughts of the people. Art propaganda, which was created based on these thoughts, has been instrumental in achieving unity and solidarity in the society as in the “one heart, one fist” understanding. For example, the coopera- tion of the state and society in the agricultural field has led to developments. With this, the Soviet Union developed economically and gained power. This sit- uation has positively affected the artists economically. Artists devoted their time to their arts by receiving many supports such as artistic material, home, monthly income as state support (Efendi, 2007: p. 255).
Tazade (2006: p. 8) stated in her research that the Soviet government used art as a means of disseminating ideology and this situation became common in totalitarian regimes and turned into theory. In the Soviet period, the prohibition of production outside the framework of the understanding of Socialism caused the prohibition of works that were used as means of expression. Thus, painting artists were obliged to make works with the understanding of Socialism (Bozda, 2015: p. 113).
The shaping of society with the support of socialist international organizations has led to changes in art, literature and politics. The understanding of Socialist Realism, which takes place in every field of science and art in its own way, has be- come the dominant understanding in all segments of society (Roy, 2000: p. 120).
Socialism, which was the dominant understanding in all fields in the Soviet Union, was also dominant in art education. After 1932, with the reforms of the Soviet Union in art education, academic style paintings that praised the regime and based on social realism began to be produced (Patterson, 1999). At the same time, the production of works that convey traditional values was prohibited in Soviet art with the pressure of the administration and artists were obliged to produce works with the understanding of Social Realism (Sabancal, 2006: p. 22).
According to Uygur (2005: p. 6), it was thought that “significant progress would be made in the realization of the Second Renaissance” by the Soviet gov- ernment in the field of art. Soviet art developed based on the rules of Socialism to create a Soviet man. This was among the aims of Soviet art. After socialism became the dominant understanding in Soviet art, artworks that glorified gov- ernment officials and chieftains were produced by artists. Isaac Brodsky’s vari- ous portraits of Lenin (1918) and Stalin (1930), Fyodor Reshetnikov Stalin (1941), and the works of artist Gerasimov Lenin in the tribune (1929-30) are the obvious examples of this. Works that praised and preached the proletariat, starting from the 1930s, had an important place in Soviet art. In the years when the understanding of socialism was dominant, works on landscapes, still life and historical subjects were included in Soviet painting together with the portrait type. Soviet artists conveyed the beauty of their country in landscape painting. The daily life of the working class and peasant class in Soviet art was reflected in the works enthusiastically. The characters in the works are depicted in vivid col- ors and conveyed in a happy and cheerful manner. In the works, it is tried to show that the society is moving towards a bright future in a carefree and happy
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 135 Art and Design Review
way. In Soviet art, issues based on oil, industrialization and urbanization were dominant, along with the glorification of the workers and toilers, heroes and those in power. At the same time, works of praise for the regime were produced. In the works produced during and after the Second World War, subjects such as war, peace and victory were included. However, Soviet artists have shown that they support the government, the power, by producing many works with revolu- tionary content (Barut, Odacolu, Köktürk, 2016: p. 465).
4. Soviet Art
When it comes to Soviet art, the first thing that comes to mind is the art of So- cialism. Socialism has had an important place in the Soviet Union since the early 1930s. Until 1930, many revolutionary and innovative works were produced in Soviet art. With this, new art movements emerged in Soviet art. With the do- minance of social realism, it has led to the monotonous development of art. In the Soviet Union, new artistic movements emerged from the 1960s and began to produce works with a new style of expression. New approaches in art have been seen in the last years of the association. In this section, the styles, artists and works that emerged in different periods of the Soviet Union are included.
4.1. Suprematism
With the establishment of the Soviet Union, a new era has entered in the cultur- al, social and artistic fields of the countries involved. Art produced in the Soviet Union was often put forward to support change, development, new ideas, revo- lution, and the Bolsheviks. In 1913, Kazimir Malevich (1878-1935) introduced the revolutionary art movement that supported innovative ideas in Russia. This movement, known as Suprematism, consisted of works containing plain color and geometric forms.
Kazimir Malevich was born in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine, in 1878. He re- ceived his education at the Moscow State School of Painting, Sculpture and Ar- chitecture. According to Malevich, avant-garde arts before Suprematism were not consistent and deterministic enough (, 2018: p. 183). Until the advent of Suprematism, he produced works in the style of Cubism. Supermatism is considered as abstract art consisting of geometric elements such as square, rectangle, and round in a contrasting color background (Avar Karaba & Da- mar, 2016: p. 103). The artist’s work named Black Square took place in the exhi- bition named “0 - 10” (Figure 1). This work, which made a great impact in the exhibition held in 1919, was removed from the subject. Black Square has been accepted as the last point of painting. Consisting of a black square on a white background, the work draws attention with its simplicity. He used free forms in Malevich’s works created with an expressive character (Uyank, 2012: p. 109).
4.2. Constructivism
Vladimir Tatlin was among the artists who supported the development of art for
Figure 1. Kazimir Malevich, Black Square, 80 × 80. 1913-1915.
the purposes of the October revolution in the early period of the Soviet Union. According to Antmen (2010: p. 105) Tatlin is considered the founder of Russian Constructivism. Constructivism that emerged in Russia in 1913 has spread in Europe since the middle of the 20th century. This art movement occurs in works that use “contemporary materials and have a geometric composition” (Sözen, 2001: p. 40) structure. Geometric and experimental works took place in the con- structivism movement. It contains a universal meaning in terms of the under- standing of the development of life on a new plane. Members of the constructiv- ist movement defended peace against the Second World War. The subject of this movement is laconic and “very minimal, which has created a systematic art style” (Çöklü, 2014: p. 1). Constructivism, by opposing academic and realism teachings in art and rejecting traditional arts, preferred to produce works that would direct science with the characteristics of industrialization. Antoine Pevs- ner, Kazimir Malevich, El Lissitzky, Naum Gabo and Wassily Kandinsky were among the members of this movement, which remained active in the Soviet Un- ion until 1922 (Bannister, 2012: p. 1).
Tatlin, an architect and painting artist, is known for his innovative views and experimental works. Tatlin accepted figurative art as traditional and suggested that works be done in mathematical form (, 1994: p. 15). Tatlin was born in 1985 in Moscow, the capital of Russia. He received his art education at Penza Vocational School of Fine Arts in Moscow. Tatlin made his name as an artist with his work titled Tatlin’s Tower, which he exhibited in the “0, 10” exhibition (Figure 2). This work also reminds us of the destroyed “Hanging Gardens” of Babylon. The technical length of this tower is four hundred meters and it is made in a spiral. It stretches tapering upwards like a round staircase. Glass and metal were used in the construction of this tower, which consists of geometric elements. Tatlin’s Tower is a building for propaganda, it is active, it is intended to host cultural programs, political propaganda and tools (Çolak, 2020: abst).
Lazar Markovich El Lissitzky, one of the members of Constructivism, was born in 1890 in the province of Pochinyok in Russia. He graduated from Latvia Polytechnic University as an architect. The artist has works in the fields of ar- chitecture, painting, graphics and design. The artist of Jewish origin worked as
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 137 Art and Design Review
an educator at the Belorussia National Vocational School of Fine Arts between 1919 and 1920 upon the proposal of the artist Mark Chagall. In 1920, influenced by Kazimir Malevich, he produced works in the style of Suprematism (- , 1975). Lissitzky, with his expression bearing the traces of symbol- ism in monochrome and empty spaces, “attributed meanings to the geometric elements he uses in his design concept and conveyed the message to the au- dience” (Uyank, 2012: p. 115). At the same time, he included geometric ele- ments such as square, circle and the element of balance in his works. The work was made in 1920, in the Lenin Tribune, has a propaganda character in favor of the Soviet Union (Figure 3). According to (2017: p. 143), this work has been created in a very plain style. Application of new techniques in So- viet Union art it slowed down with the start of the Second World War.
Constructivist artist Gustav Klutsis was born in 1985 in Latvia. Klutsis pro- duced works based on the propaganda understanding of Social Realism and Constructivism techniques. Klutsis preferred to glorify the laborer and the working class with his works he produced using photomontage technique. He
Figure 2. Vladimir Tatlin, Tatlin’s Tower, 400 meters, metal, glass, 1919.
Figure 3. El Lissitzky, in the Lenin Tribune, Paper, 1920.
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 138 Art and Design Review
mainly used red and black colors in his works. His works have a lively and sim- ple narrative language. One of his works with a revolutionary character is his work in 1936, the flags of Marks, Engels, Lenin and Stalin up (Figure 4). In this work, there are portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin, respectively, in gray and black on red. At the top of the work; Flags fly over the portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin. In these flags, he conveyed the industrialization process of the Soviet Union and the development in the field of agriculture. In the lower part of the work, he depicts the October revolution, the establishment of the So- viet Union and the crowd of all walks of life. At the bottom of the work, the flags of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin up! In red letters is written (Uyank, 2012: p. 35).
Until…
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Apr. 19, 2021 131 Art and Design Review
Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990
Leyla Onen
Department of Painting and Printing Arts Department, Gorele Fine Arts Faculty, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey
Abstract
After the October revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was established by un- iting five countries under one roof. After the Soviet Union was established, with the proposal of the totalitarian regime, the understanding of Social real- ism was accepted as the dominant view in all areas. In this study, the works produced by the artists of the Soviet Union in the style of Social realism were examined and the works produced in different years were examined. At the same time, the works produced in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Social Realism, Hard realism, New realism that emerged in Soviet art were also included in the study. This study was created by qualitative research me- thod. In the study, works in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Hard realism, Neorealism and works that are used as propaganda tools and pro- duced with the tendency to rule the society are examined. Examining the works produced in various styles in the Soviet Union revealed the importance of the research. In the study, it is aimed to examine the artist and their works between the years 1917-1990 with the method of artistic criticism.
Keywords
1. Introduction
The march initiated by working-class women in Russia in 1917 demanding a reduction in the work-hour burden affected the whole country. Lenin and Trotsky seized power, using the situation to their advantage.
Vladimir Ilich Lenin was born on April 22, 1870 in the Ulyanov’s province of Russia in an educated and enlightened family. Influenced by the execution of his brother by the tsarist government, he put forward the theory of Leninism through his Marxist ideas against the regime. In Leon Trotsky, Markst, like Le- nin, put forward the ideas of Trotskyism and was appointed to the People’s Commissariat for War (Köktürk, 2017: p. 61). The General Secretary of the
How to cite this paper: Onen, L. (2021). Soviet Art Movements between 1917-1990. Art and Design Review, 9, 131-147. https://doi.org/10.4236/adr.2021.92012 Received: February 8, 2021 Accepted: April 16, 2021 Published: April 19, 2021 Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 132 Art and Design Review
Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Josef Stalin and the Chinese revolutio- nary Mao Zedon opposed the theories. In 1922, Trotsky lost the power struggle against Stalin. At the Second Congress of the Democratic Labor Party in 1903, the Bolshevik (majority) and Menshevik (minority) groups emerged as the sup- porters of Lenin and the supporters of Martov. Supporters of Lenin constituted the majority. The revolution that took place with the victory of the Bolsheviks in 1917 went down in history as the October revolution (Hudaynazarov, 2003: pp. 7-9). After the October revolution, an attack was launched against any danger from neighboring states. After the attack launched on the pretext of danger, na- tions of various ethnic and cultural values united under the umbrella of the Un- ion of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (Efendi, 2007: p. 248).
2. Method
This study was created by qualitative research method. In the study, the works produced in the style of Constructivism, Suprematism, Social Realism, Hard realism, Neorealism that emerged in the Soviet period are included and analyzed. At the same time, works in which Socialism, the dominant view, took place as a propaganda tool were also discussed. Including various styles together with Social realism in the research reveals the importance. The aim of the study is to examine the artist and their works in the Soviet Union.
3. The Emergence of Social Realism
The October revolution that took place in 1917 showed its influence in many fields, including art. The Communist Party published a declaration containing views on literature and politics on June 18, 1925. Views supporting the bour- geoisie are also included in the declaration, which contains information on the lifestyle of the countries of the Soviet Socialist Republics. Following the declara- tion, the Socialist ideology was supported in both art and social life fields. Opposing special rights to the elite, the working class issued a declaration defending equal rights in all spheres of artistic, cultural and social life (Cebrailolu, 2005: p. 60).
In May 1932, the Social Realism understanding emerged in the Soviet Union Party Congress in order to approve the view of the government and instill it into the society. This term, which was first used by the Russian writer Maxim Gorky (1868-1936), was included in the novel “Mother”, which he put forward in 1906-07. Social Realism supports the general mindset of this novel (Tazade, 2006: p. 9).
Soviet writer Ivan Mikhaylovich Gronsky wrote an article on Social Realism in a newspaper and introduced it to the world. In 1934, the Central Committee of- ficially declared the Socialist Realism understanding as the artistic practice of the USSR. Based on the idea of “art is for society” with Social Realism, an artistic policy that aims to produce artistic works and develop. In the Second Writers’ Congress in 1934, it was decided that the understanding of Social Realism should be the dominant view in all fields (Hacyev & Dadazade, 1969: p. 21).
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 133 Art and Design Review
The understanding of Social Realism was based on the Marxist philosophical understanding, its aesthetic and literary origin on Russian literature, and its po- litical Bolshevik movement. Social Realism originated on the aesthetic theory of the Russian philosopher, writer and critic Nikolay Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), which relates to his view of art. According to Tazade (2006), in his doctoral dissertation titled “The aesthetic approach of art to the real”, Chernyshevsky was defending the view that life and nature itself are beautiful and the understanding of fine sense of the Marxist ideology.
As a result of the decisions taken in this period, it has become necessary and force majeure to produce works on the understanding of Social Realism. With the management policies of the Soviet Union, works with propaganda character emerged. The artists tried to reveal the positive feeling of enthusiasm in the so- ciety with the works they produced in the style of Social Realism. Based on this understanding, many steps have been taken to ensure that “Art is for society” is the dominant view in all segments of society. The idea of dealing with the daily life and difficulties of society constitutes the basis of Social Realism. However, Soviet painters produced works that could be perceived by all segments of socie- ty in line with the repressive policies of the government (Aliyev, 2007: p. 9).
According to imek (2007), works that include the understanding of Social Realism treat the oppressed as an art object and contribute to the education le- vels of the working class and peasants. It took place to put forward class strug- gles in the “responsibility” of art. Social Realism introduced by the Soviet Union supported the development of the state by penetrating all segments of society. Artists Social Realism has begun to produce works that glorify workers, toiling heroes who serve. With the new regulations made in the field of art after Stalin’s domination, the production of works that do not include the understanding of Social Realism was prohibited, and it was asked to produce works that praised the regime. After 1932, works such as novels, poems, films, paintings and sculp- tures began to be produced in order to instill the Soviet spirit in the society. Emotions such as happiness and positivity were tried to be reflected in the pic- tures by using vibrant and pastel colors. Steps have been taken aimed at the de- velopment of Social Realism. One of the main aims of socialist reality is to achieve integrity in the changes that occur in society’s ideas and thoughts (Efendiyeva, 2010: p. 340).
With the application of the idea of Social Realism in art, art has been taken over by the power and started to be used as a propaganda tool. In order for the concept of socialism to be accepted and adopted by the society, an education system supporting the concept was created. Socialism has become the only movement in the Soviet Union by penetrating all fields, including art education, and its education has been made force majeure (Uygur, 2005: p. 6).
According to Lenin, it is necessary to produce works suitable for the purpose of the people through art. Lenin argued that art belongs to the people and must serve the working class. Art development should be provided by revealing the
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 134 Art and Design Review
feelings and thoughts of the people. Art propaganda, which was created based on these thoughts, has been instrumental in achieving unity and solidarity in the society as in the “one heart, one fist” understanding. For example, the coopera- tion of the state and society in the agricultural field has led to developments. With this, the Soviet Union developed economically and gained power. This sit- uation has positively affected the artists economically. Artists devoted their time to their arts by receiving many supports such as artistic material, home, monthly income as state support (Efendi, 2007: p. 255).
Tazade (2006: p. 8) stated in her research that the Soviet government used art as a means of disseminating ideology and this situation became common in totalitarian regimes and turned into theory. In the Soviet period, the prohibition of production outside the framework of the understanding of Socialism caused the prohibition of works that were used as means of expression. Thus, painting artists were obliged to make works with the understanding of Socialism (Bozda, 2015: p. 113).
The shaping of society with the support of socialist international organizations has led to changes in art, literature and politics. The understanding of Socialist Realism, which takes place in every field of science and art in its own way, has be- come the dominant understanding in all segments of society (Roy, 2000: p. 120).
Socialism, which was the dominant understanding in all fields in the Soviet Union, was also dominant in art education. After 1932, with the reforms of the Soviet Union in art education, academic style paintings that praised the regime and based on social realism began to be produced (Patterson, 1999). At the same time, the production of works that convey traditional values was prohibited in Soviet art with the pressure of the administration and artists were obliged to produce works with the understanding of Social Realism (Sabancal, 2006: p. 22).
According to Uygur (2005: p. 6), it was thought that “significant progress would be made in the realization of the Second Renaissance” by the Soviet gov- ernment in the field of art. Soviet art developed based on the rules of Socialism to create a Soviet man. This was among the aims of Soviet art. After socialism became the dominant understanding in Soviet art, artworks that glorified gov- ernment officials and chieftains were produced by artists. Isaac Brodsky’s vari- ous portraits of Lenin (1918) and Stalin (1930), Fyodor Reshetnikov Stalin (1941), and the works of artist Gerasimov Lenin in the tribune (1929-30) are the obvious examples of this. Works that praised and preached the proletariat, starting from the 1930s, had an important place in Soviet art. In the years when the understanding of socialism was dominant, works on landscapes, still life and historical subjects were included in Soviet painting together with the portrait type. Soviet artists conveyed the beauty of their country in landscape painting. The daily life of the working class and peasant class in Soviet art was reflected in the works enthusiastically. The characters in the works are depicted in vivid col- ors and conveyed in a happy and cheerful manner. In the works, it is tried to show that the society is moving towards a bright future in a carefree and happy
DOI: 10.4236/adr.2021.92012 135 Art and Design Review
way. In Soviet art, issues based on oil, industrialization and urbanization were dominant, along with the glorification of the workers and toilers, heroes and those in power. At the same time, works of praise for the regime were produced. In the works produced during and after the Second World War, subjects such as war, peace and victory were included. However, Soviet artists have shown that they support the government, the power, by producing many works with revolu- tionary content (Barut, Odacolu, Köktürk, 2016: p. 465).
4. Soviet Art
When it comes to Soviet art, the first thing that comes to mind is the art of So- cialism. Socialism has had an important place in the Soviet Union since the early 1930s. Until 1930, many revolutionary and innovative works were produced in Soviet art. With this, new art movements emerged in Soviet art. With the do- minance of social realism, it has led to the monotonous development of art. In the Soviet Union, new artistic movements emerged from the 1960s and began to produce works with a new style of expression. New approaches in art have been seen in the last years of the association. In this section, the styles, artists and works that emerged in different periods of the Soviet Union are included.
4.1. Suprematism
With the establishment of the Soviet Union, a new era has entered in the cultur- al, social and artistic fields of the countries involved. Art produced in the Soviet Union was often put forward to support change, development, new ideas, revo- lution, and the Bolsheviks. In 1913, Kazimir Malevich (1878-1935) introduced the revolutionary art movement that supported innovative ideas in Russia. This movement, known as Suprematism, consisted of works containing plain color and geometric forms.
Kazimir Malevich was born in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine, in 1878. He re- ceived his education at the Moscow State School of Painting, Sculpture and Ar- chitecture. According to Malevich, avant-garde arts before Suprematism were not consistent and deterministic enough (, 2018: p. 183). Until the advent of Suprematism, he produced works in the style of Cubism. Supermatism is considered as abstract art consisting of geometric elements such as square, rectangle, and round in a contrasting color background (Avar Karaba & Da- mar, 2016: p. 103). The artist’s work named Black Square took place in the exhi- bition named “0 - 10” (Figure 1). This work, which made a great impact in the exhibition held in 1919, was removed from the subject. Black Square has been accepted as the last point of painting. Consisting of a black square on a white background, the work draws attention with its simplicity. He used free forms in Malevich’s works created with an expressive character (Uyank, 2012: p. 109).
4.2. Constructivism
Vladimir Tatlin was among the artists who supported the development of art for
Figure 1. Kazimir Malevich, Black Square, 80 × 80. 1913-1915.
the purposes of the October revolution in the early period of the Soviet Union. According to Antmen (2010: p. 105) Tatlin is considered the founder of Russian Constructivism. Constructivism that emerged in Russia in 1913 has spread in Europe since the middle of the 20th century. This art movement occurs in works that use “contemporary materials and have a geometric composition” (Sözen, 2001: p. 40) structure. Geometric and experimental works took place in the con- structivism movement. It contains a universal meaning in terms of the under- standing of the development of life on a new plane. Members of the constructiv- ist movement defended peace against the Second World War. The subject of this movement is laconic and “very minimal, which has created a systematic art style” (Çöklü, 2014: p. 1). Constructivism, by opposing academic and realism teachings in art and rejecting traditional arts, preferred to produce works that would direct science with the characteristics of industrialization. Antoine Pevs- ner, Kazimir Malevich, El Lissitzky, Naum Gabo and Wassily Kandinsky were among the members of this movement, which remained active in the Soviet Un- ion until 1922 (Bannister, 2012: p. 1).
Tatlin, an architect and painting artist, is known for his innovative views and experimental works. Tatlin accepted figurative art as traditional and suggested that works be done in mathematical form (, 1994: p. 15). Tatlin was born in 1985 in Moscow, the capital of Russia. He received his art education at Penza Vocational School of Fine Arts in Moscow. Tatlin made his name as an artist with his work titled Tatlin’s Tower, which he exhibited in the “0, 10” exhibition (Figure 2). This work also reminds us of the destroyed “Hanging Gardens” of Babylon. The technical length of this tower is four hundred meters and it is made in a spiral. It stretches tapering upwards like a round staircase. Glass and metal were used in the construction of this tower, which consists of geometric elements. Tatlin’s Tower is a building for propaganda, it is active, it is intended to host cultural programs, political propaganda and tools (Çolak, 2020: abst).
Lazar Markovich El Lissitzky, one of the members of Constructivism, was born in 1890 in the province of Pochinyok in Russia. He graduated from Latvia Polytechnic University as an architect. The artist has works in the fields of ar- chitecture, painting, graphics and design. The artist of Jewish origin worked as
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an educator at the Belorussia National Vocational School of Fine Arts between 1919 and 1920 upon the proposal of the artist Mark Chagall. In 1920, influenced by Kazimir Malevich, he produced works in the style of Suprematism (- , 1975). Lissitzky, with his expression bearing the traces of symbol- ism in monochrome and empty spaces, “attributed meanings to the geometric elements he uses in his design concept and conveyed the message to the au- dience” (Uyank, 2012: p. 115). At the same time, he included geometric ele- ments such as square, circle and the element of balance in his works. The work was made in 1920, in the Lenin Tribune, has a propaganda character in favor of the Soviet Union (Figure 3). According to (2017: p. 143), this work has been created in a very plain style. Application of new techniques in So- viet Union art it slowed down with the start of the Second World War.
Constructivist artist Gustav Klutsis was born in 1985 in Latvia. Klutsis pro- duced works based on the propaganda understanding of Social Realism and Constructivism techniques. Klutsis preferred to glorify the laborer and the working class with his works he produced using photomontage technique. He
Figure 2. Vladimir Tatlin, Tatlin’s Tower, 400 meters, metal, glass, 1919.
Figure 3. El Lissitzky, in the Lenin Tribune, Paper, 1920.
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mainly used red and black colors in his works. His works have a lively and sim- ple narrative language. One of his works with a revolutionary character is his work in 1936, the flags of Marks, Engels, Lenin and Stalin up (Figure 4). In this work, there are portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin, respectively, in gray and black on red. At the top of the work; Flags fly over the portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin. In these flags, he conveyed the industrialization process of the Soviet Union and the development in the field of agriculture. In the lower part of the work, he depicts the October revolution, the establishment of the So- viet Union and the crowd of all walks of life. At the bottom of the work, the flags of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin up! In red letters is written (Uyank, 2012: p. 35).
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