South African Music in Transition: A Flutist‘s Perspective

by
Faculty of Music
University of Toronto
ii
Liesel Margrit Deppe
2012
ABSTRACT
In April 1994 the citizens of South Africa found themselves in the unique position of
contemplating a new national culture; one that would for the first time embrace all South
Africans, regardless of race, colour or religion. Official segregation, which began in 1948, ended
with the first democratic election held in1994. Cross-cultural awareness in South Africa
emerged in the 1980s. Within this temporal context, this investigation will trace parallel
developments in the South African classical music genre and will relate these developments to
the concurrent socio-political environment. Looking specifically at music written for the flute,
the selected works were composed for the flute as a solo instrument, or in combination with up
to four other instruments by a cross-section of South African composers who either live in South
Africa or who have South African roots. The works included in this study were composed
roughly ten years before and after 1994; the purpose being to document the changes that were
taking place in South African Art Music leading up to the first democratic election and during
the exciting times that followed.
The main component of this research is the analysis of the works of nine South African
composers, examining cross-cultural content in the musical form: Michael Blake (Honey-
Gathering Song, Leaf Carrying Song), Robert Fokkens (Inyoka Etshanini, Cycling to Langa),
Hendrik Hofmeyr (Marimba), Hans Huyssen (The Cattle Have Gone Astray), Bongani
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Ndodana-Breen (Visions I and II), Isak Roux (Sketches, Four African Scenes), Martin
Scherzinger (Whistle of the Circle Movement), Becky Steltzner (Hambani Kakuhle Kwela) and
Kevin Volans (Walking Song). Biographical information and compositional philosophies are
also included for each composer. In addition, publisher and recording details are provided where
they exist. The works contained in this document are organized by cross-cultural borrowing
technique: overt cross-cultural borrowing, borrowing guided by African music-making
principles, African paraphrasing, and inspirational landscape painting. A brief history of Art
Music in South Africa is provided, as is an overview of African musics and instruments. The
analysis of each work considers African musical influences and their incorporation, while
performance suggestions will also elucidate unique African aspects of the music.
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Acknowledgments
I wish to express my thanks to the many people who have supported me over the last four years.
Without them this body of work would not have been possible. I am very thankful to my
supervisor, Dr. Gillian MacKay, who guided me from the initial level and supported me towards
the final stages of this work. Dr. Jeffrey Reynolds and Camille Watts are committee members
who also offered advice and support at various times throughout the process. Dr. Jeff Packman
provided invaluable insight and helped me to develop an understanding of the ethical issues
involved in cross-cultural borrowing. I am indebted to my friends, Douglas Bors and Eva
Szekely, for general inspiration on dissertation-writing, reading of the lecture-recital, and the
frequent dinners. Jaye Marsh-Graham also kindly proofread all the chapters. My husband,
Andrew MacDonald, has patiently weathered all the ups-and-downs with me over the past four
years. I thank him for his financial support and for allowing me the freedom to pursue my
dreams.
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1.3 Culture and Society: A Music in Transition ................................................................. 5
1.4 A History of Art Music in South Africa ...................................................................... 13
Chapter Two............................................................................................................................ 21
2.2.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 27
2.3.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 31
2.4.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 33
2.5.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 36
2.6.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 38
2.7.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 40
2.8.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 43
2.9.1 Biography ......................................................................................................... 45
3.3 African Instruments .................................................................................................... 56
3.4 A summary of the African influences on the works discussed in Chapter Four ....... 60
3.5 On Musical Appropriation .......................................................................................... 65
3.5.1 Ethical Concerns .............................................................................................. 66
3.5.2 Legal Concerns ................................................................................................. 73
Overt Cross-Cultural Borrowing ................................................................................ 81
Borrowing Guided by African Music-Making Principles .......................................... 86
4.1.2 Robert Fokkens (b. 1975) ................................................................................. 86
4.1.3 Hendrik Hofmeyr (b. 1957).............................................................................. 93
African Paraphrasing ................................................................................................ 108
4.1.7 Michael Blake (b. 1951).................................................................................. 115
Inspirational Landscape Painting ............................................................................. 131
Inspirational Landscape Painting ............................................................................. 135
Table 2: Analysis of The Cattle Have Gone Astray .......................................................... 83
Table 3: Analysis of Enyoka Etshanini ............................................................................ 87
Table 4: Analysis of Cycling to Langa............................................................................. 91
Table 6: Analysis of Whistle of the Circle Movement....................................................... 99
Table 7: Analysis of Hambani Kakuhle Kwela ................................................................ 105
Table 8: Analysis of Section 1 of Walking Song .............................................................. 113
Table 9: Analysis of Section 2 of Walking Song .............................................................. 113
Table 10: Analysis of Honey Gathering Song .................................................................. 116
Table 11: Analysis of Leaf Carrying Song ....................................................................... 121
Table 12: Analysis of Visions Part 1 ............................................................................... 123
Table 13: Analysis of Visions Part 2 ............................................................................... 127
Table 14: Analysis of Azande .......................................................................................... 132
Table 15: Analysis of Pipe Dance (Sketches) .................................................................. 133
Table 16: Analysis of Groove (Sketches) ......................................................................... 136
Table 17: Analysis of Weavers (Sketches) ....................................................................... 137
Table 18: Analysis of Mopani (Sketches)......................................................................... 137
Table 19: Analysis of Desert Dance (Four African Scenes) ............................................. 140
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Table 20: Analysis of Wind Song (Four African Scenes) ................................................. 141
Table 21: Analysis of Dusk at Loteni (Four African Scenes)............................................ 143
Table 22: Analysis of Market Place Conversations (Four African Scenes) ...................... 143
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Figure 2: Overtone Series based on G .............................................................................. 87
Figure 3: Overtone Series based on A .............................................................................. 87
Figure 4: Quartertone Fingering Chart ............................................................................. 89
Figure 5: Fragment of Nhemamusasa .............................................................................. 98
Figure 6: Whistle of the Circle Movement: bars 35-43 ..................................................... 98
Figure 7: Example of Polyrhythm in Walking Song ......................................................... 110
Figure 8: Bars 192-193 from Walking Song ..................................................................... 111
Figure 9: Bars 195-196 from Walking Song ..................................................................... 111
Figure 10: Bars 1-2 from Walking Song ........................................................................... 112
Figure 11: Bars 29-31 from Walking Song ....................................................................... 112
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Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
In April 1994 the citizens of South Africa found themselves in the unique position of
contemplating a new national culture; one that would for the first time embrace all South
Africans, regardless of race, colour or religion. Racial segregation began in South Africa in
colonial times, but became the official policy of the Nationalist Government in 1948. Apartheid
ended with the first democratic elections held on April 28 th
, 1994. Before the end of apartheid –
a South African word for segregation - the ruling National Party promoted the culture of the
white Afrikaner minority at the expense of non-white cultures. The culture of the white
Afrikaner was based on that of his European ancestors, mostly the Dutch, French and British
settlers. Before and during apartheid culture was also defined along racial lines. Cultural
awareness has gradually transcended these racial lines since the 1980s. While European and
African cultures still remain largely distinct from one another, some blending of styles has
occurred. It is in this context that this dissertation investigates the developments in the South
African classical music scene.
This document examines selected works for flute as a solo instrument and in
combination with up to four other instruments. These works were composed between 1985 and
2006 by a cross-section of South African composers who either live in South Africa or who
have South African roots. This time frame was specifically chosen to include a period of
roughly ten years before and after 1994; the purpose being to document the changes that were
taking place in South African Art Music in the lead-up to the elections of 1994, as well as in the
period afterwards. Only works that exhibit influences from traditional African music in sub-
Saharan Africa have been included. Following an analysis of the selected works four categories
of cross-cultural borrowing emerged: overt cross-cultural borrowing, borrowing guided by
African music-making principles, African paraphrasing, and inspirational landscape painting. A
more detailed discussion of these categories and how they relate to Transethnicism, Nationalism
and Exoticism can be found in Chapter Three.
While there are many kinds of music that make up the cultural fabric of South Africa, not all
have been treated equally by scholars in the recent past. For example, indigenous music and
2
twentieth century popular music have received the most coverage, with less attention
being paid to African choral music, and virtually none to the music of the Afrikaners. Some
consideration has been given to composers of classical music, but less so to the meaning of
classical music in a South African context as opposed to a European context. Christine Lucia, a
leading scholar of South African Art Music, regards the study of classical music in South Africa
from the seventeenth century to the present as a long-overdue project. 1
This chapter is divided into three parts. It will begin with a definition of terminology, as
some terms used in this dissertation may be unfamiliar to many readers, while others have
ambiguous meanings. The second section will concentrate on the meaning of culture, its effects
on a society, and how it supports music in transition. Since many readers will likely be
unfamiliar with the development of classical music in South Africa, the third section will
provide a brief summary of its history since the late seventeenth century and offer a summary of
current classical music trends in that country.
1.2 Definition of Terms
The term Art Music has different meanings to different people. In its broadest sense it
may refer to any music that requires thoughtful participation by the listener. Such careful
listening is not only required of classical music, but other musics, for example jazz or traditional
musics of other cultures as well. In a narrower sense, however, Art Music refers to all music
descended from Western classical music 2 ; music that is written down and transmitted thus from
generation to generation. It is this definition that is most often favoured by musicologists.
Ghanaian ethnomusicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia defines it as music that is intended as a
concert presentation; a listening experience. 3 By contrast, popular music does not generally
demand a high level of concentration from the listener and is in this regard the polar opposite of
1. Christine Lucia, ed., preface to The World of South African Music (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge
Scholars Press, 2005), xxvi.
2. Classical music here refers to the Western classical music tradition, spanning roughly from the ninth
century to the present.
3. J. H. Kwabena Nketia, African Art Music in accompanying booklet The Creative Potential of African
Art Music in Ghana, The International Centre for Music and Dance, compact disc. (Ghana: Afram Publications
Ltd., 2004), 5.
3
Art Music. In some places, including South Africa, Art Music is synonymous with serious
music, and the terms are used interchangeably.
What is African Art Music? African Art Music uses the same narrow definition of Art
Music, i.e. a tradition that is based upon the Western classical music tradition. Composers of
such music have been trained in the techniques of Western Art Music, usually in their country of
origin, but many African Art Music composers have also spent time in Europe. Ademola
Adegbite, a Nigerian scholar, views African Art Music as a genre with elements of both
Western and African origin. He describes it as a synthesis and cross-fertilization of African and
Western musical building blocks. 4 Furthermore, South African Art Music is African Art Music
composed by South African composers. It is a genre on its own; one that reflects the rich
cultural history and diversity of its people.
The question of who or what is an African can be a controversial one. A very strict
interpretation of what constitutes an African individual relies on skin colour and place of birth.
It is believed in some quarters, and reinforced for political gain, that an African is a non-white
person who was born and raised in Africa, and whose ancestors in the area can be traced back
for several centuries. It is this restrictive definition that will be used in this document when
referring to indigenous or traditional African music and the people who perform it. Traditional
African musics have their own musical systems, instruments and social uses. These systems are
referred to when discussing particular works included in this dissertation.
A distinction must be made between two very similar terms: African and Afrikaner –
with the latter group a subset of the first. As discussed above, the question of what constitutes an
African is quite contentious, however if one were to use the term in its broadest sense, then all
persons born and raised in Africa are Africans. Such a definition would necessarily include the
Afrikaners. The term Afrikaner denotes a group of white Afrikaans-speaking people and they
are a distinct group from the English-speakers in South Africa. The Boers (a Dutch word for
farmer) are a distinct subset of Afrikaners; however, all Afrikaners have Dutch ancestry, with a
trace of French Hugenot, German and Frisian (Germanic people from an area where Germany
meets the Netherlands and Denmark) extraction. The original Dutch settlers arrived in the Cape
4. Ademola Adegbite, The Present State of Development of African Art Music in Nigeria, in African Art
Music in Nigeria, ed. M. A. Omibiyi-Obidike (Nigeria: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd., 2001), 77.
4
of Good Hope between 1652 and 1795, when the Dutch East India Company had established a
way-station or a station to pick up fresh food for its ships.
The word traditional‘, when used in conjunction with South African music, has received
several changing and contradicting explanations. Opposing views about national and cultural
identity have added to this problem, not least by apartheid legislation, that has promoted the idea
that Africans of various tribes and regions are traditionally divided. This has led to a lack of
black national unity. When the terms indigenous, native or traditional music are used in
this document, reference is being made to music from South Africa that originated in that
country several centuries ago and that is unique original and characteristic to that area. The term
original or native people can in itself be somewhat misleading and problematic. Most
historians believe that the Bantu from northern Africa eventually migrated south and displaced
the nomadic Khoi-San, 5 who actually still exist, albeit in small numbers. For the purposes of this
dissertation, indigenous, traditional and native will refer to both the Khoi-San and
African black people. Traditional, native or indigenous music will refer to both the type of
music that is centuries old and the more modern genres, such as kwela, mbaqanca and marabi. 6
For the purpose of this dissertation the term culture will be used in anthropological sense, one
that was defined by Edward B. Tylor in 1871. He used it to denote the totality of the humanly
created world, one that included material culture, such as music and art, through social
insitutions, such as religious and political ones, to knowledge and meaning. 7 Although Tylor‘s
views are still being debated, his book from 1871 informs contemporary cultural anthropology
even now. Tylor was amongst the proponents of cultural evolutionism and through his theories
was able to explain long-term cultural changes. Similar to the idea of culture itself, questions
about how culture changes have been of ongoing concern among anthropologists,
ethnomusicologists, sociologists and the like.
5. J. Vansina, New Linguistic Evidence and the Bantu Expansion‘, Journal of African History 36
(1995): 173.
6. Kwela – jazzy, street-based pennywhistle music; Mbaqanca – jazzy 1960s music with rural Zulu roots;
Marabi – the oldest of the three, is a keyboard-based type of jazz with African roots. It was popular in the shebeens
(illegal bars serving homemade beer) and existed throughout most of the twentieth century.
7. Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy,
Religion, Language, Art and Custom (London: J. Murray, 1903), 1.
5
Understanding the history, traditions and transformations in South Africa will augment
the appreciation of the country and its music. During the last century apartheid has, without a
doubt, had a profound impact on all South Africans and subsequently on their musical traditions.
Apartheid is an Afrikaans word used to describe legalized segregation and discrimination
practiced in South Africa between 1948 and 1990. Considering the link between politics and
culture, Carol Muller writes:
…Any real understanding of musical performance in the twentieth
century has to factor in the making and dismantling of the
apartheid system of government. There can be no real
understanding of twentieth-century South African performance
without knowledge of the politics and struggles of everyday life.
This means we must examine musical performance as situated in
historical, cultural, and political contexts. 8
Music does not exist in isolation from the society in which it is produced. In fact, in
many African cultures, including those of South Africa, there is no separate word for music or
the context in which it takes place. In addition, music reflects society, its customs, norms and
political views.
Music in Transition was the theme of the Nineteenth Annual Musicological Congress
held at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in August 1992. Although this
conference took place before the first democratic elections were held in South Africa, the theme
itself indicated that changes in South African culture were already taking place, while at the
same time hinting at the changes that were still to come. Even now, nineteen years later, one
could say that South African culture is still in the process of working itself out. Or as Erlmann
states:
strange Janus-faced mood, by a symbiosis between
constitutionalism and nationalism, rainbow-pluralism and
8. Carol Muller, South African Music: A Century of Traditions in Transformation (Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, 2004), 10.
6
Africanism. In short, its present is both a future that has not quite
arrived and a past that has not quite died. 9
In 1992 there was a general recognition that profound social and political changes were
taking place in South Africa. It was also assumed that these political and social changes would
have a direct effect on the cultural transformation as well. Furthermore, it was taken for granted
that a South African musical style acceptable to all South Africans would evolve from this
transformation. This assumption presupposes a connection between society, its ideas and its
music. 10
Zeitgeist, which translates as spirit of the time,‘ is a pivotal concept of
Geistesgeschichte (the history of ideas, people and the undercurrents of culture). Zeitgeist
manifests itself in the music of a specific period and is a way of describing the relationship
between a society, its ideas and its music. As Blume writes:
…not only in the sense of a factor in itself inexplicable, operating
to impel the people of a time and area to think, feel and express
themselves in a common form, but also in the sense of a definite
manner in which those people look upon themselves and place
themselves in relation to the physical and metaphysical worlds. 11
Differing views, although with the same outcome, are held by Dahlhaus, Marx, Adorno
and Ballantine. These authors place the cause of the relationship on social structures or social
forces. As Marx expressed: it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but,
on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness. 12
An example by Adorno about the music of Beethoven further illustrates this view: …
for all the idealism of its tone and posture, the essence of society…becomes the essence of the
music itself…The central categories of the artistic construction can be translated into social
9. Veit Erlmann, Music, Modernity and the Global Imagination: South Africa and the West (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1999), 237.
10 .Winfried Lüdemann, Music in Transition: In Search of a Paradigm, South African Journal of
Musicology 13 (1993): 31.
11. F. Blume, Renaissance and Baroque Music, transl. M. D. Herter Norton (London: Faber and Faber,…