Sources & methods of data collection

Sources & Methods of Data collection

By – Prashant Shukla

Collection of Primary Data Primary data are those which are

collected afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character and known as Primary data.

There are several methods of collecting primary data:

◦ Observation ◦ Interview◦ Through Questionnaire◦ Through Schedules

Observation

Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner.

ObservationObservational methods may be:

Structured or unstructured In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail

what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified.

In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses.

Observation

Disguised or undisguised In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are

being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers.

In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect – people behave differently when being observed.

ObservationUncontrolled or controlled Uncontrolled observation involves observing behavior as it

takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet.

In controlled observation, the respondents’ behavior is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session.

Non-participant or Participant The observer does not normally question or communicate with

the people being observed. He or she does not participate. In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part

of the group that is being investigated.

Interview Interviewing is a technique

that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reason and motivation for people’s attitudes, preferences or behavior.

Interviews can be personal

as well as telephonic interview.

Interview

Personal interview

Personal interview is a face to face discussion between the interviewer and the interviewee.

Interview Personal interview

Advantages: Serious approach by respondent resulting

in accurate information. Good response rate. Completed and immediate. Possible in-depth questions. Interviewer in control and can give help if

there is a problem. Can investigate motives and feelings. Can use recording equipment. Characteristics of respondent assessed –

tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation,

etc. If one interviewer used, uniformity of

approach.

Disadvantages: Need to set up interviews. Time consuming. Geographic limitations. Can be expensive. Normally need a set of questions. Respondent bias – tendency to please or

impress, create false personal image, or

end interview quickly. Embarrassment possible if personal

questions. If many interviewers, training required.

InterviewTypes of Personal interview:Structured Based on a carefully worded interview schedule. Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off. Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly thought provoking.

Semi-structured The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the

respondent to express him or herself at length.

Unstructured This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general

question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why do you say that?’ or, ‘That’s interesting, tell me more’ or, ‘Would you like to add anything else?’ being typical probes.

Interview

Telephone interview

This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.

This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.

Interview

Disadvantages: Questionnaire required. Not everyone has a telephone. Repeat calls are inevitable –

average 2.5 calls to get someone. Time is wasted. Straightforward questions are

required. Respondent has little time to think. Cannot use visual aids. Can cause irritation. Good telephone manner is

required.

Telephone interviewAdvantages: Relatively cheap. Quick. Can cover reasonably large

numbers of people or organizations.

Wide geographic coverage. High response rate – keep going

till the required number. No waiting. Spontaneous response. Help can be given to the

respondent. Can tape answers.

Questionnaire A questionnaire is a document

that contains a set of questions printed or typed in a proper sequence.

The questionnaire is sent to each individual who is supposed to answer it.

Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

QuestionnaireAdvantages: Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed. Can cover a large number of people

or organizations. Wide geographic coverage. Relatively cheap. No prior arrangements are needed. Avoids embarrassment on the part of

the respondent. As respondents are allowed to

answer the questions according to their own views and understanding, the technique of data collection is non-partial.

Enough time to answer the questions.

Disadvantages: Time consuming. Questions have to be relatively

simple. Time delay whilst waiting for

responses to be returned. Assumes no literacy problems. No control over who completes it. Not possible to give assistance if

required. Problems with incomplete

questionnaires. Replies not spontaneous and

independent of each other.

QuestionnaireHOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE: Researcher should note the following with regard to these

three main aspects of a questionnaire: General form, Question Sequence, Question formulation and wording.

Types the Questions : A) Open ended Questions B) Closed ended Questions

• Fill in the blank questions• Dichotomous Questions• Ranking scale questions• Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)• Rating scale questions

Schedule Method

A Schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required to be answered to collect the data about a particular item.

A schedule generally takes place face- to –face manner.

Schedule MethodDisadvantages Costly Time- consuming method. This method requires well-

trained and experienced field workers to take the interview of the respondents.

Sometimes, the respondents may not be able to tell certain facts due to the personal presence of some researchers at the work.

Advantages Response rate is high. Researcher is always there to

help the respondents Personal contact between the

researcher and the respondents.

Easy for the researcher to detect and rectify the defects in the schedule.

Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule.

Questionnaire is generally sent

through mail to the informants. Relatively cheaper, no field staff

required. Non- response is usually high. Respondent is unknown. Slow process . Personal contact is not possible. Respondent needs to be literate. Wide geographic coverage. Risk of collecting incomplete and

wrong information is higher. Success of Questionnaire lies more

on the quality of the Questionnaire.

The schedule is generally filled out by the research workers/ enumerators

Relatively expensive, required to appoint enumerators and train them.

Non- response is generally very low. Respondent is known. Collected well in time. Personal contact is established. Respondent need not be literate. Difficulty in sending enumerators over a

relatively wider area. Information collected through schedules is

relatively more accurate. Success of Questionnaire lies more on the

honesty and competence of enumerators.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.

Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data.

Published data is available in Publications of the central, state and local governments, trade journals, books, newspapers, reports etc.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Analysis of Data Editing

Coding

Data Entry

Validation

Tabulation

Unwanted or insignificant data is filtered out & only the necessary or important information is retained. Two- levels:

• Micro- editing- filter errors in data by checking individual entries.

• Macro- editing- detect errors in data but by analysis of aggregate data. (calculated through mean, median etc. Comparison of the analysis with secondary data, ensures consistency in data.)

Process of aligning data by grouping it into a particular category so that the researchers can understand and analyze it easily before storing it in the computer.

Entering of data onto the software that does tabulation.

Data tabulation can be done with the help of the software like SPSS, wincross

etc. Final result is produced which is ready for analysis.

Also called as data cleaning. Purpose is to ensure its validity.

Interpretation of Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inference from the

collected facts after an analytical study.

It is only through interpretation the researcher can expose relations and processes that underline his findings.

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e. to build a theory.

The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further research.

REPORT WRITING

RESEARCH REPORTA research report is:

a written document or oral

presentation based on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research project to others.

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RESEARCH REPORT The last stage of a marketing research process. It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the

research process. The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read

the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit.

Any research report contains:◦ descriptions on methodology, ◦ results obtained,◦ and recommendations made.

The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience. Before writing the report◦ the researcher must know his or her audience; ◦ he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition,

background and interests of the target readers.

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Importance of Reports

They are the tangible products of the research effort.

Management decisions are guided by the report.

The involvement of many marketing managers in the project is limited to the written report.

Management's decision to undertake marketing research in the future or to use the particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the report.

Importance of Reports Reports are like another form to communicate effectively. They are

also a way to analyze ones knowledge and skills. 

It facilitates in decision making in future references.

The report plays the great role in the planning and organization of the business house. But it is not the planning and organization of the business alone which come under the review of a report; it is the whole of business which benefits by it. When the industry is to be expanded, scores of reports have to be prepared and gone through before the board of directors can arrive at a safe decision. Often, even the routine direction of administrative and manufacturing units; require the assistance of reports whenever serious problems crop up.

Steps in report writingLogical Analysis of the subject matter

Preparation of the final outline

Preparation of the rough draft

Rewriting & polishing of the rough draft

Preparation of the final bibliography

Writing the final draft

Report Layout

The Letter of Transmittal: The letter of transmittal introduces the purpose and content of the

report to the principal reader, usually (but not always) the person who requested the report. The letter is attached to the report or simply placed on top of it. Some organizations prefer a memo format if the report is intra-organizational.

 Title Page: Briefly introduces the reader to the report. It consists of:

◦ Name of report (all caps)◦ Name, title, organization of receiver◦ Author’s name, title, organization◦ Date submitted

Report Layout

The Abstract: An abstract is a brief technical summary (200 words) of the report.

The abstract of a report is directed primarily to readers who are familiar with the technical subject and need to know whether to read the full report.

 Table of Contents: Shows page numbers where each report heading appears. Page

numbers are connected with leaders (spaced dots). No matter how well organized the report itself may be, a table of contents that does not make the structure clear will be ineffective.

Report Layout

The APPENDIX: Appendixes provide a convenient way to convey information

that is too bulky to be presented in the body or that will be of interest to only a small number of the report’s readers. Maps, large technical diagrams or charts, computations, computer printouts, test data, and texts of supporting documents are usually found in appendixes.

 The List of Illustrations: A list of illustrations is a table of contents for the figures and

tables of a report.

Report LayoutIntroduction: Prepares the reader for easier comprehension. Helps the reader

understand the purpose of the report. The introduction: ◦ Explains problems motivating report◦ Describes its background and significance◦ Clarifies scope and limitations of report◦ Describes data sources, methods, key terms loses by previewing report’s

organization

Body- Design work / Final design of the report: The body:

◦ Discusses, analyzes, interprets research findings◦ Arranges findings in logical segments following outline◦ Uses clear, descriptive headings

Report LayoutConclusion:

◦ Explains findings in relation to original problem◦ Summarizes the entire work◦ Recommendations [if any]

 Executive Summary:

◦ One of most important parts of report◦ Synopsis (overview) of report

 References:

◦ Lists all references in section called “Works Cited” or “References”◦ Include all text, online, and live sources

Types of Research ReportTwo types of reports:-

◦ Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details etc.,

◦ Popular Report: suitable for: a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is non-technical in nature.

The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of the research findings and recommendations.

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