Solar energy (thermal, PV) Ron Zevenhoven Åbo Akademi University Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory / Värme- och strömningsteknik tel. 3223 ; [email protected]Advanced Process Thermodynamics course # 424520.0 (5 sp) v. 2017 ÅA 424520 28.3.2017 Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering Piispankatu 8, 20500 Turku 2/58 2b.1 Solar energy
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Solar energy (thermal, PV)
Ron ZevenhovenÅbo Akademi University
Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory / Värme- och strömningstekniktel. 3223 ; [email protected]
Advanced Process Thermodynamicscourse # 424520.0 (5 sp) v. 2017
ÅA 424520
28.3.2017Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering Piispankatu 8, 20500 Turku 2/58
2b.1 Solar energy
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Potential Solar energy could within one hour provide the energy that
is used in all human acitivities in a year. Drawbacks are
– relatively low energy(exergy) density,
– limited to certain sites– potential effect on local
environment– intermittency– expensive technology
(PV .... is getting cheaper!)
Options are– heat supply (or cooling!)
for housing or industry,– electricity generation– fuel (H2!) production, metals
Pic: IEA08
Note: 40% of the worlds energy demand is in the form of heat.
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Earth surface temperature Solar energy irradiation can be used to estimate planet
surface temperature T; (neglecting significant geothermal heat!)
for Earth with radius Re and irradiation Sc ~ 1355 W/m2
(solar constant) an energy balance Ein = Eout givesπ·R2
e·Sc= 4·π· R2e·σ·T4
e Te ~ 278 K which is too low !
A better result is obtained when including albedo factorρp and greenhouse gas coefficient γp, which for earth are ~ 0.3 and ~ 0.4 , respectively:(1- ρp)·π·R2
e·Sc= (1- γp)·4·π·R2e·σ·T4
e Te ~ 289 K
Experimental: Te ~ 288 K for earth ( value for T°). For Venus Tv ~ 327 K, corrected with γp ~ 0.999 (atmosphere > 95%
CO2!) and ρp ~ 0.7 Tv ~ 765 K (experimental Tv ~ 733 K )
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Incoming solar irradiation
The solar radiation received at ground (sea) level consists ofdirect and indirect (scattered, reflected, diffuse) radiation.
At ground (sea) level, the solar energy content is ~ 3% UV, 44% visible and 53% IR
Clouds can reflect < 20% .. > 80%, absorb < 10%.
Table: K08Pic: TDDGP12
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Solar energy, renewable energy: 2015
Solar thermal heat recovery compared to other ”minor” renewableenergy sources used pic: IEA-SHC16
Note: of all energy used worldwide ~19 % is renewable energy, being9 + 4 % biomass and 6% other (REN21, 2016) (fossil ~78.3 %, nuclear ~ 2.5 %)
January 31, 2017300GW Of Solar PV Installed Globally
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Solar energy, renewable energy: 2006
Solar thermal heat recovery ↔ other ”minor” renewable energysources pic: IEA-SHC08
Note: of all energy used worldwide in 2005, 11% was renewableenergy (IEA08)
For comparison with data for 2015/16
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2b.2 Solar thermal energy
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Solar heat conversion /1
A light-absorbing material, a collector, is used the absorbthe incident solar radiation energy while minimisingreflection and transmission.
At the same time losses should be avoided temperatures~ ambient air temperature are preferable.
The heat is transferred to a fluid (air, water, oil, ..). In active systems, energy must be added;
for passive systems naturalcirculation is made use of.
An example of a passive system is a house with ordinary glass windows, or a greenhouse, or a solar pond.
Solar pond
Pic: Se04
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Solar heat conversion /2
Solar thermal energy includes residential heating, process heating, or power generation. This relates to different temperature ranges and scales/sizes.
Five important ranges are– Cooling / refrigeration (absorption process) *– Up to 100°C domestic / industrial water, space heating
(50-60% of European energy use, solar supply ~ 0.1%)– 100 - 250°C industrial heat (~8% of European energy use)– 250 - 800°C thermal power
plants ( electricity)– 800 – (>)1200°C thermo-
chemical splitting of water H2.
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See also MS08and * course 424519 Refrigeration
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Solar heat conversion /3 Higher temperatures can be obtained by blocking for long-
wavelength radiation (using glazing), and more effectively by concentrating the radiation, using curved, focussingsurfaces, mirrors and lenses, incl. Fresnel lenses
Important: insulation from conductive & convective heat transfer (losses)
Pic: Se04
Fresnel lens(left)conventionallens (right)
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Solar thermal collectors in use end 2014
~ 94% of the solar thermal energy capacity is for the supply of hot water in buildings, of ~410 GW (end of 2010: 196 GW), mainlyas flat-plate and vacuum (evacuated) tube collectors (ETC)
pics: IEA-SHC16Finland end of 2014: ~39 MWth, 2008: ~25 MWth, 2006: ~10 MWth
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Pic: Se04
Flat plate collectors /1
Pic: Se04
Pic: MS08
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Flat plate collectors /2
Table: Se04 Pic
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Of prime importance are– 100 % of short wave radiation is absorbed, while only a few %
of long wave radiation is emitted. Earlier, Cr-oxide coatingswere used, nowadays several other materials can be used.
– The orientation / tilting towards the sun. This can be mechanically and automatically controlled.
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Vacuum tube collectors have lower thermal losses and hence reach higher outlet temperatures
Pic: SWE-4/2008
Evacuated (vacuum) tubes
Slightly different and (often) better: so-called Sydney tubes
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Domestic hot water, combi systems
Pics: MS08
Option:combinationwith a heat pump !
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Focussing (concentrating) collectors /1
Pics: K04,Se04
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Focussing (concentrating) collectors /2
Pics: K04Heliostat field collector Optimising for reflector spacing
Pic
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2b.3 Solar-thermal energyconversion to work/power
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Solar radiation: dilution
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Sky / atmosphere
Sun
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Solar-thermal conversion (bb’s) /1
Radiation from an effective sky temperature Tsonto a blackbody (bb) surface at Tb can be used in a Carnot engine E that rejects heat at environmenttemperature Te =T° and generates work W.
For a solar collector directed ┴ to the sun, incoming radiation flux (W/m2) ~ Ssun(solar constant) = ƒ·σT4
sun (dilution ƒ~2.16×10-5)
And, the collector absorbs bb radiationfrom the surroundings at T° = Te ~ 288 K
Also, the collector emits bb radiation
net influx = σ·(ƒ·T4sun + (1-ƒ)·T°4 –T4
b) = σ·(T4
s –T4b); T4
s = ƒ·T4sun + (1-ƒ)·T°4
Ts
Tb
T°
WE
Müserengine
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Solar-thermal conversion (bb’s) /2
net influx = σ·(ƒ·T4sun + (1-ƒ)·T°4 –T4
b) = σ·(T4
s –T4b); T4
s = ƒ·T4sun + (1-ƒ)·T°4
With T°= 288 K Ts ~ 432 K.where Ts is an ”effective sky tempeature”
For the endoreversible engine, the max. power Wmax is achieved with
- see also section 1.5 (Exergy)
This gives engine efficiency η = W/ Qin = 0.1835, and solar energy conversion efficiency ω = W/ƒσT4
sun = 0.13
Ts
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Solar-thermal conversion (bb’s) /3
The performance can be improved by concentratingthe incident solar radiation, compensating for the dilution ƒ = (Rearth orbit / Rsun)2.
Maximum concentration factor Cmax = 1/ƒ = 46300, which increases the net influx to net influx = σ·(C·ƒ·T4
sun + (1-C·ƒ)· T°4 –T4b),
giving higher effective sky temperature Ts
With C ~ 400, solar energy conversion efficiency ω canbe improved to > 60%.
Another way to improve ω is a selective coating on the collector surface that reduce emission. Combined with concentrators, ω > 70% is possible.
Stefan – Boltzmann engine
Source: W08, see also dV08
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Heat conduction or convectionto low temperature reservoir not possible (extra-terrestial applications)
Stefan – Boltzmann enginewith conductive/convective heat rejection
Source: W08, see also dV08
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ÅA 424520
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2b.4 Photo-voltaic (PV) energyconversion
Solar energy: capacity for PV kWh/m2/yr
Source pic: Sun and Wind Energy, 6-2011, p 100
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Photo-voltaic energy is based on radiation creating electricpotential differences, ΔV, to generate electric current, i, makinguse of semi-conductors (electrons can occupy ranges (”bands”) of energy levels).
This gives a power outputs up to several 100 W/m2 Typical panel size 0.1 - 0.25 kW; largest plant ~ 850 MW (China)
Most units are still based on crystalline silicon(c-Si) but other materials are ”taking over”?
In 2005, ~ 3 TWh (3×106 kWh) solar electricity was generated, increasing to 253TWh during 2015* (104.5 TWh in 2012)
Note: trackers can improve efficiency with 20-50%* https://blogs.shell.com/2016/08/30/solardeploy/ (17.2.2017) P
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Photo-voltaic energy conversion /1
Instead of using the thermal radiation from the sun and convert the heat to power (= electricity), a photovoltaic device can be applied directly. This technology uses the ability of a (metal or) semi-conductor to convert an incident flow of photons to an electric current: the electrons in the valence band absorb energy from the photons and jump to the conduction band and become free, generating an electro-motive force (EMF). Connecting this to an external circuit with a resistance, an electrical current is established.
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Photo-voltaic energy conversion /2
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Solar energy efficiency η, defined as the ratio electric power out/solar energyabsorbed: η = ΔV∙i/Qin
with ΔV ~ 0.5 V, i ~ 3 A per cell was found to be ≤ 33.7% for non-concentrated sunlight (Si: 1.1 eV ~29 %)
With concentration factors C ~ 400 values up to η ~ 35% are reached with bandgap voltages ~1.1 – 1.3 eV. In practice η > ~ 0.15 is difficult.
Pic
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Shockley–Queisser limitfor p-n junction PV power
Photo-voltaic energy conversion /3
Solar PV: Voltage, current and power
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The relation between the voltage and current for a typical solar panel at different insolation is depicted in the left figure, giving the power curves with maxima (peak power points) at about U = 17 V.
(U,I)-relations for different load resistances on the outer circuit are indicated in the right figure (SH14) for a 1 m2 solar panel.
Solar PV: Performance Examples
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PV cell performance for power density P=J·V can be quantified by different variables.A central factor is the efficiency, defined as
where Ps is the power density of the incidentlight. FF, a fill factor, is a measure of the“squareness” of the voltage-current-curve given by
Performance indicesof some solar PV cells are reported in the table(W10).
s
mm
P
VJ
ocsc
mm
VJ
VJFF
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Photo-voltaic energy conversion /4
Source: https://www.nrel.gov/pv/ and https://www.nrel.gov/pv/assets/images/efficiency-chart.png
Status March 2017
PV systems can be combined with waste heat recovery in hybrid systems, at the sametime cooling the PV unit.
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Source: Sun and Wind Energy 4/2008, 9-2010& http://solarwall.com/en/products/pvthermal.php& Charalambous et al., Appl. Thermal Eng. 27(2-3) 2007, 275
Photo-voltaic energy conversion /5
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Photo-voltaic enery: capacity Contrary to the mid-1990’s, more than 90% of the PV
systems are now used in grid-connected systems (integrated in buildings.)
In 2009 three countries (DE, ES, JP), account for ~75% of installed PV capacity, today the spread is more diverse: CN, DE, JP, US, IT - but per capita: DE, IT, BE, JP, GR.
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Sun & Wind Energy2012/02 p. 90
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2b.5 Concentrated solar power (CSP)
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Concentrated solar power (CSP) /1
As solar radiation and energy demandvary, a heat storageis typically used
Several units are runningat several 100 MW
Investments: from 4 to > 10 US$/W, electricity price150-300 US$/MWh (2012)
In CSP units direct sunlight is concentrated to higher energydensities, giving high temperatures; the heat is used in e.g. a steam cycle or Stirling engine, driving an electricitygenerator.
This can be applied in several areas – see Figure below. Preferably 2000 kWh/m2/year ( ~ 500 W/m2) is available
Pic: IEA08
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Concentrated solar power (CSP) /2
CSP collectors are either troughs, dishes or towers, achieving concentration factors of 30-100, 1000-10000 and 500-1000, respectively.
~ 100 plants operating and > 45 planned worldwide, see for a list: http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/
Total global operating ~ 4.8 GW: ~50% Spain, ~33% USA Troughs > 90%, besided dishes, towers or Fresnel lenses Several trough-based plants are combined with fossil fuel
energy: Integrated Solar Combined Cycle plants
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Integrated Solar Combined Cycles
The SEGS (Solar Energy Generating Systems)project (CA, USA): SEGS-V 5th of 9 units picture: Modern Power Systems, 2/2007
304 390°C Pic: K04
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Integrated Solar Combined Cycles
System with heat storage using molten salt (NaNO3/KNO3) for 50 MW at Guadix, Andalusia, on-line 2008, Andasol 1, 624 collectors, 0.5 km2, followed by same size Andasol 2 (2009) and 3 (2011)
PTPP = parabolic trough power plant
picture: MPS 2/2007; see also SWE 5/2008, .....
ÅA 424520
CSP: the best way to go for power?
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Stirling dish engine. ”These beautiful concentrators deliver power per unit land area of 14W/m2.” (M08)
www.stirlingenergy.com
Solar Energy: (thermal, PV, …): Challenges
Even though the sun constitutes a huge energy reserve and the radiation that enters earth could easily supply mankind with all the required energy (in fact, about 10,000 times more), there are many challenges, besides decisions by politicians (e.g. feed-in tariffs):• Large area are needed, and large investments• Weather conditions have a strong effect • Influx mainly limited to daylight hours• Large fluctuations occur• Stability of materials• Availability of special materials
Possible remedies would be• Cheaper “collector” materials• Cheaper short-term and long-term
energy storages• Massive integration of units
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”Hidden costs” of renewableenergy
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2b.6 Other solar energy applications
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Solar hydrogen production Four important thermochemical routes for solar hydrogen
production, all involving endothermic reactions Hydrogen can come from water, from fossil fuels, or both of
these. With fossil fuels, CO2 is produced It may require special (high temperature) materials
Pic: IEA08
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Other use of solar energy, CSP CSP or other forms of solar
energy could be used for – metals production, – energy carriers production– methane reforming– chemicals production– all sorts of endothermic chemistry
– water desalination(”AQUA-CSP” and similar efforts)
for example running a steam cycle with outlet steam of 70°C (instead of 35°C) as to get heat for desalination at somewhat reduced electricity production efficiency
Pics: AQUACSP07
Solar chimney, solar tower
November 2010:
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50 kWe demo in Spain 1982-1989(height 195 m)
for 200 MWe unit in NSW, Australia, later downscaled to 50 MWe
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2b.7 Exergy analysis (an example)
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Exergy analysis – solar power /1
Schematic of a solar power system (pic: KSM03)
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Exergy analysis – solar power /2
Pic: KSM03
Note [5] =RenewableEnergy 19 (2000) 135
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Exergy analysis– solar power
/3
Pics: KSM03
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2b.8 Passive coolingsee R&D at ÅA Thermal and Flow Engineering: 2a.8 & 2a.9
Solar coolingsee ÅA course 424519 Refrigeration, #9
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2b.9 Desertec....
Desertec..... Source: MPS, Dec. 2012 p. 61
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Sources 2b AQUACSP07: ”Concentrating solar power for sea water desalination”, German Aerospace Centre
(DLR), Nov. 2007. http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/reports/AQUA-CSP-Full-Report-Final.pdf B97: A. Bejan “Advanced engineering thermodynamics” 2nd ed. Wiley (1997) HR08: Y. Hwang, R. Rademacher. ”Review of solar cooling technologies”. HVAC&R Research 14(3)
(2008) 507-528 IEA08: “Energy technology perspectives - Scenarios and strategies to 2050”, IEA, Paris IEA-SHC08: “Solar heat worldwide, Markets and Contributions to the Energy Supply 2006”, Edition
2008, IEA-Solar Heatiing and Cooling Programme, May 2008, AEE INTEC, Austria IEA-SHC16: “Solar heat worldwide, Markets and Contributions to the Energy Supply 2014”, Edition
2016, IEA-Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2016, AEE INTEC, Austria http://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2016.pdf
K03: Kryza, F.T. “The power of light” New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003 K04: Kalogirou, S.A. “Solar thermal collectors and applications.” Progr. Energy & Comb. Sci. 30
(2004) 231-295 K08: Khalil, S. “Parameterization models for solar radiation and solar technology applications”. Energy
Conv. & Manage. 49 (2008) 2384-2391 KSM03: Koroneos, C., Spachos, T., Moussiopoulos, N. “Exergy analysis of renewable energy sources”
Renew. Energy 28 (2003) 295-310 L08: Lior, N. “Energy resources and use: The present situation and possible paths to the future”
Energy 33 (2008) 842-857 MM77: A.B. Meinel, M.P. Meinel “Applied solar energy” 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley (1977)
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Sources 2b (cont’d)
M08: MacKay, D.J.C, ”Sustainable energy – without the hot air” v. 3.5.2. UIT Cambridge, UKhttp://www.withouthotair.com/
MPS = magazine Modern Power Systems http://www.modernpowersystems.com MS08: Müller-Steinhagen, H. ”Applications of solar heat for temperatures ranging from 50-1000°C”,
Proc of Eurotherm 2008, Eindhoven (the Netherlands) May 2008 NG14: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2014/04/140416-solar-updraft-towers-convert-
hot-air-to-energy
REN21: Renewables 2016 Global Status Report (GSR 2016) http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/REN21_GSR2016_FullReport_en_11.pdf
SAKS04: de Swaan Arons, J., van der Kooi, H., Sankarana-rayanan, K. Efficiency and sustainability in the efficiency and chemical industries. Marcel Dekker, New York 2004. Chapter 15.
Se04: Șen. Z. “Solar energy in progress and future research trends.” Progr. Energy & Comb. Sci. 30 (2004) 367-416
SH14: Stine, W.B., Harrigan, R.W. Power from the Sun. (2014) http://www.powerfromthesun.net/ Sö04: Sörensen, B. Renewable energy 3rd ed. Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington (MA) 2004 SWE = magazine Sun & Wind Energy http://www.sunwindenergy.com TDDGP12 J.W. Tester, E.M. Drake, M.J. Driscoll, M.W. Golay, W.A. Peters ”Sustainable Energy -
Choosing Among Options” MIT Press, Second edition 2012 dV08: A. De Vos ”Thermodynamics of solar energy conversion”, Wiley-VCH, 2008 W08: S.E. Wright ”Endoreversible terrestial solar energy conversion”, Renew. Energy 33 (2008) 2631-
2636 W10: Wang, Q. Photovoltaic Physics and Materials, Lecture notes, University of Singapore, 2019/10