SOLAR ENERGY THE FUTURE FUEL

Tata bp solar

A SUMMER PROJECT REPORT ONGlobal scope and opportunities of solar

energy

SUBMITTED TOWARDS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

(APPROVED BY AICTE, GOVT. OF INDIA)(Equivalent to MBA)

ACADEMIC SESSION (2007-2009)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF SUBMITTED BY:INTERNAL SUPERVISOR: Prof. TIMIRA SUKHLA SHASHI KANT VASKAR (137) EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR:Mr. Sanjay Dhar

INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIESLAL QUAN, C-238, BULANDSHAHAR

GHAZIABAD-201009

http://www.ims-ghaziabad.ac.in/newsite/index.asp

Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Mr. SHASHI KANT VASKAR student of Post Graduate

Diploma in Business Management from Institute of Management Studies,

Ghaziabad has completed His Summer training project titled” GLOBAL SCOPE

AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SOLAR ENERGY “, under my guidance and

supervision .I wishes him all the best in future endeavours.

Prof. Timira Sukhla

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Hope and misery, toll and revelry, cheer and dejection…….

Are all those going behind the success of this project?”

Any assignment puts to litmus test of an individual knowledge credibility or experience

and thus sole efforts of an individual are not sufficient to accomplish the desire successful

completion of a project involve interest and effort of many people and so this becomes

obligatory on the part to record our thanks to those who helped us out in the successful

completion of our project.

Life is a process of accumulating and discharging debts, not all of those can be measured.

We can not hope to discharge them with simple words of thanks but we can certainly

acknowledge them.

At this level of understanding it is often difficult to comprehend and assimilate a wide

spectrum of knowledge without proper guidance and advice. Hence, we would like to take this

opportunity to express our Heartfelt Gratitude to Respected Prof. Timira Sukhla, PGDBM,

IMS, Ghaziabad, for his round the clock Enthusiastic Support, Noble guidance and

encouragement which made this project successful. We are extremely thankful to him for making

this project watchful.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. TATA Bp solar product line

3. Good response to solar energy promotion scheme

4. Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology

5. Solar-powered vision of the future

6. A Bright Future for Solar Energy

7. Why photovoltaic’s??

8. The Future of Solar Power Lies in the Northeast

9. Solar Powers Up, Sans Silicon

10.Bright Future for Solar Power Satellites

11.The Future of Solar-Powered Homes

12.How to brighten solar power's future

13.Reference

IntroductionIndia Energy Market

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The Indian renewable energy (RE) industry is diversified and offers strong business prospects to

U.S. companies. The market in India for RE business is estimated at USD 500 million and is

growing at an annual rate of 15 percent. The major areas of investment are: solar energy, wind

energy, small hydro projects, waste-to-energy, biomass and alternative fuel. The new RE policy

of the Government of India (GOI) aimed at generating 10,000 MW through renewable and a

non-conventional source by 2012 is expected to further boost the growth rate of this sector.

Key factors responsible for growth in this sector include:

Large demand-supply gap in electricity

India is generously endowed with RE resources like solar, wind, bio-mass materials,

urban and industrial wastes and small hydro resources

Low gestation periods for setting up RE projects with quick return

Conducive government policies

The large number of financing options available for capital equipment

Increasing awareness among industry that being environmentally responsible is

economically sound.

The annual turnover of the RE industry in India is approximately USD 500 million. The

investment in RE is estimated to be about USD 3 billion. Of the estimated potential of 100,000

MW from RE only about 3500 MW has been exploited to-date. The federal government has set a

medium scale goal of electrification of 18,000 remote villages and meeting 10 percent of the

country’s power supply through RE by the year 2012. These targets are in addition to those fixed

for other RE devices or programs including establishing 1 million biogas plants, 1 million SPV

(Solar Photovoltaic) systems for lighting, 8,000 SPV pumps for irrigation, 10,000 SPV

generators, stand-alone SPV power plants, solar water heating systems, solar air heating systems,

solar cookers including large steam cooking systems, 360 energy demonstration parks and

establishing more solar retail outlets and solar passive buildings, among other projects.

The GOI is implementing various programs for utilizing solar energy such as solar PV

(Photovoltaic) lighting and water pumping systems, solar cookers, solar thermal water heating

systems and solar power generation throughout the country. Incentives include central financial

assistance; 80 percent accelerated depreciation; relief in customs duty, excise duty and sales tax;

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soft loans; and government policies covering wheeling, banking, buy-back, and third-party sale

of power are being formulated to encourage the use of non-conventional energy sources and to

offset the initial cost.

India has not been successful in keeping pace in this sector, despite a large demand supply gap

with respect to energy requirements and ample renewable resource availability. The U.S. is the

pioneer in this sector. Several U.S. companies such as GE Power Systems, Solar Wall, NRG

System, Alstom Power, Astro Power, Shell, Duke Solar and Sundanzer play a major role in the

Indian market.

Although a few U.S. companies have market presence in India, industry experts feel that U.S has

played a minimum role in tapping opportunities in this sector. There are projects for

development that U.S. companies should consider if they are keen to enter the Indian market.

Sub-sectors that continue to show a high growth rate and are expected to drive the RE market are

briefly discussed below:

Solar Energy: The scope of generating power and thermal applications using solar energy is

promising. Only a fraction of the aggregate potential in renewable resources and in particularly

solar energy is being used so far. Processed raw material for solar cells, large capacity SPV

modules, film solar cells, SPV roof tiles, inverters, charge controllers etc., have good market

potential in India.

Biomass Energy: In a country like India, biomass holds considerable promise as 540 million tons

of crop and plantation residues are produced every year, a large portion of which is either

wasted, or used inefficiently. Conservative estimates indicate that even with the present

utilization pattern of these residues and by using only the surplus biomass materials, estimated at

about 150 million tons, about 17,000 MW of distributed power could be generated.

Hydro Projects: With numerous rivers and their tributaries in the country, the small hydro sector

presents an excellent energy opportunity with an estimated potential of 15,000 MW. About 10

percent of this has been exploited so far. In order to accelerate the development of small

hydropower in the country, the GOI also provides concessions for existing hydro projects

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including financial support for renovation, modernization and capacity upgrading of aging small

hydro power stations.

Energy from Wastes: The rising piles of garbage in urban areas caused by rapid urbanization and

industrialization throughout India represent another source of non-conventional energy. Good

potential exists for generating approx. 15,000 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes

and approx. 100 MW from industrial wastes in India.

Biofuels: The GOI recently mandated the blending of 5 percent fuel ethanol in 95 percent

gasoline in 9 states and 4 union territories as of January 1, 2003. This mandate has created an

approx. 3.6 billion liter demand for fuel ethanol in the entire country, and also further increase in

the fuel ethanol component of the blend to 10% as of October 1, 2003. The significant demand

growth creates a tremendous manufacturing opportunity for the U.S. fuel ethanol industry

seeking to expand its investments internationally. A substantial import of fuel ethanol will be

necessary to supply the product required to meet the burgeoning demand created by the currently

effective GOI mandate.

Note: We are not providing a data table because, in most of the segments of this sector, no

reliable statistics are available.

TATA BP SOLAR PRODUCT LINEDOMESTIC SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS MODEL: ZING

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Puf - Insulated Tank

New, innovative Tank shape

Unique Tank & Collector support

structure

Sacrificial Anode to prevent galvanic

corrosion

Ultrasonic Welding of Collectors for

Superior Conductivity

3 Dimensional Polymer End Cap

Unique “Anti Condensation” device

Available in capacities of 100, 200 and

300 LPD

Domestic Solar Water Heating Systems Model: HOT MAX

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Features

High quality tubes made from

borosilicate glass

Withstands hail storms

No clogging/choking

Long lasting

Inner coating of tubes consists of layers

of copper, stainless steel and aluminium

nitride

Heats water to a very high temperature

Makes hot water available even on

partially cloudy days

High quality PUF insulation for

maintaining high temperature of water

inside the tank

End caps made from Uv resistant ABS

plastic enhances aesthetics of product

Powder coated support structure fr long

life

Compact and light weight water heater

Easy to install, operate and maintain

Works efficiently with hard water with

hardness uo to 600 ppm.

Solar Lanterns Model: TATADEEP

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Ideal portable lighting system

Bright, omnidirectional light - anytime,

anywhere

Charging via Solar Module or AC

Mains using optional Solarmite Charger

3 / 5 hours of continuousbright light on

single charge for MK 3 model and 2

hours

of light for MK 4 model

Solar Home Lighting System Model: VENUS

Ready-to-use Kit containing solar module,

battery, MCR charge controller and

luminaires

Available in 2 models

3 - 4 hrs operation/day

4 days autonomy

Cost-effective

Minimum maintenance

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Solar Home Lighting Kits Model: JUGNU

Packaged 12 V systems containing

module, battery, regulator, high

efficiency electronics and luminaires

Ready-to-use Kit : easy to install, easy

to use, negligible maintenance

Available in a wide range of MNES

approved models

Solar Power Packs Model: ECOGENIE

Solar Water Pumping Systems

Surface and Submersible Types

Up to 2HP rating pumps

Can lift water from depths up to 166 ft. (50 m)

and deliver up to 1,35,000 litres / day

3 Position Manual Tracking

Easy to install, minimum maintenance and

completely

serviceable

Over 2000 systems installed all over India

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Solar Industrial Water Heating Systems Model: VAJRA

VAJRA Industrial Water Heating Systems

Available from 750 LPD to higher capacities

Thermosyphon and Forced Circulation Systems

Custom-made to suit specific applications

Insulated Stainless Steel Tank

Selectively coated, Copper-Copper Collectors with

Ultrasonic Welded Fins for better heat transfer

Collectors have corrosion-resistant, extruded

aluminium

sections with Stainless Steel Fasteners

HHC Systems also available on reques

Building Integrated Photovoltaic’s

BIPV can replace conventional glazing

on Atria, Facade, Wall, Awnings,

Pergola, Roof, Skylights, Parapet

Cladding

BIPV adds tremendous aesthetic value.

Besides giving a very distinctive

appearance to a building, BIPV

provides attractive combinations when

used with conventional building

material

BIPV is ‘sustainable’ building material.

It generates clean electricity, which can

meet part of the building’s energy

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requirements

It is sturdy, leak-proof and all-weather

proof, with the ability to withstand high

wind, hail, humidity and high ambient

temperature

Solar Street Lights Model: MARGADEEP

Four models : MV 3, MV 6, MV 7, MV

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PL 11 and SOX Lamps

High efficiency PV batteries

Galvanised steel pole

Up to 4 days system autonomy

Auto on / off, dusk-to-dawn operation

Ready to install, negligible maintenance

Solar Road Flasher

Ideal in Accident-prone Areas, Ghat

Sections, School & Hospital Areas,

Construction Spots

3 days system autonomy

Auto on/off, dusk/dawn operation

Rugged and all-weather-proof design

Visibility greater than 500 m

Designed in line with IS:7537 – 1974

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specifications

Good response to solar energy promotion scheme

KOCHI: A bank loan at two per cent interest may be the lowest ever offered by any financial

institution in the history of modern banking. The loan, offered under a solar energy promotion

scheme, is extended through a consortium of banks.

There are two separate schemes, one supported by the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP) and the other by the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency. The loan under

the UNEP scheme is extended through Canara Bank and South Malabar Gramin Bank while the

loans under the IRERDA scheme are supplied through seven banks.

The soft loan for lighting systems is being extended to individuals, self-help groups and small

business establishments. The rate is 2 per cent for individuals, 3 per cent for institutions and 5

per cent for business establishments.

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The loan will cover up to 85 per cent of the cost of the project, subject to a maximum of

Rs.25,000.

The scheme has elicited good response from customers, according to Canara Bank officials.

Introduced a few weeks ago, the marketing efforts are under way. Based on the initial enquiries,

the officials are hopeful of a surge in demand for the loan in the months to come.

The IREDA scheme envisages provision of loans under `accelerated development and

deployment of solar water heating systems in domestic, industrial and commercial sectors.' The

scheme is being implemented on a directive from the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy

Sources.

There have been many enquiries from customers for buying solar lighting and heating systems

after the introduction of the scheme recently, says G.Sivaramakrishnan, proprietor of Konark

Systems, a solar power systems distributor.

Solar power is the ideal solution to several problems arising out of power shortage, he says. The

entrepreneur has already installed a solar power station at Nilackal telephone exchange, which

caters to Pampa. The solar `stand alone power pack' provides continuous power and there is no

need to depend on the power grid.

The station is designed to take care of the power needs up to a week so that power supply is not

disrupted during the monsoon season. The project was executed at a cost of Rs.3.5 lakhs and

more such projects are being planned elsewhere.

Mr. Sivaramakrishnan says though solar energy projects are more useful to the masses, they are

not receiving enough attention in Kerala. "We always lag behind," he says, pointing out that a

Rs.2-crore solar energy project was completed at the Vidhan Soudha annexe in Bangalore.

Georgekutty Kurianapally, Managing Director of Lifeway Solar, a company developing solar

energy equipments, is also of the opinion that there is vast scope for tapping solar energy in

Kerala.

"Green energy will occupy centrestage in the near future

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Australia: Alternative Energy Grants

Geothermal Plant

From geothermal power to better batteries, millions have been spent on alternative energy

research grants in Australia, according to Rod Myer writing for The Age of Australia.

The AUD $23 million (approximately $17 million) spent by the Australian Federal

Government under the first tranche of its $100 million (US $73m) pledge to aid the alternative

energy sector has highlighted innovations by local companies to cure Australia's fossil fuel

addiction.

Two companies awarded grants under the Renewable Energy Development Initiative (REDI)

have developed a no-emissions alternative for base-load generation. Geodynamics received $5

million grant to help develop its geothermal electricity plant near Innamincka in the north of

South Australia. Scope Energy, another betting its future on geothermal energy, received $3.9

million grant to aid development. Its principal, Roger Massey-Greene, says the grant will help

finance a drilling program of 500-metre deep holes to prove up its resource. Scope plans to

open a 50-megawatt plant, but Mr Massey-Greene says he hopes to see this expand to 1000

MW in the longer term.

Scope has a geographic advantage, he believes. Its site is near Millicent, in the south-east of

South Australia, meaning it is close to transmission lines and the population centres of

Melbourne and Adelaide. "We expect the cost to be very competitive with combined-cycle

gas power plants," Mr Massey-Greene said.

Scope's geothermal technology will tap hot water heated deep in the earth and run it through a

heat exchanger to generate electricity. Mr Massey-Greene likens this process to a "fridge

operating in reverse".

Geodynamics' system will pump water through hot rocks and use the resulting steam to

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http://www.geodynamics.com.au/IRM/content/

http://www.dpmc.gov.au/publications/energy_future/factsheets/factsheet_3.htm

http://www.australia.gov.au/

http://www.australia.gov.au/


generate power. Scope's wells will be as deep as 4.5 kilometres. The technology that Scope is

planning has been in use at a plant in Italy that has operated for 101 years,.

Stage one of the plant is expected to cost $4 million per megawatt to construct, compared with

about $750,000 for a combined-cycle gas plant. "But we have no fuel costs," Mr Massey-

Greene said. Geothermal plants run at an output of about 98 per cent of rated capacity. Mr

Massey-Green believes geothermal power has a great future. In New Zealand it provides 7 per

cent of power needs and this could rise to as much as 15 per cent. Some in the market believe

that Scope will float in the first half of 2006.

Melbourne-based Katrix will use its $811,000 Renewable Energy Development Initiative

grant to further develop its new fluid expander that may enable solar energy to be harnessed

for electricity. Founder Attilio Demichelli says the expander, which does the job of a turbine,

will allow solar thermal energy to be adapted for small-scale use far more cheaply than

photovoltaic systems.

Katrix is developing units in which solar energy will heat refrigeration fluid that will run

through an expander linked to a generator to produce power. The expander is cheaper than a

miniature turbine to build and has a number of advantages, including its ability to take gas or

steam at 22 atmospheres (twenty two times atmospheric pressure) back to one atmosphere in

one step.

Katrix projects that in the Californian market — once government solar energy grants are

factored in — its system will return its cost to consumers in two to three years, compared with

15 years for photovoltaic systems. Mr Demichelli, a private investor, and inventor Yannis

Tropalis have invested over $3 million in the technology in three years.

Another REDI grant, of $290,000, has gone to V-Fuel, which is developing a vanadium

bromide redox battery. The funding will help develop a prototype of a battery that its

promoters hope will be efficient enough to use to store power from renewable energy plants.

Efficient storage would enable technologies such as wind power and solar energy to get over a

bugbear — unpredictability, because no one knows when the sun will shine or the wind will

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http://www.vfuel.com.au/

http://www.katrix.com.au/




blow.

V-Fuel principal Michael Kazacos says the grant is crucial to the company, which has raised

only $400,000 up to now. V-Fuel has developed a five-kilowatt battery but is aiming to

produce a 50-kilowatt prototype. That, he says, will cost $1 million, and further funding is

being sought from another federal grant scheme.

"There is a lot of interest in Europe," Mr Kazacos said. "We have had offers of collaboration

from there." The battery was 85 per cent efficient, he said, and "we are aiming at having a

$200-per-kilowatt production cost". The vanadium bromide process was developed at the

University of NSW by Professor Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, who is a principal of V-Fuel.

according to Origin - Sliver Cells are "long, ultra thin, quite flexible & perfectly bifacial"

Origin Energy received a $5 million grant to aid development of its facilities for

manufacturing solar energy cells using photovoltaic sliver technology. The technology aims

to cut the cost of solar energy cells by reducing silicon usage by up to 90 per cent. Sliver cells

are micromachined to less than 70 microns thick with solar cell efficiency running at over

19%. Silicon is the most expensive part of a solar energy cell. Origin Energy says it costs

$11,000 to fit a house with a one-kilowatt unit. This would take 20 years or more to pay itself

off. However, as energy prices rise and production costs fall, this payback time will be cut.

Origin Energy also owns a 19% stake in Geodynamics and offers Green Earth electricity from

100% renewable sources to Australian electricity consumers. For more green energy in

Australia see the government Green Power website.

Sun, Light and Heat: Light Control and Optimizing Energy in Offices and Other

Buildings

Daylight is solar energy. This is a trivial statement but comes lightly to the background when

speaking of solar energy use. Photovoltaic modules and solar collectors make the sun's energy

usable, but technologies that provide for optimal light efficiency in buildings and that make

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http://www.greenpower.com.au/go/suppliers.cgi

http://www.originenergy.com.au/home/subnav_section.php?pageid=1544

http://www.originenergy.com.au/environment/environment_subnav.php?pageid=1233

http://www.science.org.au/scientists/msk.htm

http://www.vfuel.com.au/


"living and working with the sun" enjoyable also use solar energy.

Measures taken to save electricity for lighting or

conserving energy for heating are activities - a fact that

the president of EUROSOLAR, Herman Scheer, does

not tire of stressing. And in fact it seems as though the

concept of passive solar energy use or of a "passive

building" veils everything that is done here: effective

daylight use and control as well as energy optimizing

are the characteristics of three buildings that we present

in cooperation with the BINE Information Service

(BINE Informationsdienst).

Sun installation in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin. A fascinating play of light

and shadow - but also an intelligent solution for transporting light: Collector mirrors and

reflectors project sunlight into a tunnel that one passes through when entering the exhibit hall.

Photo: BINE Information Service

The Institute for Solar Technologies (Institut für Solartechnologien) in Frankfurt/Oder,

Germany, an office building in Weilheim/Teck and the German Museum of Technology in

Berlin are examples of an energy concept in which sunlight and heat play central roles.

Daylight technology (systems that control and transport sunlight) and the protection of exhibit

pieces against radiation as well as favorable room climate are central for the museum building.

That spaces with cozy qualities and considerable energy conservation potential are also

possible in buildings that aren't used for dwelling is shown by projects sponsored by the

Federal Ministry for Economy and Technology (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und

Technologie (BMWi)) for the research of "solar building".

High Work Place Quality - Low Costs for Lighting and Heat

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Many factors influence how well someone feels at work-therefore also influencing job

performance output. Among these are a comfortable temperature, good air quality, and the most

natural and glare-free light possible. For the Solar Center in Frankfurt/Oder, an energy-

optimized building both was realized that offers: year-round comfortable work conditions and

low energy demand. The modularly constructed façade system replaces the outside wall and at

the same time guarantees the best possible supply of daylight and fresh air. In effect, this

synergy façade combines the function of the building's walls with the tasks of household

technology.

The windows are equipped with outside blinds over

which a rigid daylight control system is installed-

artificial light is only activated by a light detector when

needed.

Modular façade system on the south side of the Solar

Center in Frankfurt/Oder. Photo: BINE Information

Service

Integrated in the balustrade area of the façade are thermal air collectors and a photovoltaic

system. Behind that is a heating, air-conditioning and ventilating machine with a heat

exchanger.

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This pence of equipment is connected to the

active flow of air via a connection canal

between the window's two panes of glass (gap

between the conventional pane and the heat-

insulating pane). In winter the incoming air is

heated over the air collector and then led to the

heat exchanger. There, another rise in

temperature follows due to the heat energy

absorbed from the used air. Afterwards the pre-

heated outside air comes to a convection heater

in the room.

This is then simultaneously supplied with fresh air and heated. On sunny days the output from

collectors and the heat gain for the room's heating system are both adequate, and the used air is

then led outside through the space between the windowpanes. Over the course of a year the

photovoltaic system delivers the needed energy for the operation of the ventilation system. The

collectors are turned off in the summer via a summer-winter circuit because the warm outside

air comes in direct contact with the heat exchanger and there the cooler inside air can cool it.

On very hot days cold water from an underground reservoir flows through the heaters, turning

the heating system into a cooling system. Soil serves as the cold source.

The concept fulfills the planners' expectations: The thermal heating and ventilation heating

demands for the technology area are around 58 kilowatt hours per square meter and year and

meet the requirements of the Energy Conservation Act (Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV)).

The energy demand for lighting and office technology was more than halved compared to a

conventional building. And those working in the rooms are content: The lighting conditions are

experienced as pleasant and adequate, and even during the summer rooms don't become

overheated.

Energy Efficiency without Extra Costs: Office Building as a Passive Building with Solar

Heat and Solar Electricity

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The first passive office building in the German state of Baden-Wuerttemberg has been standing

in Weilheim/Teck since the beginning of 2000. Its ecological design concept, the corresponding

architecture and the economical aspects are convincing: Despite the difficult requirements for

building ecology and the considerable energy conservation, one square meter of office area

costs less than 1,000 € (ca. $ 900) - no more than a conventionally constructed building.

The building uses the sun's energy both actively and

passively. By avoiding transmission and ventilation heat

losses the energy demand for heating was reduced to

under 15 kilowatt hours per square meter and year-

making a conventional heating system as unnecessary as

active air conditioning.

Office building "Lamparter" as seen from the west.

Photo: BINE Information Service

Passive cooling during the summer is achieved by a variety of methods including shadow

elements, ground soil heat exchangers and night ventilation. Elements in place for lighting

control minimized the need for artificial lighting, which is at just 7.2 kWh/m² per year. Strict

cost controls even made it possible to use funds from the budget to provide for solar heating

and solar power systems.

Warm Water and Electricity from the Sun

In the entire building there are no heaters - the job of distributing heat is taken over by the

ventilation system. With the help of temperature gauges warm air can be separately led to the

top floor, or the north or south side. Used air is vented out from the common areas (conference

rooms, stairways) of every floor, led to a heat exchanger and finally vented outside. In this way

about 85 % of its heat can be absorbed by incoming air. Additionally, on cold days the outside

air's temperature can be raised by an average of 4.6 Kelvin by using an earth-to-air heat

exchanger. A connected bivalent condensing boiler provides the remaining needed heat. At

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10.6 kWh/m², the actual heating energy demand is even lower than the planned value.

Passive office building "Lamparter": Energy supply system. Graphic: BINE Information Service

Contributing to the electric current supply is a 67 square meter photovoltaic system that is

mounted on the flat roof and pent roof of the building. The estimated 6 to 7 megawatt hours

(MWh) produced yearly correspond to 6.5 kWh/m² of electricity based on the net heated floor

area. By heating potable water, a solar thermal system supports the gas heating system with 1.5

kWh/m² per year, and because the demand for this water is very low at just 2.6 liters per person

per day, water heating can be up to 93 % covered by solar means. Outside the main heating

period the water heating system runs for just one hour per day. Therefore it is accepted that the

water temperature fluctuates. Overall, solar energy provides 20.9 kWh/m² of the needed primary

energy with solar-produced electricity covering about half of the energy used for lighting and the

ventilation system.

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Comparison of primary energy requirements for building technology in kilowatt-hours per

square meter per year (kWh/m²). Graphic: BINE Information Service

Controlling and Transporting Light - The German Museum of Technology in Berlin

With a usable floor area of 20,000 square meters, the expansion building of the German

Museum of Technology is subdivided into departments for air and sea travel as well as

accommodations for a library, workshops, a lounge and catering areas. In order to protect

exhibit pieces from direct solar radiation, they were placed on the north side. The additional

accommodations open towards the south and are characterized by a transparent façade design.

With an energy concept, which meanwhile the museum is presenting in multimedia to bring

visitors closer to the rising energy-efficient technology, it was also possible to reach a low

energy standard here.

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The Berlin Institute for Construction, Environment and

Solar Research Ltd. (Berliner Institut für Bau, Umwelt

und Solarforschung GmbH (IBUS)) and the Fraunhofer

Institute for Building Physics (Fraunhofer Institut für

Bauphysik) in Stuttgart conducted the project's

implementation over many years.

Expansion building of the German Museum of

Technology in Berlin, right of the exhibit hall with a

hanging C-47 "Skytrain" and sometimes affectionately

referred to as the "Gooney Bird". Photo: BINE

Information Service

Despite demanding requirements it was still possible to get by without air-conditioning and the

high energy needs associated with it. Planners stabilized the inside humidity (important for a

museum) through the use of hygroscopic materials (the expanded clay in walls and wood-block

paving on floors attract and absorb moisture and therefore dry the air in the museum).

Light and Shadow

The overhead light layout and the implementation of the daylight systems were optimized in

detailed studies under an artificial sky. On the east façade, for example, it was effective to

develop a daylight system that obtains the attractive city view, yet at the same time is able to

fulfill its function of a visor against the sun and additionally has light-controlling qualities. Here

the planners installed large lamellas at every story of the building. An inner transparent lamella

wing was installed with an outer wing made of perforated metal. Depending on the angle of the

lamella the degree of daylight screening can be varied without reducing the illumination.

The floor areas of the museum that are further in and cannot be supplied with daylight by the

facades led to the idea of installing a daylight transportation system along the paths that visitors

take in the exhibit areas. Using three systems, planners bring sunlight into the building.

Sun-tracking Fresnel lenses collect daylight that is then led all the way to the foyer in the second

floor via fluid light tubes. There, four daylight tubes are supplied with sunlight by this transport

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system.

Left: Light collectors (tracking Fresnel lenses). Right: Light tubes as a transportation system in

further-in parts of the museum. Photos: BINE Information Service

A so-called sun installation throws sunlight into a well, which one walks through when entering

the exhibit area. This occurs with the use of a mirror system that is composed of a single-axis

sun tracking collector mirror (heliostat) and a stationary reflector.

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Left: Heliostat. Right: The systems fulfill the lighting needs of the further-in interior parts of the

building. Photos: BINE Information Service

A concave mirror (heliostat) with a surface area of about 14 square meters together with lighting

reflectors supplies the interior of the museum with sunlight. With this modifiable system the

various lighting tasks in the exhibit area can be met.

Solar energy boom may help world's poor

Global focus: The InterAcademy Council, says efforts to curb climate change must target vast

numbers of people who lack basic energy (File photo) (AFP: solar systems)

A surge in investment in solar power is bringing down costs of the alternative energy source, but

affordability problems still dog hopes for the 1.6 billion people worldwide without electricity.

The sun supplies only a tiny fraction - less than one-tenth of 1 per cent - of mankind's energy

needs.

But its supporters believe a solar era may be dawning, boosted by western funding to combat oil

'addiction' and climate change.

Governments from Japan to Germany and the United States are helping the public wean

themselves off fossil fuels.

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An average German household, for example, can earn over 2,000 euros ($A3,130) a year from

subsidies to install solar panels - double their electricity bill - and pay off all costs within 10

years and earn a pure profit for a further 10.

But there are few handouts in developing nations where it could be argued solar power is more

relevant - in sunnier countries where many people have no electricity at all.

A scientific body which groups academies worldwide, the InterAcademy Council, says efforts to

curb climate change must target vast numbers of people who lack basic energy.

"It's sad that 1.6 billion people live without electricity and 2 to 3 billion use energy in a primitive

way very damaging to health," said Professor Steven Chu, a Nobel laureate physicist.

Low income

Low incomes and low subsidies, if any, can make clean energy a hard sell in developing

countries.

In the Indian state of Karnataka private firms, backed by state government subsidies, have over

the last three to five years been pushing solar power for households in towns and cities, including

giving discounts on power bills if solar is installed.

The picture is very different for off-grid rural Indian communities which until now were

dependent on kerosene, or paraffin, lamps for lighting, having no electricity access.

"Kerosene is quite heavily subsidised but has limited availability in some rural areas, which has

helped solar PV (photovoltaic) sales," said JP Painuly, senior energy planner at the Denmark-

based Risoe National Laboratory.

"There are some solar PV programs that provide an extremely limited capital subsidy. It's not at a

scale that makes it viable. Solar PV is still really expensive... more expensive than kerosene."

Worldwide about 1.5 million people die annually from indoor pollution due to lighting and

cooking.

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It is the health benefits that sell the more expensive panels together with the promise of a much

brighter source of light than paraffin lamps so users can work and make money after dark, or

read and educate themselves or their children.

Economic difficulties

The Solar Electric Light Company (SELCO) has supplied solar powered electricity to 75,000

households over the past 12 years in India, where 60 per cent of households lack electricity.

Their standard solar panel, replacing three smoky paraffin lamps, costs $250, equal to at least 12

months' income for many rural households.

One downside is that large parts of Karnataka get monsoon rains for about four months a year

and people complain that solar systems are not effective in cloudy conditions.

Another is that SELCO's small profits are making it difficult for the company to compete with

salaries offered by Bangalore's Internet industry and expand outside its core Karnataka state.

Many wealthier suburbs in Karnataka cities and towns have terraces of houses with solar water

heaters - a more basic and widely available technology which heats water but does not supply

electricity, unlike the solar PV panels.

Manufacturing boom

SELCO cuts costs by making fluorescent light bulbs and designing solar panels itself, but the

panels are still more expensive than the more heavily subsidised oil lamps.

Rapidly developing countries like China are joining a silicon solar cell manufacturing boom,

helping to pare the price of the alternative technology and simple, economy panels could soon be

affordable even to the rural poor, said Professor Chu.

"Very inexpensive solar cells could be used by off-grid people to charge appliances that don't use

a lot of power but make a world of difference," he said, listing items such as radios, mobile

phones, water purifiers and bright, efficient lamps called light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

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The World Bank last month announced a private sector competition to devise the best-value,

low-carbon light source for poor households in Africa, as a way to flag up what it estimates is a

$17 billion African market in off-grid lighting.

UK-based solar company G24 Innovations this month started production of a low-cost, non

silicon-based solar panel, which it says it will supply into the LED market in developing

countries from next year.

Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film TechnologyThe sun blasts Earth with enough energy in one hour—4.3 x 1020 joules—to provide all of

humanity's energy needs for a year (4.1 x 1020 joules), according to physicist Steven Chu,

director of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The question is how to most effectively

harness it. Thin-film solar cells may be the answer: One recently converted 19.9 percent of the

sunlight that hit it into electricity, surpassing the amount converted into power by mass-produced

traditional silicon photovoltaics and offering the potential to unleash this renewable energy

source.

Prices for high-grade silicon (that can generate electricity from sunlight) shot up in 2004 in

response to growing demand, reaching as high as $500 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) this year. Enter

thin-film solar cells—devices that use a fine layer of semiconducting material, such as silicon,

copper indium gallium selenide or cadmium telluride, to harvest electricity from sunlight at a

fraction of the cost.

"The fundamental advantage of thin film comes in the form of the amount of material you need,"

says electrical engineer Jeff Britt, chief technology officer of thin-film manufacturer Global

Solar Energy in Tucson, Ariz. "These are direct bandgap semiconductors. You can get by with

one or two microns and still absorb 98 percent of the sunlight." (In other words, it takes at least

100 times less thin-film material to absorb the same amount of sunlight as traditional silicon

photovoltaic cells.)

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Global Solar uses a technology known as copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) to make its

thin-film solar cells. The company has already supplied the U.S. military and outdoor enthusiasts

with portable field chargers, largely for communication and other small electronic devices

powered by such cells. In March, the company opened a new factory in Tucson, where it plans to

produce enough thin-film CIGS solar cells to generate 40 megawatts of electricity next year—

enough to power roughly 15,000 average American homes; it hopes to boost the juice to 100

megawatts by 2010 in response to what it predicts will be a growing market.

"We're focusing on low-cost terrestrial power generation," Britt says. "It's intended for large-

scale, ground-based arrays." In other words, the types of solar farms previously dominated by

traditional silicon photovoltaics now used to generate electricity from sunshine in states like

Arizona and California.

Global Solar is not alone. A host of companies, including HelioVolt, Nanosolar and others, are

using CIGS technology in an attempt to cut the cost of producing photovoltaic cells. But there

are other challenges. "The first hurdle is cost," says materials scientist B. J. Stanbery, CEO of

HelioVolt in Austin, Tex., which is in the process of opening its first CIGS solar cell factory.

"The second is efficiency [how much sunlight can be converted to power] and the third is the

reliability, [which means the] lifetime of the device."

Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's (DoE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory

have succeeded in producing CIGS cells that can convert nearly 20 percent of the sunlight that

falls on them into electricity. But manufacturers note that mass production reduces their

efficiency because chemical processes are not as easy to control on an industrial assembly line.

"Benchtop is a great thing to measure because it tells you about the potential of the technology. It

tells you nothing, however, about what people are actually making or can make," says Paul

Wormser, senior director of product development for the Solar Energy Solutions Group at

electronics manufacturer Sharp Electronics, headquartered in Osaka, Japan. "By the time you go

into production, you're going to get about half" of the efficiency demonstrated in a lab under

perfect conditions.

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Sharp pairs amorphous silicon (fine layers of randomly arranged silicon) with layers of

crystalline silicon (whose atoms are in a more structured lattice) to make its thin-film cells. It

plans to increase its manufacturing capacity at its plant in Katsuragi, Japan, to produce enough

cells to make 160 megawatts of electricity by October—and to bring its total annual output to

enough cells to produce 1,000 megawatts by 2010 by building another factory in Sakai, Japan.

He denies speculation that thin-film solar cells will eventually kill the traditional crystalline

silicon phtotvoltaics end of the business, noting that they are designed to supplement, not

supplant, the old standbys. "Rumors of crystalline's demise are highly exaggerated," Wormser

says. "We see thin-film as highly complementary to crystalline and concentrators."

But Wormser says that thin-film cells have the potential to produce more power over time than

the older technology, because they resist the sun's heat better and produce more power when the

temperature spikes.

Durability may be an issue, however. Consequently, thin-film cells intended for large arrays use

lower grade silicon (read: glass) to protect the delicate photovoltaic layers. For example, Tempe,

Ariz.–based First Solar, Inc., which employs cadmium telluride in its thin-film solar cells, sells

its modules encased in glass for either large arrays or rooftops. "The elegance of the solar

business is that you construct a product and it just sits there generating power for 20 to 25 years,"

says company president, Bruce Sohn.

In addition to offering solar modules at $1.25 a pop (compared with at least double that per

module for traditional photovoltaics), First Solar has also instituted a process for recycling them

at the end of their active lives.

"Glass can be returned to the glass industry. Metals can be repurified and given back to us in the

form of the cadmium telluride compound. Even the wires can be reused," Sohn says. "We really

can recycle in excess of 90 percent of the weight of the product today in a perpetual,

environmentally friendly life cycle."

In fact, cadmium telluride solar cells are currently the most ecofriendly devices, even though

they use a toxic heavy metal, primarily because they require the least energy—typically provided

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http://www.firstsolar.com/


by burning fossil fuels—to manufacture, says environmental engineer Vasilis Fthenakis, senior

scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory's National Photovoltaic Environment Research

Center in Upton, N.Y., and Columbia University.

Yet, cadmium telluride commands only about 30 percent of the thin-film market, according to

DoE statistics, compared with amorphous silicon cells (such as those produced by Sharp and

ECD Ovonics), which account for more than 60 percent; CIGS cells make up just about 1

percent of this market.

But CIGS has the most potential efficiency (converting as much as 25 percent of incoming

sunlight to electricity) of any of the thin-film technologies as well as of traditional photovoltaic

cells, Heliovolt's Stanberry says. Würth Solar in Germany has mass-produced such cells that can

convert as much as 13 percent of sunlight, according to Lawrence Kazmerski, director of the

DoE's National Center for Photovoltaics in Golden, Colo.

All of the thin-film technologies also offer the potential for ubiquity. That is, says Sharp's

Wormser, "you have the opportunity with thin film to make what people refer to as a

semitransparent photovoltaic module in place of a window on a building. It allows you to see out

through the window, but from the outside it looks like tinted glass."

The thin-film solar cells can be used in more flexible applications, such as so-called solar

shingles, roofing materials that double as electricity generators. "It's going to serve the purpose

of keeping out the elements, but it's also going to generate power for you," Global Solar's Britt

says. This also eliminates the significant cost—typically at least doubling the price of a given

module—of adding solar photovoltaic systems to already existing buildings.

Alternative forms of electricity generation—or some kind of efficient energy storage, such as

better batteries—would be necessary for those times when the sun is not shining. But thin-film

solar cells hold the promise of harnessing the sun's power in an efficient and sustainable way—

and displacing the burning of fossilized sunlight for energy that is contributing climate change–

causing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

"Combining this highest efficiency, lowest cost and most reliable thin-film technology directly

into building construction materials will be the beginning of a revolution in solar power,"

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http://www.nrel.gov/pv/

http://www.wuerth-solar.de/website/frames,LA,DE,KA,226.php


HelioVolt's Stanbery says. "I worried that I wouldn't live to see the day when solar became an

economically substantive part of our energy mix, but I think we're on the road to that happening

finally. The best is yet to come."

A Bright Future for Solar Energy Georgia Tech is playing an important role in

photovoltaics' status as a leading contender in the search

for clean, renewable energy sources.

MIKE ROPP, A DOCTORAL STUDENT in Georgia

Tech's School of Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE),

has just climbed nearly 150 feet of ladders to the barrel-

vaulted roof of the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center. Wind whips

menacingly over the sides and a stunning view of the Atlanta

skyline lies to the south.

"Welcome to my laboratory," he quips, flashing a ready grin

and spreading his arms expansively.

And what a laboratory it is.

Spread over nearly three-quarters of an acre is what is

believed to be the world's largest solar-powered energy system

connected to a power grid and located on a single rooftop. The 342-kilowatt photovoltaic system

— which converts sunlight into electricity — serves as both a research model and a

supplementary power source for the Aquatic Center.

It is also one of many projects conducted under the Georgia Institute of Technology's University

Center of Excellence for Photovoltaics Research and Education (UCEP), which is designed to

help make photovoltaics (PV) a leading contender in the search for clean, renewable energy

sources for the future.

34

photo by Stanley Leary

Reseachers have reduced the

time required to produce solar

cells without losing efficiency.


Established in 1992 by the U.S. Department of Energy and supported by the DOE's Sandia

National Laboratories, UCEP is one of only two national centers of excellence in PV research.

(The second is at the University of Delaware.)

Researchers are charged with advancing PV research, producing cheaper and more efficient solar

cells, and training the next generation of PV scientists — all with an eye toward giving the

United States a competitive edge in photovoltaics.

"I think the main reason the DOE decided to make us a university center of excellence was there

was no other university at the time, other than the University of Delaware, that could do research

all the way from photovoltaic materials to materials characterization, modeling, process

development, fabrication, testing and analysis of cells," says Dr. Ajeet Rohatgi, who directs

UCEP and is a Regents' Professor and Georgia Power Distinguished Professor in ECE. "Large

grid-connected PV systems on campus make us even more unusual. There are very few places

that have everything going on in one place."

Dr. Joseph R. Romm, acting assistant secretary for the DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy, also notes that Georgia Tech "has an unusually strong interdisciplinary

emphasis and a commitment to sustainable development."

"There's also a good healthy emphasis on education," he says. "All of that adds up to the perfect

setting for a center of excellence."

Although proponents of photovoltaics say it's an ideal technology to supplement or replace

traditional energy sources, PV power currently is less efficient (defined as the amount of energy

a system produces divided by the energy that goes into it) and about four times more expensive.

But 20 years ago, PV power was 50 times as expensive as traditional energy sources.

UCEP researchers have made major contributions to bringing down this cost by designing and

testing new PV systems and developing cheaper, more efficient solar cell technologies.

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Olympic Legacy

In the area of new PV systems, the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center is a standout example. Built to

host swimming and diving events for the 1996 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games,

it is a lasting legacy for the campus and should

provide significant, long-term data on how to

build and maintain large-scale PV structures.

"The goal is to get a better understanding of

how these systems work — their performance,

their reliability and our modeling capability to

predict their performance," says Rohatgi, who

designed the $5.2 million system with Dr.

Miroslav M. Begovic, also an ECE professor,

and Richard Long, project support manager in

Georgia Tech's Office of Facilities.

Funding came from Georgia Tech, Georgia

Power Company and the DOE.

"We realize that photovoltaics is a technically

viable source for supplying future energy needs, and we wanted to help in the demonstration of

that," explains Chuck Huling, who coordinates research for Georgia Power. "The Olympics

provided a wonderful opportunity to demonstrate this renewable technology to a local, national

and international audience."

During its first year, the system operated close to the efficiency level expected, although actual

energy production was lower than predicted. Reasons included unexpected down time, periodic

shutdowns for experiments and higher- than-usual temperatures during some months, which

decreased the system's efficiency.

Why photovoltaic’s??36

photo by Stanley Leary

The Georgia Tech Aquatic Center's roof holds a

342-kilowatt photovoltaic (PV) system, which

will provide significant, long-term data on how

to build and maintain large-scale PV structures.

(200-dpi JPEG version - 362k)

http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/reshor/rh-sf97/solar2b.jpg


The bottom line for renewable energy is not that it's a matter of if. It's a matter of when.

When proponents of photovoltaics — the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity — argue

their case, they note that two billion people in the world don't have access to electricity and that

most conventional energy sources cause pollution, deplete natural resources or contribute to

global warming.

Photovoltaics (PV), or solar power, offers a clean, renewable alternative. The U.S. Department

of Energy is supporting extensive research in this area, including establishment of Georgia

Tech's University Center of Excellence for Photovoltaics Research and Education (UCEP).

PV power operates on a simple principle: a cell is created from a semiconductor material like

silicon. When sunlight hits the cell, photovoltage on an electric current is created, which flows

through an external circuit and produces energy. Several cells can be wired together and encased

in clear glass or plastic to form a panel or module. These can be connected into arrays — to

collect and produce more power — then placed atop a building and either connected to an

existing electrical system or linked to batteries.

The process is silent and self-contained, with no moving parts, no emissions and sunlight as

energy source. Compared to burning coal, for example, DOE officials estimate that every

gigawatt hour of PV-generated electricity prevents the emission of up to 1,000 tons of carbon

dioxide.

Solar power also is versatile enough to supply nearly any energy need, from lighting and small

appliances for a single home to water-pumping systems for farms or industrial activities for

whole villages.

Although PV power currently is less efficient and more expensive than conventional energy

sources like coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power, its advantages already make it the preferred

choice in many everyday applications. Examples include calculators, U.S. Coast Guard

navigational beacons, highway emergency telephones, traffic warning signs, satellites and

remote cabins and farms.

37


It's also economically competitive in some parts of the United States now — including Hawaii,

where electricity is very expensive; Massachusetts and New York, where energy costs are high

and local governments often support solar power; and California and Arizona, which have large

remote areas and much sunlight.

To help make photovoltaics more competitive, government, private industry and utility company

partners have built or proposed dozens of projects, from large-scale power plants to programs

that encourage home owners to install rooftop PV systems. Worldwide demand for solar power

grew 290 percent from 1987 to 1995.

But for such advances to continue, sustained commitment is needed. Federal funding for

renewable energy sources, high during the oil crisis of the 1970s, fell sharply in the early 1980s

and only began rebounding in the past decade.

"We're at the point where we're ready to reap large returns on the investments that we've made

over the years," says Dr. Joseph R. Romm, acting assistant secretary for the DOE's Office of

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. "You cannot profit optimally if you focus on lab

work, then throw the results over the fence, assuming that the marketplace will pick them up.

There needs to be a partnership with the private sector, and that's what we're doing at the DOE.

"The bottom line for renewable energy, really, is not that it's a matter of 'if,'" he adds. "It's a

matter of when and who profits."

It's also economically competitive in some parts of the United States now — including Hawaii,

where electricity is very expensive; Massachusetts and New York, where energy costs are high

and local governments often support solar power; and California and Arizona, which have large

remote areas and much sunlight.

"The bottom line for renewable energy, really, is not that it's a matter of 'if,'" he adds. "It's a

matter of when and who profits."

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From July 1996 to June 1997, the system produced 333.3 megawatt hours of electricity, which is

81.5 percent of the 409 megawatt hours predicted and enough energy for about 28 average

Georgia homes.

The rooftop system features a solar array made up of 2,856 photovoltaic modules, each with 72

multicrystalline silicon solar cells connected in series. A power conditioning system, or inverter,

converts the array's direct current (DC) power to utility-compatible alternating current (AC)

power, and a data acquisition system stores performance and meteorological information every

10 minutes.

Researchers also built a 4.5-kilowatt, AC array at the entrance to the Callaway Student Athletic

Complex. It differs from the Aquatic Center system

in that each module converts the solar-generated DC power to AC power itself, which reduces

costs and simplifies installation.

"While UCEP has long been in the forefront of research in developing world-record efficient

hardware, the PV systems will help us in becoming an authority in design and help assess the

cost/benefit of the yet-to-be-built systems of the future," Begovic says.

New Processes and Materials

But for photovoltaics to truly compete with conventional energy sources, production costs must

be reduced, so Georgia Tech researchers are exploring several innovative techniques.

One is rapid thermal processing (RTP), which researchers recently used to fabricate for the first

time a silicon solar cell with the same 19 percent efficiency rating as cells produced by

conventional furnace processing, but in half the time — 81/2 hours rather than 17.

Conventional solar cell production generally involves three trips into a high-temperature furnace,

and each step lasts one to three hours. The cells also must be cleaned between each step. With

RTP fabrication, the front and back of the cell are formed simultaneously by a rapid thermal

39


diffusion process that takes three minutes, and an oxide is grown on the front of the cell by a

five- minute rapid thermal oxidation (RTO) process.

Industrial manufacturers often delete the oxidation process, called passivation, to save money

and increase output. Georgia Tech's RTO process offers a time-saving way to include this

performance-enhancing step.

Once a solar cell is created, metal contacts are added to extract the electrical power from the cell.

This step is the most time-consuming; in RTP fabrication, for example, it accounts for 80 percent

of the production process. The common techniques of evaporation and photolithography give

good resolution and conductivity, but Rohatgi says many commercial manufacturers have

switched to a quicker method called screen printing, which produces less efficient cells.

In 1996, Georgia Tech researchers successfully integrated screen printing with RTP, slashing cell

production time to 11/2 hours. Since then, they've raised cell efficiency from 14.7 percent to 16.3

percent and outlined modifications for future increases.

"If we can make the solar cells very fast compared to what's being done out in industry today,

without sacrificing the cell performance, that will obviously reduce the use of chemicals, gases

and manpower, and it will increase the production capacity and throughput," Rohatgi explains.

"This should result in significant reduction in the cost of solar cell modules."

Researchers also are experimenting with a technique they call "Simultaneously Diffused,

Textured, In-Situ Oxide AR-coated Solar Cell Process" or STAR. In this process, a single high-

temperature furnace step can provide front and back surface diffusions simultaneously, in

addition to front and back in-situ oxide surface passivation. The cell is textured and has an anti-

reflection (AR) coating, to trap more light in the cell.

So far, researchers have created cells with 20.1 percent efficiency. And although the STAR

process is not as fast as RTP cell fabrication, Rohatgi says STAR is compatible with high-

throughput machinery commonly used by the solar industry today, while RTP currently isn't.

Another way to reduce the cost of photovoltaics is to make solar cells from less expensive

materials. UCEP researchers are working with several promising silicon materials, including

40


float zone, Czchralski, cast multicrystalline, EFG sheet and dendritic web silicon, and currently

hold the record for high-efficiency multicrystalline silicon cells — 18.6 percent.

Crystalline silicon is used in about 80 percent of the solar cell modules produced today, Rohatgi

says. The other 20 percent are made from amorphous silicon and thin film materials like

cadmium telluride.

Industry's Importance: Today and Tomorrow

Rohatgi attributes part of UCEP's success to close working relationships with more than two

dozen U.S. solar manufacturers, including industry leaders like Solarex Corp., Siemens Solar

Industries and ASE America Inc.

"To make our processing more manufacturable, we

try to do applied research that can be easily

transferred to industry," Rohatgi says. "That is part

of the mandate from the DOE. Our job is not to just

do blue-sky type research, [but to] focus on

research that can lead to commercially viable solar

cells."

So far, UCEP is having no trouble meeting that

mandate. Researchers hold patents for seven

production techniques and have applied for several

others. They've published over 100 papers in peer-

reviewed journals and both refereed and non-

refereed conference proceedings. UCEP also includes an Educational Support Program (ESP)

Laboratory, where solar cells are fabricated and/or tested for other universities, and lab space in

both ECE and the Microelectronics Research Center.

Besides reducing solar costs and improving technologies, Rohatgi says future successes also will

depend on transferring these new techniques from the laboratory to the production line.

41

photo by Gary Meek

Research done at Georgia Tech could help

lower the cost of producing photovoltaic

arrays. (200-dpi JPEG version - 283k)

http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/reshor/rh-sf97/solar3b.jpg


"The next step would be to scale up some of the novel technologies we're developing to a larger

scale — making larger-area cells, then transferring this know-how to industry," Rohatgi says.

"Only then will industry get excited about it and be able to use it."

The Future of Solar Power Lies in the Northeast by Jonathan Klein, Founder of the Topline Strategy Group

Soon there will giant farms of photovoltaic panels baking in the sunlight of the southwest

deserts, the resulting energy powering Phoenix, Las Vegas, and the rest of the region. If this

vision of the future of solar power in the United States sounds right to you, it would probably

come as a surprise to learn that some of the best potential customers for the solar power industry

are homeowners and small businesses in the Northeast who will install small-scale systems on

their property.

When a panel generates more electricity, the cost of that electricity falls because the fixed price

of the equipment is spread across more kilowatt-hours. The Southwest does enjoy a tremendous

sunlight advantage over the Northeast, making solar power less expensive in that region.

However, the advantage does not come close to compensating for the difference in electricity

rates.

Today, even in the best case scenario, solar power still requires substantial subsidies. It will be

another decade before it reaches the break even point -- that is, the point where solar power

becomes economical without subsidies. Until then, industry growth will largely be determined by

how far available subsidies can be stretched in order to support the installation of the most

equipment possible.

In a world where supply constraints are the industry's top problem, worrying about stretching

subsidies to fuel more demand is probably the last item on everyone's agenda. However, even

hypergrowth industries go through periods of faster and slower growth. Laying the groundwork

42


now for fueling the next spurt of demand can mitigate or even eliminate any potential slowdown.

This requires a focus on stretching subsidy dollars, which in turn means focusing on the

customers who require the least amount of subsidies to make solar power a profitable

investment; namely, customers for whom the cost of solar electricity compares most favorably

with the cost of conventional electricity. Remarkably, it is small solar installations in the

Northeast that fit that bill, not large commercial installations in Arizona or Nevada.

This counter-intuitive finding comes from two studies our company recently released on solar

electricity: What the Solar Power Industry Can Learn from Google and Salesforce.com and

Massachusetts a Surprising Candidate for Solar Power Leadership. It is based upon the

following three facts.

Big installations have only a small cost advantage over small ones

In striking contrast to all other power generation technologies, solar electricity equipment has

very few economies of scale. Coal and gas-fired power plants, hydroelectric dams, nuclear

reactors, solar thermal concentrators (with their acres of sun-tracking reflective troughs) and

wind turbines (whose size dictate that they be situated in remote areas) are only practical for

large commercial power generators to own and operate.

California Solar Cost Data Shows Modest Economies of Scale

This is not the case for photovoltaics. This is because the basic unit of solar power is a single

photovoltaic module, which typically generates 180 to 230 watts of power and takes up

approximately 13 to 15 square feet. Installations with 10,000 modules are no more efficient than

those with 10 modules. The small economies of scale that do exist are driven by transaction

costs, not the technology. Therefore, big customers enjoy only a very slight cost advantage over

small ones when it comes to the cost of solar power equipment

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Small customers pay a lot more for electricity than big customers

While it costs about the same for big and small customers to purchase solar power equipment,

the same is not true when it comes to purchasing electricity. On average, utilities pay power

producers under $.03 per kilowatt-hour. Major industrial customers typically locate their plants

near hydroelectric dams, which can provide ample low cost power, and large commercial

customers are able to negotiate favorable rates. Smaller businesses and homeowners are the ones

that end up paying the most for their electricity.

Since their higher electric rates more than offset their slightly higher equipment costs, smaller

businesses and homeowners require far fewer subsidy dollars to make up the difference between

the cost of conventional power and solar power.

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Taken together, these three factors mean that small customers in the Northeast, along with those

in California and Nevada, are those for whom solar power is the most economically viable and

require the least subsidies.

Prescriptions for the Industry

Currently, there are two missing factors for making this strategy practical. One, subsidy

programs in all of these states that are sufficient to support the development of a robust

commercial industry (with the exception of California which already has such a program) and

two, offerings and channels designed to serve a large number of smaller accounts. Our

prescription: Make these two initiatives top priorities for the industry.

Solar Powers Up, Sans SiliconIn a world where sun-powered garden lights seem like a nifty idea, new technologies touted by

solar energy startups sound very far out.

Entrepreneurs promise that soon solar-energized "power plastic" will radically extend the battery

life of laptops and cell phones. Ultra-cheap printed solar cells will enable construction of huge

power-generating facilities at a fraction of today's costs. And technologies to integrate solar

power-generation capability into building materials will herald a new era of energy-efficient

construction.

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Those are ambitious goals for a technology famous for powering pocket calculators, but

investors are paying heed. This year, solar startups have snapped up more than $100 million in

venture capital to develop printable materials capable of converting sunlight into electrical

power. Soaring energy demand, as well as short supplies of polysilicon, a key ingredient in most

solar cells, is fueling interest in alternative materials.

"These technologies look incredibly more real than they did five years ago," said Dan Kammen,

founding director of the Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory at the University of

California at Berkeley. Kammen predicts solar sources, which today produce less than 1 percent

of power consumed nationwide, could eventually meet one-fifth of U.S. energy demand.

Printed solar cells, produced with conductive metals and organic polymers in place of silicon,

could help. As early as next year, startups plan to begin manufacturing printed solar products for

use in power-generating facilities, rooftop installations and portable gadgets. While industry

experts don't expect manufacturing on a massive scale to be viable for years, production

capability is ramping up quickly.

Executives at Nanosolar, based in Palo Alto, California, plan to finish building a factory next

year to churn out thin-film solar cells using copper-based semiconductors instead of silicon.

"Silicon models are too expensive in the first place," said Martin Roscheisen, Nanosolar's CEO,

who expects the company will be able to build a 400-megawatt plant for about $100 million.

Providing equivalent capacity using silicon technology, Roscheisen estimated, would cost close

to $1 billion.

When Nanosolar's products become commercially available, Roscheisen plans to warranty the

cells for 25 years -- similar to silicon solar products.

Miasolé, in neighboring Santa Clara, California, has developed a competing thin-film

photovoltaic cell using a layer of photoactive material containing a compound called CIGS. The

company plans to incorporate the technology into building materials and rooftop solar

installations.

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http://www.miasole.com/

http://www.nanosolar.com/

http://rael.berkeley.edu/


On the shorter end of the power-generation life cycle, Konarka, a startup in Lowell,

Massachusetts, has agreements in place with manufacturers to produce a printed "power plastic"

to supply solar energy for portable devices.

"When people think of solar, they think of rooftop, grid-connected. We're trying to change that

mindset," said Daniel Patrick McGahn, Konarka's chief marketing officer. Unlike silicon-based

solar cells used on rooftops today, Konarka's specialized plastics typically last years, but not

decades. The company is marketing its technology for use in products with similar life spans.

While research into printed photovoltaic technologies dates back decades, progress on non-

silicon applications has accelerated in recent years due to the shortage of polysilicon, said Travis

Bradford, president of the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development in Cambridge,

Massachusetts. Today, nearly 95 percent of solar cells use semiconductor-grade silicon, he

estimates, but that should drop to around 80 percent over the next few years.

To compete against silicon solar manufacturers, Bradford says developers of new technologies

will need to show that they can be cost-effective. They'll also have to prove supplies of core

materials are adequate for mass production and demonstrate that their products don't degrade too

quickly. While he's optimistic about the prospects, he's not convinced any technology is meeting

all the criteria today.

"It takes a lot longer and a lot more money to commercialize technology than people think ...

which is why crystalline silicon has been around for so long," he said.

Still, printed photovoltaics could soon be ready for commercial use, said Raghu Das, CEO of

research firm IDTechEx. The key hurdle remaining is to make materials resilient enough to last

for years. Das expects manufacturers to resolve those concerns and produce viable printed

photovoltaics in 2009 or 2010. He envisions large-scale deployment around 2012.

In the meantime, solar startups entice investors with visions of clean, low-cost, energy-

generating capability bundled into a range of products, from building materials to cell phones.

While that vision may eventually prove realistic, says Das, it's still quite futuristic.

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http://www.konarka.com/


"As plastics are used to make this and not silicon, it will be incredibly low-cost -- you could

compare it to the cost of printing ink on paper," he said. "However, if it was ready today,

everybody would be doing it."

Bright Future for Solar Power SatellitesTwo new studies looking at the feasibility of space-based solar power - orbiting satellites that

would serve as high-tech space dams - suggest the concept shouldn't be readily dismissed and

could generate both Earth-bound and space-based benefits.

These "powersats" would catch the flood of energy flowing from the Sun and then pump it to

Earth via laser or microwave beam. On earth it would be converted to electricity and fed into

power grids to be tapped by terrestrial customers.

The thought of beaming energy to Earth via satellite was first brought to light in the late 1960s

by Peter Glaser, a technologist at Arthur D. Little in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Into the 1970s

and 1980s, the challenges of Space Solar Power (SSP) were reviewed numerous times. NASA,

the Department of Energy, other government, industry and private groups have given the concept

the once-over.

A swarm of unknowns and criticisms always fly in tight formation around the prospect of

energy-beaming satellites actually having any economic benefit to Earth.

Among them: The size, complexity, and cost of an SSP undertaking are daunting challenges.

International legal, political, and social acceptability issues abound. Health or environmental

hazards from laser or microwave beams broadcast from space appear worrisome. Additionally, in

the battle of energy market forces on Earth, any SSP constellation may prove far too costly to be

worth metering.

In 1995, NASA embarked on what's tagged as a Fresh Look study. SSP feasibility, technologies,

costs, markets, and international public attitudes were addressed. In general, NASA found that

the march of technology and America's overall space prowess has re-energized the case for SSP.

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NASA did point out, however, that launch cost to orbit remains far too high - but that this

problem was being attacked.

Investment strategy

For the last few years, interest in SSP has grown, not only at NASA, but also in the U.S.

Congress and the White House Office of Management and Budget. For its part, the space agency

has scripted a research and technology, as well as investment roadmap. This SSP stepping stone

approach would enhance other space, military, and commercial applications.

A special study group of the National Research Council (NRC) has taken a new look at NASA's

current SSP efforts. Their findings are in the NRC report: Laying the Foundation for Space Solar

Power - An Assessment of NASA's Space Solar Power Investment Strategy.

Richard Schwartz, dean of the Schools of Engineering at Purdue University in West Lafayette,

Indiana, chaired the 9-person NRC panel.

While not advocating or discouraging SSP, the advisory team said "it recognizes that significant

changes have occurred since 1979 that might make it worthwhile for the United States to invest

in either SSP or its component technologies." The study urges a sharper look at perceived and/or

actual environmental and health risks that SSP might involve.

The NRC study group singled out several technological advances relevant to SSP:

Improvements have been seen in efficiency of solar cells and production of lightweight,

solar-cell laden panels;

Wireless power transmission tests on Earth is progressing, specifically in Japan and

Canada;

Robotics, viewed as essential to SSP on-orbit assembly, has shown substantial

improvements in manipulators, machine vision systems, hand-eye coordination, task

planning, and reasoning; and

Advanced composites are in wider use, and digital control systems are now state of the

art - both developments useful in building an SSP.

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ISS test platform

Overall, the NRC experts gave NASA's SSP approach a thumbs-up. The space agency's current

work is directed at technical areas "that have important commercial, civil, and military

applications for the nation." A top recommendation is that industry experts, academia, and

officials from other government agencies -- such as the Department of Energy, Defense

Department, and the National Reconnaissance Organization -- should be engaged in charting

SSP activities, along with NASA.

The panel said that significant breakthroughs are required to achieve the final goal of SSP

cranking out cost-competitive terrestrial power. The ultimate success of the terrestrial power

application of powering-beaming satellites critically depends on "dramatic reductions" in the cost

of transportation from Earth to geosynchronous orbit, the group reported.

Furthermore, the SSP reviewers call for ground demonstrations of point-to-point wireless power

transmission. NASA should study the desirability of ground-to-space and space-to-space

demonstrations. In this area, the International Space Station could act as a platform to test out

SSP-related hardware, the study group said.

Energy as hope

In summary, the NRC panel members noted that for any SSP program to churn out commercially

competitive terrestrial electric power, breakthrough technologies are required.

That being said, even if the ultimate goal of supplying competitive energy is not attained, the

experts added: "…the technology investments proposed will have many collateral benefits for

nearer-term, less-cost-sensitive space applications and for non-space use of technology

advances."

Hubert Davis, a committee member on the NRC study, sees SSP as perhaps the right technology

for today. Throughout the 1970s, he managed future programs for the NASA Johnson Space

Center in Houston, Texas, and is now an independent aerospace consultant.

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"In looking at our current world situation, I believe that what is most needed is hope. Power from

space may be one of the best means for us to offer that hope," Davis told SPACE.com.

Davis said that an exploratory research, development and demonstration program for power from

space is needed. It would be accompanied by a major international aid effort using terrestrial

photovoltaics. In areas where no power exists, village "life support systems" can be established

to provide potable water, lights, modern communications, refrigeration, information, and perhaps

a few sewing machines, he said.

"These complementary steps may buy us the time we need to fulfill this new hope…for

everyone," Davis said.

In-orbit power plug

Following on the heels of the NRC's new look at SSP is an assessment completed by Resources

for the Future (RFF) a Washington-based group that studies energy and environmental policy. It

focuses on off-planet uses of an in-orbit "power plug", or as some label it, a "solar array on

steroids." The idea is to have a filler-up facility for electrically hungry satellites, observatories,

space platforms and the like.

That study is titled: An Economic Assessment of Space Solar Power as a Source of Electricity

for Space-Based Activities. RFF's Molly Macauley and James Davis of The Aerospace

Corporation authored the piece.

They observe that customers of a future SSP station could be many. Commercial

telecommunications and remote sensing spacecraft, governmental research and defense satellites,

space manufacturing facilities, as well as space travel and tourism industries could draw energy

from such a station. There is a potentially large market that might benefit from this pay for power

approach.

Another attractiveness of a space-based power station is leaving heavy solar panels back on

Earth. Less massive spacecraft would be cheaper to orbit. That also means more science gear

could be crammed onboard a satellite.

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"Our study argues that we could do testing and demonstrations of in-space power sooner than for

terrestrial power," Macauley told SPACE.com. The researcher was also a member of the NRC

study on SSP.

Show me the energy

Macauley and Davis surveyed satellite designers and operators, gleaning insight about the value

of having an SSP "power depot" in space. Whisking watts of power through space to run

commercial geostationary satellites looks like a very lucrative and large market, they report.

On the other hand, while the willingness of potential customers to adopt a new power technology

like SSP is promising, flight testing the idea would help boost adoption of the in-space energy

idea. Early on, supplying power from an SSP could gain greater acceptance as a supplement,

rather than a substitute for, an existing power system on a spacecraft, Macauley and Davis note.

Macauley said that in future years the space-based power market could be really big in dollar

terms. Still to be determined is where to place an SSP, or whether or not there's need for a

constellation of SSP satellites.

"Given our estimate of the market, can SSP designers create an SSP that's financially attractive?

We also realize that other technological innovation in spacecraft power is proceeding apace with

SSP," Macauley said. "So SSP advocates need to 'look over their shoulders' to stay ahead of

those innovations and to capitalize on those that are complementary with SSP," she said.

"The ownership and financing of SSP may be handled as a commercial venture," Macauley and

Davis report, "perhaps in partnership with government during initial operation but then becoming

a commercial wholesale cooperative."

Once an SSP is fully deployed, the private sector is likely to be a far more efficient operator of

the power plug in space, the researchers said.

The Future of Solar-Powered Homes

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It’s a competition, now held every other year (this was the third Decathlon since 2002). It’s

produced by the Department of Energy as a showcase for the latest high-tech solar homes—

designed and built by college students.

The universities’ engineering and architecture students begin working one or two years in

advance to design a completely self-powered home. This year, there were 38 entries, mostly

from the United States and Europe.

The top 20 teams got a unique invitation: to transport the houses, by truck or ship, piece by

piece, from their schools to the Mall in Washington, D.C., the strip between the Washington

Monument and the Capitol. The Energy Department gives each finalist team $100,000 to defray

the transportation costs, although that’s a drop in the bucket compared to the total amount some

of these teams spent on their homes: up to $1 million, usually from donations and alumni.

There they were, last month: 20 houses, reassembled, arrayed in a little solar village, fully

operational and open to the public. (You can see a lot of photos at www.solardecathlon.org.)

The point of the event is to illustrate that “solar” no longer means “hippy hangout,” “ugly box”

or “Spartan shack.” The homes are gorgeous on the inside, and, usually, on the outside. (Rules

limit the house to 800 square feet, not counting porches, patios, and gardens; that, and the

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http://www.solardecathlon.org/


necessity to get them to Washington on trucks, dictated a certain boxiness to some of the floor

plans.)

There was nothing Spartan about these homes. In fact, the name Decathlon is a reference to the

ten categories that these homes can rack up points in the contest: architecture, engineering,

market viability, communications, comfort zone, appliances, hot water, lighting, energy balance

(bonus points if you generate more power than you use), and “getting around.”

These houses are completely “off the grid”—they’re not connected to the utility companies. Yet

the teams have to live like normal Americans. Using only power from the sun, they have to keep

the TV on six hours a day, run the computer five hours a day, cook meals, wash dishes, do two

loads of laundry a week, take four 15-minute hot showers a week, keep the temperature between

70 and 78 degrees, maintain 40 to 60 percent humidity, and recharge an electric two-seater car

(that’s the “getting around” part).

In short, they have to prove that living on solar power does not involve sacrifice.

Far from it. Some of these houses had hot tubs, outdoor hot showers, SubZero refrigerators,

mood lighting and full-blown home-entertainment systems.

Most houses incorporated reclaimed and recycled materials, too. We saw furniture made from

compressed fly ash from coal-burning power plants; beams and plywood made of bamboo,

which grows four times as fast as hardwood; flooring reclaimed from demolished buildings; and

so on.

The University of Maryland team installed a wide, bookcase-sized, indoor waterfall—not just to

soothe the soul, but to pull humidity out of the air. It was a desiccant solution—like the “Do not

eat” packets that come in your electronics, but in liquid form—that absorbs moisture. Drier air

inside means that you don’t need to run the air conditioner as much. The saturated waterfall

flows out the bottom to an outdoor evaporator; the re-concentrated solution is pumped back in to

the waterfall, and the cycle begins again.

All of the houses used arrays of glass tubes, resembling black fluorescent lights, for hot water.

They cook your water as high as 220 degrees, which ought to be hot enough for most people.

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From Germany, the University of Darmstadt’s amazing house was a glass cube wrapped on all

sides by what looked like beautiful wooden shutters. But in fact, these were louvers covered with

solar panels—computer-controlled to track the sun’s arc.

The Germans’ house was filled with cool energy touches—like the oven whose floor descends

from the bottom to present your food, lowering like an elevator. The rising heat stays in the oven,

rather than pouring into the kitchen as it does when you open a traditional oven door.

The sheetrock of this home’s walls was infused with paraffin (candle wax). Why? To absorb heat

and liquefy during the day, and then release the heat and re-solidify at night.

On the weekends, the lines to get into this house were an hour long.

Maybe it’s no surprise; Germany is really into solar power. By German law, if you have solar

panels, the power company must buy any excess electricity you generate. As a result, families

routinely pocket a handy $100 or $150 a month—from the local utility. There’s a gold rush for

roof space, and solar technology is a red-hot market. It’s brilliant.

In this country, however—well, not so much. Richard King, the Decathlon director, told me that

utilities don’t pay you for excess electricity. You can have a $0 electric bill, but you can’t make

money.

In fact, although individual states (notably California) have some promising solar incentives, the

United States has practically no national solar policy at all. There’s only one solar-installation

tax-incentive program—according to www.dsireusa.org, you can deduct up to 30 percent of the

cost of solar panels, maximum $2,000—and it expires at the end of next year.

No wonder, then, that I encountered a certain amount of cynicism, even among some of the

participants and staff, about the Department of Energy’s motives in mounting the Solar

Decathlon. (“It’s a PR stunt,” muttered one when the camera wasn’t rolling.)

But you know what? It doesn’t matter. The Solar Decathlon has grown up to become exactly

what it’s supposed to be: an amazing, inspiring, head-turning show, where the public can see just

how far solar has come. I wish you could have seen it.

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http://www.dsireusa.org/


How to brighten solar power's futureTHROUGHOUT the energy crisis of 2000 and 2001, as a confluence of political ineptitude and

corporate greed led to rolling blackouts and breathtaking price spikes in electricity, the sun never

stopped shining in California.

It's time to connect the dots.

Solar energy has the potential to help this state buffer the demand for new power plants that

consume natural gas -- and leave Californians vulnerable to the types of wild price fluctuations

that sent public utilities into bankruptcy and forced Gov. Gray Davis to grope for desperate

financing schemes just to keep the lights on.

One of the many lessons of the energy crisis was that California needed to develop a more

diverse and reliable supply of electricity.

Solar energy should be one of those elements.

Two state senators, Republican John Campbell of Irvine and Democrat Kevin Murray of Los

Angeles, have been pushing legislation to promote solar development in California. Their

measure (SB1) has the endorsement of Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, who has been compiling a

commendable record of leadership on environmental issues. SB1 has been called the "million

solar roofs" bill, though the actual number of units that result would depend on how Californians

respond to the measure's incentives.

"The energy crisis of a few years ago made it obvious and plain that we needed to gain control of

our destiny," Murray said in a telephone interview last week. "There's no trader that can game

the system and drive up the price of the sun."

One of the more innovative provisions of the bill would require developers of subdivisions of 50

or more homes to offer solar panels as an option. A similar bill by Murray last year would have

56


required a percentage of a development's homes to have solar panels, but its defeat led Murray to

turn the mandate into an option in the latest version.

Obviously, the appeal of the solar option requires more than a tug at a homeowner's conscience

to do his or her part to reduce global warming and reduce the state's dependence on fossil fuels.

Consumers are going to want to do the math: Does the $15,000 investment of a solar panel

generate a sufficient return in lower utility bills?

Today, for most homeowners, the answer is no -- though state rebates and tax credits help narrow

the gap.

The Campbell-Murray bill would extend state solar rebates for homes and businesses -- now set

to expire in December 2007 -- through 2016. The cost of those subsidies would be covered by a

fee on utility bills to be determined by the California Public Utilities Commission.

The prospect of a new surcharge on utility bills has encountered resistance from The Utility

Reform Network, a consumer advocacy group. The fee is expected to be in the range of 50 cents

a month for most residential consumers. But it is important to note that ratepayers would be

bearing the cost of any power plants that might have to be built if the solar option is not

cultivated. Also, SB1 specifies that low-income customers would be exempt from the fee.

Japan offers a model of how government policies can nurture an economically vital and

environmentally beneficial solar industry. The island nation began its intensively subsidized

solar effort in 1994 and within a decade it possessed nearly half of the world's photovoltaic

capacity. Cost of the solar units dropped steadily -- as did the need for government subsidies,

which are expected to be fully phased out in the next year.

Today, many Japanese homes actually generate more electricity than they consume, allowing

homeowners to sell back the excess to their utility company.

Campbell and Murray have a similar vision for California.

"I think it probably would happen on its own, but it may take 10 years," Campbell said in a

telephone interview last week. "What this will do is accelerate the process."

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California's residential development and energy-consumption patterns are ideally tailored to solar

power. Much of the state's growth is occurring in the inland areas, where scorching summer days

get the air conditioners blasting and put the greatest strain on the energy supply.

The sun can be part of the solution. The Campbell-Murray bill cleared the Senate on a bipartisan

30-5 vote, but it faces a difficult course in the Assembly, where some members have a disturbing

tendency to "take a walk" on measures opposed by powerful interests. Homebuilders are

skeptical about the prospects for solar; utilities and manufacturers are objecting to the ratepayer

surcharges; labor unions want to be assured a piece of the action.

Nothing is ever easy in the politics of Sacramento. The biggest hurdle to passage of SB1 may be

the effort by organized labor to include a provision that would require the payment of "prevailing

wage" -- or union scale -- to installers of solar panels on all homes and businesses that receive

state subsidies. But as Campbell noted, the purpose of this bill is to reduce the cost of solar

energy. A prevailing-wage requirement would clearly be at odds with the spirit of SB1, which

seeks to lower the cost of the systems.

The development of solar energy is important to this state's long-term interest, both for its

economy and its quality of life. The Assembly should send SB1 to the governor for his signature.

Reference1. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/18.ppt

2. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/19.ppt



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SOLAR ENERGY THE FUTURE FUEL

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